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MEDIEVAL    ARCHITECTURE 


MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE 
ITS  ORIGINS  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


WITH    LISTS   OF   MONUMENTS 
AND     BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


ARTHUR    KINGSLEY    PORTER 


Volume  I 
THE  ORIGINS 


NEW   HAVEN 

YALE    UNIVERSITY   PRESS 

MDCCCCXII 


Copyright,  1908,  by 
A.  KiNGSLET  Porter 


PUBLISHER'S   NOTE 

This  work  was  first  published  by  The  Baker  and 
Taylor  Company  in  1Q09  and  was  transferred  with- 
out revision  by  the  author  to  the  present  pubHshers 
in  March,  191 2. 


PREFACE 

WHILE  I  venture  to  hope  that  the  following  chapters 
may  not  be  altogether  without  value  to  the  more  ad- 
vanced student,  they  have  been  designed  primarily  with  the 
view  to  putting  the  general  reader  in  possession  of  such  knowl- 
edge as  is  indispensable  for  the  appreciation  and  enjoyment  of 
the  great  masterpieces  of  Gothic  architecture.  I  have  also  tried 
to  supply  the  tourist  with  a  vade  mecuni  of  somewhat  larger 
scope  than  has  hitherto  been  attempted. 

The  present  two  volumes  by  no  means  cover  the  entire  field 
of  the  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages.  If  I  have  chosen  an 
over-ambitious  title,  it  has  been  in  the  hope  that  circum- 
stances may  some  day  permit  me  to  supplement  the  pres- 
ent volumes  with  others  dealing  with  those  styles  that  I  have 
here  left  untouched.  But  however  this  may  be,  the  book  as 
it  stands  at  present  attempts  to  unravel  only  a  single  thread 
from  the  tangled  skein  of  medieval  art.  This  thread  has  its 
origins  in  Antiquity  and  stretches  unbroken  to  the  Renaissance; 
it  is  made  up  of  that  succession  of  formative  or  generative  styles 
that  shaped  the  architectural  destinies  of  Europe.  These  for- 
mative styles  are  the  key  of  medieval  architectural  history; 
if  the  main  events  of  their  development  be  once  firmly  grasped, 
a  perspective  has  been  gained  on  the  entire  subject  of  medieval 
art.  and  the  various  minor  styles  will  at  once  fall  into  their  due 
position  in  regard  to  the  broader  tendencies  of  the  times.  For 
this  reason  I  even  hope  that  the  present  volumes  may  prove 
to  be  of  more  value  to  readers  to  whom  the  devious  turnings  of 
the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  comparatively  unfamiliar,  than 
a  book  more  comprehensive  in  scope. 

In  order  to  trace  more  clearly  these  formative  styles  and  their 
growth,  I  have  tried  to  write  not  so  much  a  history  of  a  certain 
number  of  more  or  less  arbitrarily  chosen   monuments,   as  a 


PREFACE 

history  of  groups  of  monuments,  of  styles.  I  have  not  hesitated 
to  devote  much  space  to  the  discussion  of  the  formation,  the 
development,  the  culmination  of  these  styles  considered  in  their 
broadest  terms;  to  their  mutual  interrelations,  and  to  the  effect 
on  architectui'e  of  the  social  and  economic  peculiarities  of  the 
age.  It  has  long  been  recognized  in  the  field  of  political  his- 
tory that  the  historian  who  would  convey  a  true  understanding 
of  a  period  must  go  far  beyond  a  mere  catalogue  of  kings,  battles, 
and  dates.  Similarly  in  architectural  history,  there  has  been  a 
decided  tendency  of  late  years  to  lay  greater  emphasis  on  the 
broader  significance  of  events,  to  see  in  the  general  course  of 
development  something  far  deeper,  more  vital,  than  the  indi- 
vidual building,  its  individual  peculiarities,  and  its  date. 

In  order  to  concentrate  attention  on  these  broad  aspects 
of  the  subject,  I  have  been  obliged  to  make  drastic  changes 
in  the  time-honored  form  of  architectural  history.  The  aim 
of  the  present  work  seemed  to  me  to  be  best  fulfilled  by  banish- 
ing from  the  text  all  monographic  matter,  and  referring  to  par- 
ticular buildings  only  as  the  context  required,  without  stopping 
for  long  and  necessarily  dry  discussions  of  date  and  detail. 

I  have  not,  however,  believed  that  I  was  justified  in  omitting 
altogether  this  monographic  material;  too  many  questions  of 
uncertain  and  disputed  date  were  constantly  involved,  in  which 
the  reader  had  every  right  to  know  the  reasons  for  the  particular 
side  adopted.  I  have  therefore  compiled  for  each  chapter  — 
except  the  first  two  which  hardly  form  part  of  the  body  of  this 
work  —  a  list  of  monuments  annotated  with  considerable  full- 
ness. The  reader  will  here  find  a  brief  discussion  of  questions 
of  date,  and  a  general  description  of  the  more  important  features 
of  each  monument.  While  not  pretending  to  be  complete,  I 
believe  that  all  monuments  of  importance  are  included,  and  I 
have  striven  to  make  the  lists  as  comprehensive  as  possible. 

To  facilitate  reference,  a  separate  list  has  been  made  for  each 
period,  and  the  monuments  have  been  divided  into  four  classes, 
according  to  their  importance.  In  each  class  pi-ecedence  in  the 
list  is  given  to  the  most  interesting  and  significant  structures.' 

'  Except  that  in  the  same  city  several  monuments  of  the  same  period  are  not  separated. 
Paris,  for  example,  is  ranked  for  the  sum  total  of  its  monuments. 


PREFACE 

This  classification,  it  is  of  course  understood,  is  purely  arbitrary 
and  frequently  very  approximate.  It  is  often  impossible  to  give 
exact  preference  between  half  a  dozen  monuments,  one  of  which 
is  interesting  in  one  way,  another  in  another.  Thus  this  arrange- 
ment must  not  be  taken  too  literally.  However,  I  believe  it 
will  be  of  some  value  in  giving  a  general  idea  of  the  relative 
importance  of  monuments,  and  if  the  superiority  of  No.  17 
over  No.  18  be  not  always  very  pronounced,  that  of  No.  1  over 
No.  40  will  be. 

An  index  has  been  prepared  for  these  lists  of  monuments 
with  the  same  care  as  for  the  main  work.  This,  it  is  hoped,  will 
facilitate  reference,  and  also  add  to  their  value  as  a  travelers' 
guide.  For  a  number  of  monuments  one  or  more  mono- 
graphs of  varying  excellence  have  appeared,  and  these  can 
generally  be  procured  on  the  spot.  When  this  is  the  case, 
their  purchase  is  always  to  be  recommended,  as  they  will 
usually  be  found  to  contain  much  valuable  information  which 
lack  of  space  makes  it  impossible  to  include  in  any  general 
work.  In  the  bibliographies,  of  which  I  have  made  an  appen- 
dix, I  have  taken  special  pains  to  note  all  the  monographs 
of  which  I  could  learn,  and,  where  I  have  known  them,  I 
have  added  a  sentence  of  criticism.  However,  for  many  mon- 
uments even  of  importance,  there  are  no  monographs  worthy 
of  the  name  obtainable;  and  since  the  traveler  is  unable  to 
carry  about  with  him  the  entire  library  necessary  for  the  study 
of  such  buildings,  it  is  hoped  that  the  list  of  monuments  will 
prove  to  be  of  value.  At  the  end  of  each  note  will  usually 
be  found  in  parenthesis  a  reference  (which  has  been  made 
explicit  when  possible  ')  intended  to  serve  both  as  authority  for 
the  principal  facts  cited,  and  as  recommendation  for  further 
study  of  the  monument. 

It  is  with  reluctance  and  with  a  realization  of  the  fact  that 
they  can  be  of  but  little  service  to  the  professional  archseologist 
that  I  print  the  Roman  and  Early  Christian  Bibliographies  at  the 
end  of  this  volume.  In  these  fields,  where  numerous  bil)liogra- 
phies  and  indexes  of  all  sorts  have  already  appeared,  modern 

'  It  should  be  understood  that  where  the  contents  of  an  entire  book  have  been  compressed 
into  one  or  two  Hnes,  page  references  are  often  impossible. 


PREFACE 

scholarship  rightly  demands  from  the  bibliographer  not  only 
that  scrupulous  exactitude  that  can  be  acquired  only  by  long 
years  of  experience  in  this  particular  art,  but  that  the  lists  be 
absolutely  complete,  and  that  the  information  given  concerning 
each  volume  be  exhaustive.  It  also  demands  the  most  pro- 
found knowledge  of  many  controverted  questions  of  topography, 
and  other  branches  of  classical  archaeology,  having  but  the 
faintest  possible  bearing  on  architecture  proper.  For  such  a 
bibliography  there  has  been  at  my  disposal  neither  the  ability, 
the  time,  nor  the  space.  I  have  simply  given  lists  of  those  books 
that  have  happened  to  come  to  my  notice,  lists  incomplete,  — 
though  I  believe  but  few  very  important  works  are  omitted  — 
and  too  often  giving  but  insufficient  details  even  of  the  books 
quoted.  As  such  they  are  given  for  what  they  are  worth,  in  the 
hope  that,  however  inadequate,  they  may  still  contain  informa- 
tion that  may  be  of  use  to  the  reader,  and,  perhaps,  save  him 
time  and  trouble  in  seeking  it  elsewhere.  In  regard  to  the 
bibliographies  of  the  later  periods  I  feel  more  confidence,  for, 
while  they  fall  far  short  of  the  standard  I  could  wish  to  attain, 
the  utter  lack  of  any  bibliography  worthy  of  the  name  dealing 
with  the  architecture  of  these  epochs  leads  me  to  hope  that  my 
lists  may  not  be  ^^ithout  their  usefulness  until  that  much-to-be- 
desired  day  when  an  adequate  bibUography  of  medieval  archi- 
tecture appears. 

The  bibliographies  have  been  classified  in  a  somewhat 
arbitrary  manner,  but  one  which,  I  think,  will  be  clear  on 
reference  to  the  scheme  on  p.  335.  Under  each  heading  pre- 
cedence in  the  list  is  intended  to  imply  preference,  the  best 
books  being  placed  first.  The  bibliographies  have  been  indexed 
both  for  subjects  and  authors,  but  not  for  titles  except  in  the 
case  of  a  few  anonymous  works.  In  referring  to  a  work  in 
the  text,  or  in  the  list  of  monuments,  I  have  cited  only  the 
name  of  the  author  and  the  page,  since  the  full  title  of  the 
work  may  be  found  readily  by  reference  to  the  index  and 
the  bibliographies. 

For  illustrations  I  have  preferred  photographs  whenever 
available  as  being  more  accurate  and  as  presenting  architectural 
forms  as  they  actually  appear.     In  addition,  a  large  number  of 


PREFACE 

drawings  have  been  made  expressly  for  this  work  by  Mr.  Mayer 
and  myself,  and  I  am  also  happy  to  publish  for  the  first  time 
two  superb  measui'ed  drawings  made  in  Rome  by  Mr.  Covell.' 
Where  original  material  could  not  be  obtained,  I  have  reproduced 
previously  published  drawings.  These  will  be  found  all  duly 
accredited  in  the  List  of  Illustrations. 

It  has  been  a  fundamental  part  of  my  plan  to  assume  no 
previous  technical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  As 
each  technical  word  or  phrase  has  come  up  I  have  tried  to  ex- 
plain it  in  the  text  or  illustrations  or  else  to  use  it  in  such  a 
context  that  its  meaning  will  be  obvious.  Once  thus  explained 
the  term  is  freely  used  afterwards,  but  the  first  explanations 
have  been  indexed  for  ready  reference.  I  fear  that  for  more 
advanced  readers  such  obvious  information  may  prove  a  cause 
of  annoyance.  I  believe,  however,  that  these  parts  may  readily 
be  passed  over,  especially  the  first  two  chapters,  which  are  in- 
tended as  an  introduction  for  those  having  no  acquaintance  with 
the  subject. 

I  have  been  much  embarrassed  and  perplexed  on  the 
subject  of  proper  names.  Only  one  who  has  read  extensively 
in  English  architectural  works  can  appreciate  the  inexpres- 
sible confusion  that  has  arisen  through  the  custom  of  angliciz- 
ing  certain  foreign  names  and  not  others.  Even  at  the  risk 
of  laying  myself  open  to  the  charge  of  pedantry,  it  seemed  to 
me  necessary  in  the  interests  of  clearness  and  common  sense 
to  adopt  some  consistent  system  for  the  names  of  churches. 
I  have  accordingly  retained  the  Italian  names  for  Italian  monu- 
ments, the  French  names  for  French  monuments,  the  German 
names  for  German  monuments.  I  have  even  referred  to  the 
old  basilica  of  the  Vatican  as  S.  Pietro,  though  I  confess  it  cost 
an  effort.  However,  a  few  exceptions  have  been  made;  in 
dealing  with  the  Byzantine  monuments  of  Constantinople,  I 
have  gone  back  to  the  original  Greek  forms,  the  modern 
Turkish   being  generally  unintelligible,  and  in  classical  monu- 

'  Those  of  the  Basilica  Juh'a  (restored)  and  the  entablature  of  the  Temple  of  Castor  and 
Pollux.  These  drawings  were  unfortunately  somewhat  damaged  before  they  fell  into  my  bands 
to  be  photographed.  I,  of  course,  am  in  no  way  responsible  either  for  the  correctness  of  the 
restorations  or  for  the  exactness  of  the  measurements. 


PREFACE 

merits,  I  have  not  ventured  to  tamper  with  the  estabhshed 
EngUsh  usage,  feeHng  that  there  are  many  hands  far  more 
capable  than  mine  to  introduce  the  much-needed  reform  in 
this  field.  In  the  list  of  monuments  I  have  always  tried  to 
give  the  various  names  which  are  commonly  used  to  denote 
the  same  building. 

In  handling  so  vast  a  mass  of  material  I  dare  not  hope  that 
all  inaccuracies,  all  slips  of  the  pen  have  been  eliminated.  The 
danger  has  been  ever  present  before  my  eyes,  but  no  one  can 
realize  as  well  as  the  author  the  extreme  difficulty  of  guarding 
against  all  errors.  I  can  only  ask  the  reader's  indulgence  for 
such  as  may  have  escaped  me. 

Before  laying  down  the  pen,  I  want  to  say  a  few  words  of 
thanks  to  the  friends  who  have  aided  me  in  my  labor.  First 
of  all  to  Mr.  ^Y.  H.  Durham,  who  has  most  generously  revised 
the  MS.  for  me,  and  without  whose  advice  and  sympathetic 
criticism  I  should  hardly  have  cared  to  undertake  so  ambitious 
a  work;  to  Mr.  E.  R.  Smith,  the  librarian  of  the  Avery  Library, 
who  has  put  the  entire  resources  of  that  splendid  collection  at 
my  disposal,  and  aided  me  with  unfailing  courtesy  and  patience; 
to  INIr.  E.  A.  Rueft",  who  has  been  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  secure 
photographs  for  me  from  all  over  France,  and  to  whose  good 
offices  I  owe  many  of  the  illustrations  of  the  second  volume,  as 
well  as  endless  material  indispensable  for  my  own  study;  to 
Mr.  W.  E.  Covell  for  his  kind  permission  to  reproduce  the  two 
drawings  already  mentioned;  to  Mr.  MacD.  Mayer  for  over 
forty  drawings;  to  Messrs.  F.  B.  Warren  and  F.  J.  Walls  for 
other  drawings;  and  to  Mr.  A.  E.  Neergaard  for  the  solution  of 
several  knotty  problems  in  the  interpretation  of  obscure  Latin 
texts. 

A.  KiNGSLEY  Porter 

320  Central  Park  West,  New  York  Citt. 
September  24,  1908. 


CONTENTS 


Preface  .............. 

Aim  and  Scope  —  List  of  Jlonuments  —  Classification  of  Monuments  —  Bibliog- 
raphy —  Technicalities  —  Proper  Names. 
List  of  Illustrations    ............ 

CH.\PTER   I 

The  Herit.\ge  of  AuTiQumr  ........... 

The  Fall  of  Rome  —  The  Heritage  of  Rome  —  German  Influence  —  Course  of  Medi- 
eval Arcliitecture  —  Ancient  and  Medieval  Art  —  Greek  and  Roman  Art  —  TJreet 
"ATrfiift^tllI<^^^_Llie  Doric  Order  —  Color  —  Esthetic  Qualities  —  The  Ionic  Order 
—  The  Corinthian  Order  —  Plans  —  The  Interior  of  Greek  Buildings  —  The  Ex- 
terior —  Freedom  of  Design  —  Construction  —  Stereotomy  —  Ornament  —  Value  of 
Greek  Architecture  —-Roman  Taste  —  Advance  in  Construction  —  The  Arch  —  Flat 
Arches  —  Thrusts  —  The  Barrel  Vault  —  Importance  of  the  Vault  —  DifHculties  of  the 
Barrel  Vault  —  The  Groin  Vault  —  The  Cloistered  Vault  —  The  Dome  —  Rubble 
Construction  —  Importance  of  the  Roman  Contributions  to  Architectural  Progress  — 
Roman  Design  —  Ornament  —  Engaged  Orders  —  The  Roman  Doric  Order  —  The 
Roman  Ionic  Order  —  The  Corinthian  Order  —  The  Composite  Order  —  Pedestals 
— -  Pilasters  —  Broken  Entablatures  —  Spirit  of  Roman  Decoration  —  Delicacy  of 
Technique  —  Pure  Ornament  —  Rinceaux  —  Grotesques,  Ox-Skulls  —  Wholesale 
Character  of  Roman  Art  —  Monotony  —  Schools  of  Roman  Art  —  Versatility  —  Sym- 
metrical Plans  —  The  Basilica  —  Circular  Temples  —  Thermae  —  Temples  — 
Houses  —  Tombs  —  Other  Buildings. 

CHAPTER  II 

The  E.arlt  CHRisnAN  Style  .......... 

The  Constantinian  Renaissance  —  Decline  in  the  Fourth  Century  —  Artistic  Con- 
ditions in  313  —  Decline  of  Civil  Arcliitecture  —  Rise  of  the  Eastern  Empire  —  Im- 
portance of  the  Eastern  Conquest  of  Ravenna  —  Architectural  Effort  stopped  by  the 
Barbarians  —  Progress  of  the  Invasions  —  Byzantine  and  Lombard  Conquests  — 
Architecture  and  Ilistorj-  in  the  East  —  Memorial  Cellce  —  The  Christian  Basilica  — 
Pilfered  Materials  —  Arches  on  Columns  —  Stilt-Blocks  —  Orientation  —  The  Three- 
Aisled  Plan  — ■  Basilicas  of  One  and  Five  Aisles  —  The  Transept  —  Arch  of  Triumph 
—  Triforium  Gallery  —  The  Apse  —  Double  Apses  —  The  High  Altar  —  The 
Ciborium  —  The  Confessio  —  The  Schola  Cantorum  —  Choir  Screens  —  The  Icon- 
ostasis  or  Pergula  —  The  Ambos  —  Lighting  of  the  Interior  of  the  Basilica  — • 
Window  Tracery  —  The  Atrium  —  The  Narthex  —  Tlie  Simple  Exterior  —  The 
Origin  of  the  Basilica  —  The  Circular  Church  —  -Visles  added  to  the  Round  Church  — 
The  Sc1kx)1  of  Rome  —  Lack  of  Sculpture  —  Mosaics  —  Opus  Sectile  —  Opus 
Alexandrinum  —  Opus  Grcpcanicum  —  History  of  Mosaics  —  Byzantine  Influence 
— •  Revival  in  the  Eleventh  Centurj'  —  Ornamental  Mosaics  —  The  Cosmati  Work  — 
Development  of  .\rchitecture  in  Italy  —  Campaniles  —  Byzantine  Influence —  The 
Schools  of  Syria  ^  School  of  the  South  —  The  Ilauran  — ■  School  of  the  North  — 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

School  of  the  Center  —  The  Coptic  School  of  Egypt  —  Coptic  Decoration  —  School 
of  North  Africa  —  Esthetics  of  Early  Christian  Architecture  —  What  the  Early  Chris- 
tians added. 


CH.\PTER   III 

BVZ.\NTINE  AnCHITECTURB  OF  THE   FlFTH   AND  SiXTH   CENTURIES  ....         96 

Rise  of  Byzantine  Architecture  —  Roman  Architecture  of  Constantinople  —  Byzan- 
tine  Nationality  —  Hellenic   Influence  —  Oriental   Influences  —  Byzantine   Capitals 

—  Carved  Ornament  —  Pierced  Marble  Work  —  Basilican  Plans  —  The  Circular 
Church  —  Advances  made  at  Hagios  Bacchos  —  Subordinate  Members  —  Rounded 
Comers  —  Plan  of  S.  Vitale  —  Problem  of  Pendeutives  —  Squinches  —  True  Penden- 
tives  of  Hagia  Sophia  —  The  Culmination  of  Byzantine  Architecture  —  Pohtical  Con- 
ditions —  Building  Activity  of  Justinian  — •  Hagia  Sophia  —  Thrusts  and  Buttressing 

—  E.\terior  —  Interior  —  Summary. 

List  op  Brz-tNTTNE  Monuments       ..........  114 

Monuments  of  the  First  Importance     .........  114 

Monuments  of  the  Second  Class  ..........  120 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Class    ..........  123 

Other  Monuments       ............  126 


CHAPTER  IV 

Carolingian  Architectube     ...........     128 

The  Dark  Ages  —  "  Romanesque  "  —  "  Carolingian  "  —  Degradation  of  Architec- 
ture —  Confusion  of  Styles  and  Tendencies  —  Historical  Conditions  —  Economic  Con- 
ditions of  the  Si.\th  Century  —  Architecture  of  the  Late  Sixth  Century  in  Italy  —  In 
France  —  Italy  in  the  Seventh  Century  —  The  Comacini  —  The  Eighth  Century  in 
Italy  —  In  France  —  The  Carolingian  Renaissance  —  Artificial  Character  —  Aachen 

—  Beginnings  of  the  National  Schools  —  School  of  the  Rliine  —  Decadence  after 
Charlemagne  —  Feudalism  —  Germany   and    the   National   Schools   of   Architecture 

—  Architecture  of  France  in  the  Tenth  Century  —  Formation  of  a  National  Lom- 
bard School  —  Summary  —  The  Church  —  The  Church  Building  —  The  Hierarchy 

—  Bishops  —  The  Pope  —  Feudal  Character  of  the  Church  Organization  —  The 
Chapter  —  The  Canons  —  Lower  Orders  —  Archbishops  —  Power  and  Corruption 
of  the  Church  —  The  Regular  Clergy  —  Wealth  and  Power  of  the  Monasteries  — 
Bishops  vs.  Monks  —  IVIonastic  Organization  —  Guardians  of  Learning  —  The 
Monasterj'  Building  —  The  Problem  proposed  to  Carolingian  Arcliitects  —  Survival 
of  the  Circular  Church  —  Innovations  at  Aachen  —  Type  of  Germigny-les-Pres  — 
Circular  Churches  without  Side  Aisles  —  Baptisteries  —  Apsidal  Chaples  —  Tran- 
septal  Absidioles  —  Western  Apse  —  Crypts  —  Ambulatory  —  Lengthened  Choir  — 
Facades  —  Facade  Towers  —  Towers  and  Turrets  —  Splayed  Windows  —  Ornament 

—  Arched  Corbel-Tables  —  Triangular  Ornament  —  Crockets  —  Billets  and  Arched 
String-Courses  —  Classic   Tradition  —  Mosaics  —  Summary  —  Work  of  Destruction 

—  No  more  Pilfered  Materials  —  Piers  substituted  for  Columns  —  Close  of  the  Car- 
olingian Era  —  Rise  of  the  Lombard  Style  —  The  Compound  Pier  —  Transverse 
Arches  —  Alternate  System  —  VaiJts  —  Griffes. 

List  of  Carolingi.^n  Monuments  ..........     170 

Monuments  of  the  First  Class 170 

Monuments  of  the  Second  Class  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .172 

xii 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Class 184 

Other  Monuments 19* 

CHA11  KR   V 

Lombard  Arohitectobe  ...........     199 

The  Vaultc<l  BasiHca  —  Groin  Vaults  —  Transverse  Ribs  —  Diagonal  Ribs  —  Con- 
sequent Doming  of  Vault  —  E.vtra  Members  of  the  Pier  —  Archivolts  in  Two  Orders 

—  Rib  Vaults  at  Montefiascone  —  Rib-Vaulted  Naves  —  Abandoned  —  Historical 
Causes  for  the  Rise  of  the  Lombard  Style  —  Decline  of  the  Twelfth  Century  —  Polit- 
ical Hazards  —  Lack  of  Religious  Enthusiasm  —  Bishop  vs.  Bourgeoisie  —  Bishop  of 
Milan  vs.  Rome  —  Late  Twelftli  Century  in  Lombardy  —  Local  Schools  of  Art  — 
School  of  Milan  —  School  of  Como  —  School  of  Verona  —  Other  Schools  —  Geo- 
graphical Boundaries  —  Influence  on  the  North  —  Shortcomings  of  Lombard 
Arcliitecture  —  Conservatism  —  Lack  of  Buttressing  —  Consequent  Instability  — 
Tie-Rods  — Wooden  Chains  —  Barrel  Vaults  and  Cupolas  —  Fa9ades  —  S.  Ambrogio 

—  False  Fronts  —  Facade  of  S.  Michele  —  S.  Abondio  —  S.  Zeno  —  Campaniles  — 
Later  Lombard  Vaults  —  Circular  Piers  —  Unfulfilled  Promise  —  Arched  Corbel- 
Tables  —  Arcades  —  Double    Arched    Corbel-Tables  —  Flat  Arched  Corbel-Tables 

—  Sculptures  on  Capitals  —  Sculptured  Figures  —  Conventional  Sculpture  —  Portals 

—  Lombard  Porches  —  Cubic  Capitals  —  Carved  Capitals  —  Wall  Painting  — 
Failure  of  Lombard  Art. 

List  of  LoMB.uiD  Mo.nttments         ..........  221 

Monuments  of  the  First  Class      ..........  221 

Monuments  of  the  Second  Class  ..........  226 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Class    ..........  234 

Other  Monuments 239 

CHAPTER  VI 

Norman  ARriiiTEcruRE    ............     240 

Norman  .Architecture  derived  from  Foreign  Sources  —  The  Northmen  in  the  Ninth 
aiul  Tenth  Centuries  —  The  Introduction  of  Christianity  —  Religious  Enthusiasm  of 
the  Eleventh  Century  —  Normandy  the  Religious  Center  of  Europe  —  Cluniac  Influ- 
ence —  Influences  from  France  and  Ijombardy  —  iNIonastic  Character  of  Norman 
Architecture  —  The  Norman  Church  National  but  Pure  —  Waning  of  Religious  Enthu- 
siasm after  1087 — The  Twelfth  Century  Reformation  of  the  Norman  Church — The 
Denationalization  of  the  Norman  Church  —  The  Struggle  between  King  and  Pope 

—  Normandy  a  Subject  Prov-ince  —  Relaxation  of  Building  Activity  in  the  Twelfth 
Century  —  French  Influences  —  Derivation  of  Norman  Architecture  —  Norman  Ar- 
chitecture in  the  First  Half  of  the  Eleventh  Century  —  Carolingian  Tradition  Contin- 
ued —  (jroin  \'aults  with  Transverse  Ribs  —  Central  Lanterns  —  Tower  Supports 
placed  within  the  Nave  Walls  —  Second  Half  of  the  Eleventh  Century  —  Lombard  In- 
fluence— Alternate  System  —  Engaged  Shafts  —  Subsequent  Development  of  the  En- 
gaged Shaft  —  Groin  Vaults  —  Vaulted  Choirs  —  Domed  Groin  Vaults  —  The  East 
End  —  Tribunes  —  Interior  Pa.ssageways  —  Double  Tracery  —  Sexpartite  Vault  of 
the  Twelfth  Century  —  Two  Tjtx-s  of  Sexpartite  ^'aults  —  Their  Origin  —  Not  im- 
porteil  from  the  He  de  France  —  Buttresses  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  —  Con- 
cealed Flying  Buttresses  —  Towers  —  Spires  —  Turrets  —  French  Influence  —  Rib 
Vaults  —  Pointed  .\rch  —  Ambulator}'  —  Ornament  of  the  First  Half  of  the  Eleventh 
Century  —  Triangular  Motives  —  Che\Ton  —  Dog-Tooth  —  Meanders  —  Engaged 
Arcades  —  Billet     Mouldings  —  Capitals  —  Frescoes  —  Corl)el-Tables  —  Sculpture 

—  Bases  —  Shafts  —  Buttresses  and  Pilaster  Strips  —  Roll-Mouldings  —  Colonnettes 

xiii 


CONTENTS 

—  Portals  —  Horseshoe  Arches  —  Oculi  —  Diapered  Ornament  —  Restraint  of  Nor- 
man Decoration  —  Problem  of  the  Vaulted  Basilica  —  Barrel  Vaults  of  Provence  — 
Tournus  —  School  of  the  Charente  —  Byzantine  School  of  Italy  —  Notre  Dame  de 
Puy  —  St.  Ours  of  Loches  —  The  Rhenish  Romanesque. 


List  of  Norman  Monuments 

Monuments  of  the  First  Importance 
Monuments  of  the  Second  Class 
IMonuments  of  the  Third  Class 
Other  Monuments 

APPENDIX:    Bibliographies 
Scheme  of  Classification 
General  Bibliography 
Roman  Bibliography  . 
Early  Christian  Bibliography 
Byzantine  Bibliography 
Carolingian  Bibliography     . 
Lombard  Bibliography 

Addenda         .... 
Addenda  to  Bibliography 

BiBLIOGR.VPHICAL    InDEX 

General  Index 


285 
285 
294 
297 
303 


335 
338 
353 
395 
408 
413 
429 

437 
443 
451 
469 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

ILL.  PAGE 

1.  The  Greek  Doric  Order  (of  the  Parthenon) 2 

2.  The  Greek  Ionic  Order  (of  the  Erechtheion) 2 

3.  Greek  Ornaments.     Figs.  1,  2,  4.    Meanders  from  Vase  Paintings.     Fig.  3,  Double 

Meander  from  the  Abacus  of  a  Doric  Capital.     Fig.  5.  Simple  Guilloche  from  a 
Vase   Painting.     Figs.  6,   7.     Carted    Double  Guilloches.     Fig.   8.  The   Vitru- 

%-ian  Scroll.     Fig.  9.  Fragment  of  the  Entablature  of  the  Tholos  of  Epidauros       .  4 

3a.     Corinthian  Capital  from  the  Tholos  of  Epidauros.     Sketch  by  F.  B.  Warren        .  4 

4.  Greek  plans     .............  7 

5.  The  Theseion,  Athens.     (From  a  Carbon  by  Braun  Clement  &  Cie.)       ...  10 

6.  Diagram  of  the  Arch  and  Flat  Arch  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .12 

7.  Diagram  of  the  Barrel  Vault     ..........  14 

7a.  Perspective  of  the  Barrel  Vault.          .........  16 

8.  Perspective  of  the  Interior  of  the  Temple  of  Diana,  Nimes,  by  F.  B.  Warren          .  16 

9.  Diagram  of  the  Groin  Vault      ..........  18 

10.  Perspective  of  the  Groin  Vault            .........  20 

1 1 .  The  Cloistered  Vault.     Diagram 22 

12.  Diagram  of  the  Dome       ...........  23 

13.  Section  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome           .........  24 

14.  Restoration  of  Fafade  of  Basilica  Julia,  Rome,  by  Covell     .....  26 
1,5.     Ionic  Order  of  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  Rome  ......  26 

16.  Corintliian  Capital  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome.     (From  D'Espouy)    ....  28 

17.  Corinthian  Pilaster  of  the  Portico  of  Octavia,  Rome.     (From  a  French  Drawing)    .  28 

18.  Entjiblature  of  tlie  Temple  of  Castor,  Rome,  by  Covell         .....  30 

19.  Composite  Order  of  the  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome     .......  30 

20.  Rinceau  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  Rome.     (From  a  French  Drawing)           .          .  30 

21.  Frieze  of  the  Forum  of  Nerva,  Rome.     (From  a  French  Drawing)         ...  30 

22.  Roman  Basilica  Plans.     Fig.  1.  The  Ba.silica  Julia,  Rome.     Fig.  2.  The  Basilica  of 

Constantine,  Rome.     Fig.    3.  The  Basilica,  Pompeii.     F^ig.    4.  BasiUca    Ulpia, 

Rome.     Fig.  5.  The  Basihca,  Timgad.     Fig.  6.  The  Basilica,  Silchester    .          .  32 

23.  Temple  of  Mater  Matuta,  Rome.     (From  a  French  Drawing)       ....  34 

24.  The  Pont  du  Gard 34 

25.  Plan  of  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  Rome.     (From  Iwanoff)      .....  36 

26.  Maison  Carree  of  Nimes  ...........  36 

27.  Plans  of  Roman  Hou.ses   ...........  39 

28.  Amphitheater  at  Nimes.     Exterior      .........  40 

29.  .Vmphithcater  at  Aries.     Interior         .........  40 

30.  Theater  at  Orange.     Restoration        .  .  .  ;  .  .  .  .42 

31.  .\rch  at  Orange 42 

32.  Plan  of  Sidi-Mohammed-el-Guebioni.     (From  Saladin)         .....  49 

33.  Plan  of  Sta.  .Vgata,  Ravenna.     (From  Dehio) 50 

34.  Facade  of  the  'i'eniple  at  'Atil.     (Restoration  Imscd  on  Butler's  Measurements.)     .  50 

35.  Plan  of  old  S.  Pictro,  Rome 52 

36.  Plan  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome            ........  54 

37.  Interior  of  Sta   Maria  Maggiore,  Rome.     (From  Dehio)       .....  56 


De  Rossi) 


De  Vogiie) 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

ILL,. 

38.  Interior  of  Sta.  Agnese,  f.l.m.,  Rome. 

39.  Interior  of  S.  Clemente,  Rome.     (From  Dehio) 

40.  Ciborium  of  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  Rome 

41.  Ambo  of  S.  Clemente,  Rome      .... 

42.  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna 

43.  Perspective  Section  of  S.  Paolo,  f.l.m.,  Rome.     (From  Dehio) 

44.  Plan  and  Section  of  Sta.  Costanza,  Rome.      (From  Canina) 

45.  Plan  of  the  Baptistery,  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano.     (From  De  Ro.ssi) 

46.  Interior,  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  Ravenna.    . 

47.  Plan  of  St.  George  of  Zor'ah     .... 

48.  Mosaics  of  Sta.  Costanza,  Rome.     (From  De  Rossi) 

49.  Mosaics  of  .Vpse,  Ss.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  Rome.     (From  De  Rossi) 

50.  Apse  Mosaic  of  S.  Marco,  Rome.     (From  De  Rossi)  . 

51.  Cosmati  Pavement  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome.     (From 

52.  Facade  of  S.  Giorgio  in  Velahro,  Rome.     . 

53.  Basilica  at  Chaqqa.     Perspective  of  Construction.     (From  De  Vogiie) 

54.  BasiUca  at  Tafha.     (From  De  Vogiie) 

55.  Basilica  at  Ilass.     (From  De  Vogiie)  ... 

56.  Basilica  at  Kalb  Lauzeh.     (From  De  Vogiie) 

57.  Fafade  of  Basilica  at  Kalb  Lauzeh.     (From  De  Vogiie) 

58.  Apse  of  Kal'at  Sim' an.     (From  De  Vogiie) 

59.  Plan  of  Chapel  at  Rlie'  ah.     (From  Butler) 

60.  Plan  of  East  Church  at  Biibiska.     (From  Butler) 

61.  Syrian  Carved  Ornament  from  Hou.ses  in  SerdjillS.     (From 

62.  Plan  of  Dair-as-Suriani.     (From  Butler)     . 

63.  Plan  of  Anba  Bishoi.     (From  Butler)  ... 

64.  Plan  of  Abu  Sargah,  Cairo.     (From  Butler) 

65.  Plan  of  .Vin  Tounga.      (From  Saladin) 

66.  Plan  of  Chemtou.     (From  Saladin)    . 

67.  Order  of  Hagios  loannos,  Constantinople.     (From  Salzenberg) 

68.  Order  and  Spandrel  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople.     (From  Salzenberg) 

69.  Capital  from  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna         ..... 

70.  Basket  Capital  from  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna      .... 

71.  Pierced  Marble  Choir  Screen  from  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna 

72.  Plan  of  Hagios  Bacchos,  Constantinople.     (From  Pulgher)  . 

73.  Plan  of  S.  Vitale  of  Ravenna.     (From  Dehio) 

74.  Squinch  of  Onmi-es-Zeitoun  (c.  282  a.d.)      (From  Rivoira) 

75.  Smoothed  Squinch  of  .\rch  at  Latakia.     (From  Rivoira) 

76.  Construction  of  Arched  Squinch  at  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna.     (From  Rivoira) 

77.  Perspective  of  Construction,  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople.     (From  Choisy) 

78.  Section  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople.      (From  Salzenberg) 

79.  Plan  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantmople.        ...... 

80.  Plan  of  St.  Jean,  Poitiers.     (From  .\rchives  de  la  Com.  des.  Mon.  Hi.st.) 

81.  Rear  Elevation  St.  Jean,  Poitiers.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Com.  des  Mon. 

82.  Arcliivolt  of  Ciborium  of  S.  Giorgio,  Valpollicella.     (From  Cattaneo)    . 

83.  Details  of  Confessio  of  S.  Salvatore,  Brescia.     (From  Dartein) 

84.  Archivolt  of  Baptisterj'  at  Cividale.     (From  Dartein)  .... 

85.  Plan  of  Dora  at  Aachen.      (From  Dehio)  ...... 

86.  Section  of  Dom  at  .\achen  ...  .... 

87.  Plan  of  S.  Gallo.     Redrawn  after  the  IX  Centurj'  Manuscript 

88.  Plan  of  Church  at  Germigny-les-Pres.     (From  .\rch.  de  la  Com.  des  Mon. 

89.  Section  of  Germigny-les-Pres     ........ 

90.  Plan  of  St.  Generous.      (From  Arch,  de  la  Com.  des  Mon.  Hist.) 

91.  Plan  of  Mettlach.     (From  Dehio) 


Hist.) 


Hist.) 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

ILL. 

92.  I^iiigitudinal  section  of  S.  Ainbrogio.  ^lilan.     (From  Dartein) 

93.  Foundations  of  St.  Martin,  Tours.     (From  Ratel) 

94.  Plan  of  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan.     (By  F.  J.  Walls) 

95.  Plan  of  the  Salvatorskirche,  Frankfurt.     (From  Wolff) 

96.  Diagram.     Piers,  Ornaments,  and  Windows 

97.  Section  of  S.  Celso,  Milan 

98.  Facade  of  Basilica  Gate,  Lorsch         ..... 

99.  Detail  of  E.xterior  Clearstory  of  St.  Generoux.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Com.  des 

Hist.) 

100.  Section  of  Montier-en-Der.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Com.  des  Mon.  Hist.) 

101.  Diagram.     Evolution  of  the  Rib  Vault        .... 
10'2.  Plan  of  S.  Celso,  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 

103.  Plan  of  S.   Michcle,   Pa\ia.      (From  Dartein) 

104.  Longitudinal  Section  of  S.  Michele,  Pavia.     (From  Dartein) 

105.  Side  Elevation,  S.  Michele,  Pa\-ia.     (From  Dartein) 

106.  Transverse  Section,  S.  Ambrogio  of  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 

107.  Fa9ade  of  S.  Ambrogio  of  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 

108.  Arched  Corbel-Tables  of  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 

109.  Facade  of  S.  Michele  of  Pa\-ia.     (From  Dartein) 

110.  Fa9ade  of  S.  Abondio  of  Como.     (From  Dartein) 

111.  Section  of  S.  Zeno,  Verona,  showing  System.     (From  Dchio) 

112.  Capital  and  base  of  S.  Celso,  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 

113.  Capital  of  S.  Michele,  Pavia.     (From  Dartein)   . 

114.  Base  of  S.  Michele,  Pa%'ia.     (From  Dartein) 

115.  Cubic  Capital  from  S.  Abondio,  Como.     (From  Dartein)     . 

116.  Capital  of  Atrium,  S.  Ambrogio,  Alilan.     (From  Dartein) 

117.  South  Lateral  Portal,  S.  ]\Lichele  of  Pa\na.     (From  Dartein) 

118.  Fa9ade  of  S.  Zeno,  Verona         .... 

119.  Interior  of  Nave,  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan 

120.  Plan  of  St.  Ceneri.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

121.  Jumieges.     West  Fai;ade      ..... 

122.  Jumieges.     From  the  North      .... 

123.  Jumieges.     Elevation  of  System.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

124.  Jmiiieges.     Exterior  Bay  and  Section.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

125.  Abbaye-au-X-Hommes,  Caen.      Interior  as  restored  by  Ruprich-Robert 

126.  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  Caen.     Exterior  elevation  and  section  restored 

Roljert  

127.  Plan  of  St.  George  de  Bocherville.      (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

128.  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  Caen.     Interior  of  Nave 

129.  Abbaye-aux-Honnues,  Caen.     Interior  of  Nave  . 

130.  Section  of  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse.     (From  Dehio) 

131.  Section  of  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  Caen.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

132.  Transverse  Section,  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  Caen.     (From  Ruprich-Roberl 

133.  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  Caen.     (Facade) 

134.  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  Caen.     E.xterior 

135.  St.  George  de  Bocherville.     Facade    . 

136.  Tower  of  St.  Contest.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

137.  Tower  of  Champigny.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

138.  Tower  of  Ver.     (From  Ruprich-Roljert) 

139.  Fafade  of  Ouistreham.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

140.  Fa9ade  of  Pontorson.     (From  Ruprich-Robert)  . 

141.  Doorway  of  St.  Contest.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 

142.  Doorway  of  Cheux.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 


by  Ruprich- 


FAGE 

156 
156 
158 
159 
161 
162 
164 

166 
168 
170 
200 
202 
204 
206 
208 
210 
212 
214 
214 
216 
216 
218 
218 
219 
220 
220 
220 
220 
241 
242 
244 
246 
246 
248 

250 
251 
254 
256 
258 
258 
258 
260 
262 
264 
266 
266 
268 
270 
270 
272 
272 


XVll 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

ILL.  PAGE 

143.  Doorway  of  Ste.  Croix,  St.  L6 274 

144.  Doorway  of  Beaumais.     (From  Ruprich-Robert)          ......  274 

145.  North  transept  end,  Graville-Ste.-Honorine.     (From  Ruprich-Robert)    .          .         .  274 

146.  Norman  capitals  and  bases.     (From  Ruprich-Robert)           .....  276 

147.  Griffes,  Capitals,  and  Ornament  of  the  XII  century.     (From  Ruprich-Robert)        .  276 

148.  Section  of  Tournus.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Cora,  des  Mon.  Hist.)    .  .  .  .278 

149.  Plan  of  St.  Front  of  Perigueux.     (From  Dehio) 280 

150.  Perspective  of  St.  Front  of  Perigueux.      (From  Dehio)         .....  280 

151.  Section  of  Notre  Dame  du  Puy.      (From  Dehio)          ......  282 

152.  Section  of  St.  Ours  of  Loches.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Cora,  des  Mon.  Hist.)      .          .  284 

153.  Section  of  Dom,  Speyer.     (From  Meyer-Schwartau)     ......  284 


MEDIEVAL    ARCHITECTURE 
CHAPTER  I 

THE    HERITAGE    OF   ANTIQUITY 

THE  year  476  a.d.,  when  the  hist  of  the  nominal  Caesars 
ceased  to  rule  in  the  West,  is  usually  taken  by  histoi'ians 
as  marking  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Emj)ire.  Strictly  speaking 
—  as  has  often  been  pointed  out  —  the  fall  of  Rome  commenced 
long  before;  —  not  at  the  breaking  of  the  boundaries  by  the 
barbarians  in  378,  not  at  the  proclamation  of  Christianity  under 
Constantine  in  313,  not  at  the  decadence  of  Roman  virtue  as 
witnessed  by  emperors  of  the  Nero  type,  not  at  the  abolition 
of  the  republic  by  Augustus  —  significant  as  are  all  these  events 
of  the  change  that  was  taking  place  —  but  at  the  very  high- 
water  mark  of  Roman  power  and  conquest,  at  that  moment 
when,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Geneva,  Julius  Caesar  opposed 
the  first  German  migration  under  Ariovistus  (58  B.C.)-  Long 
after  this  the  material  prosperity  of  Rome  continued  to  increase; 
wealth  poured  into  her  treasuries  in  redoubled  streams;  lux- 
ury was  carried  to  its  extreme;  the  arts  ran  riot  in  unheard-of 
splendor.  But  the  point  of  the  wedge  had  been  inserted.  In 
vain  the  Romans  achieved  victory  after  victory.  An  unceas- 
ing, unremitting  force  had  begun  its  attacks  on  the  Roman  state, 
sapping  the  foundations  by  continued  assaults,  as  irresistible, 
as  inevitable,  as  the  rising  tide  of  the  sea. 

For  five  centuries  horde  after  horde  of  barbarians  flung 
themselves  against  the  Roman  frontiers,  each  striking  deeper 
than  the  last,  and  being  repelled  with  greater  and  greater  diffi- 
culty as  the  Empire  sank  beneath  internal  decay.  But  while 
the  visible,  political  Rome  was  thus  disappearing  under  the 
open  warfare  of  the  Germans,  a  far  subtler,  more  intangible, 
but  none  the  less  real  Teutonizing  was  going  on  from  within. 
The   life   blood   of  antiquity   was  gone,   its   vitality  exhausted, 

1 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

Long  before  its  visible  downfall  the  population  of  the  Roman 
Empire  had  become  largely  German.  The  slave  market,  the 
army,  countless  causes,  brought  Teutonic  inhabitants  within 
the  boundaries.  The  process  of  amalgamation  set  in.  The 
Teuton  living  at  Rome  doubtless  absorbed  much  of  Roman 
culture  and  civilization  —  much  more  than  his  tribesmen  outside 
the  border,  who  were  brought  into  only  occasional  contact  with 
the  Empire  —  but  in  return  he  infused  a  certain  amount  of 
barbarism  and  Teutonic  vigor  into  his  Roman  neighbors.  Thus, 
when  the  Roman  civilization  passed  away,  it  yielded  not  only 
to  the  armed  barbarian  without,  but  to  the  allied  barbarian 
within. 

If,  then,  the  fall  of  Rome  began  many  centuries  before  476, 
it  continued  as  long  after;  nor,  in  a  sense,  can  it  be  said  ever 
to  have  been  wholly  accomplished.  Italy  was  ruled  by  the  Goths, 
the  Byzantines,  the  Lombards;  but  centuries  after  the  bar- 
barian invasions  the  mystic  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the 
Roman  power  reawoke  under  that  shadowy  dream  kingdom, 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and  lived  on  until  the  XIX  century, 
at  times  with  very  real  vitality.  Similarly,  the  true  glory  of 
Rome,  her  civilization,  her  arts,  her  law,  while  yielding  to  Ger- 
man influences,  never  disappeared  beneath  them;  and  all  west- 
ern Europe,  with  Italy  in  the  lead,  in  the  darkest  of  the  Dark 
Ages,  always  retained  a  large  amount  of  Roman  institutions, 
customs,  and  arts. 

The  heritage  of  Roman  civilization  passed,  then,  to  its  con- 
querors; they  accepted  as  much  of  the  patrimony  as  they  were 
able,  taking  more  or  less,  applying  it  with  greater  or  less  skill, 
according  to  their  capabilities  and  circumstances.  In  most 
respects  the  Germans  possessed  a  rudimentary  civilization  of 
their  own  —  they  were  barbarians,  not  savages  —  and  the  Ger- 
man ideas,  though  modified  by  the  Roman,  survived.  Thus 
two  distinct  sources  united  to  form  the  civilization  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  many  fields  —  notably,  for  example,  in  law  —  the 
Teutonic  element  rather  outweighed  the  Roman;  but  in  archi- 
tecture the  case  was  exactly  reversed;  in  the  early  ages  the  Ger- 
mans added  very  little  that  was  positive  to  the  Roman  traditions. 

No  architecture  worthy  of  the  name  was  possessed  by  the 

2 


Im.  ].  —  Tlif  (iri'ck  Dorif  Order  (of  thf  I'arlliciion) 


III.  J.  — The  iin-ek  Ionic  Orilcr  (.if  Hit-  Ereclitlu-i.m) 


THE    FALL    OF   ROME 

Germans  before  the  migrations.  They  hved  in  huts,  and  had 
neither  the  skill  nor  the  desire  to  build  edifices  on  a  large  scale. 
Consequently  they  possessed  no  traditions  of  structure  which 
could  rival  the  Roman  style  of  building;  their  crude  ornament 
could  not  for  an  instant  vie  with  the  sumptuous  classical  deco- 
ration. German  influence  on  Roman  art  is  therefore  at  first 
only  negative.  The  barbarian  invasions  caused  merely  a  de- 
cline, in  which  the  old  elements  were  degraded,  but  nothing  new 
added. 

As  the  Roman  workman,  therefore,  came  more  and  more 
under  barbarian  influence,  his  skill  fell  oft";  he  could  no  longer 
build  such  monuments  as  his  predecessors  had  done.  He  had, 
however,  no  other  examples  to  imitate;  and  so  he  approximated 
as  nearly  as  he  could  to  the  old  Roman  style.  As  time  went 
on,  and  technique  became  more  and  more  crude,  the  difference 
between  the  new  and  the  old  became  wider  and  wider;  the 
Roman  construction  in  many  ways  became  too  diSicult;  and  the 
necessity  of  discovering  easier  methods  of  building  changed 
the  entire  aspect  of  the  art.  New  influences  came  in  from 
the  East.  The  old  Roman  types  were  forgotten,  the  builders 
ceased  impotently  to  imitate  the  classic,  and  began  instead  to 
improve  on  their  own  earlier  eftorts.  New  principles,  new  ideals 
came  to  be  recognized.  At  length  the  long-lost  skill  in  construc- 
tion was  rediscovered,  and  at  last  the  glorious  Gothic  rose  tri- 
umphant from  the  ruins  of  shattered  architrave  and  cornice. 
Such  in  outline  is  the  story  of  medieval  architecture;  a  story 
of  decay,  of  newborn  hope,  of  struggle,  and  of  triumph,  passing 
through  many  vicissitudes,  affected  by  many  impulses,  influ- 
enced often  and  from  many  directions.  But  the  base  from  which 
all  starts,  the  foundation-stone  on  which  all  rests,  is  Rome. 
Through  all  changes,  through  all  the  centuries,  the  Roman  influ- 
ence survived  in  whole  and  in  detail,  always  present,  always 
clearly  visible. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  any  thoughtful  study  of  medieval 
architecture  must  start  at  Rome.  The  great  heritage  of  antiq- 
uity —  what  the  builders  of  the  Middle  Ages  began  with  — 
must  be  thoroughly  comprehended,  before  the  changes  effected 
by  subsequent  ages  can  be  understood.     The   history  of  clas- 

3 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

sical  architecture,  particularly  its  chronology,  are  without  the 
scope  of  the  present  work;  but  our  study  must  commence  with 
a  description  of  the  more  salient  characteristics  of  Greek  and 
Roman  architecture,  and  especially  of  such  as  deeply  impressed 
themselves  upon  the  ages  yet  to  come. 

Greek  and  Roman  art  are  to  be  sharply  distinguished,  and 
not,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  loosely  confused  under  the  vague 
term  "classical."  Both  may  be  said  to  be  columnar  styles,  in 
that  the  Roman  frequently  borrowed  in  modified  form  the  use 
of  orders  from  the  Greek;  but  here  all  resemblance  ceases.  In 
construction,  in  detail,  in  spirit,  the  two  are  in  contrast. 

Greek  architecture  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  use  of  orders 
—  i.e.,  of  columns,  capitals,  and  entablature  designed  after  cer- 
tain more  or  less  fixed  types  and  arranged  in  proportions  more 
or  less  rigidly  determined  by  precedent.  The  simplest  and 
most  beautiful  of  all  orders  is  the  Greek  Doric  (111.  1). 

This  order  has  a  distinct  character,  which,  once  grasped, 
can  never  be  forgotten,  although  it  is  difficult  to  put  one's  finger 
on  any  single  feature  which  in  some  cases  will  not  be  found 
changed  or  omitted.  In  Greece  the  orders  were  never  reduced 
to  dry  formulas  as  in  Roman  and  Renaissance  times,  and  the 
various  examples  show  among  themselves  a  charming  and  re- 
freshing variety  that  allows  almost  any  characteristic  of  the 
order,  however  salient,  to  be  varied  according  to  the  taste  and 
discretion  of  the  architect.  Still,  the  mutules  of  the  cornice, 
the  frieze  with  triglyphs  and  metopes,  the  architrave  moulded 
with  only  a  single  fillet  along  its  upper  edge,  the  capital  consist- 
ing of  a  plain,  uncarved  echinus,  circular  in  plan,  beneath  a 
square  abacus;  the  severe  and  heavy  shaft  with  (usually)  twenty 
flutes  meeting  in  sharp  arrises :  —  all  these  are  features  peculiar 
to,  and  generally  present  in,  the  Doric  order.  The  Greek  Doric 
is  distinguished  from  other  Dorics  primarily  by  that  intangible 
thing  we  call  refinement.  The  proportions  are  always  good; 
in  the  best  examples  they  are  exquisite.  The  profiles  of  the 
Greek  mouldings  are  of  wonderful  delicacy  and  beauty,  being 
carefully  studied  arcs  of  parabolas,  hyperbolas,  or  ellipses, 
almost  never  segments  of  a  circle.  Similarly  the  echinus  or  the 
capital   is    a  hyperbolic   curve  —  sometimes    widely   bulging    in 

4 


UUiHk^-   >'i^ 


lu..  3. —  Greek  Ornamenls.     Fig.  1,  2,4.    Meamlers  fr.un  V:isc  raiiicmi;-.      I  i-     '■     l»..iiMe   Me- 

aiuler  from  tlie  Abacus  of  a  Doric  Capital.     ImV.  .).  Simple   (iiiillnclic  li ;i    \  aM     I'aiiifing. 

Fif.'    (i.    7.   Canci  Double  (iiiillochcs.      Fij;.  S.    'Flic   Vitnivian  Scnill.      Fi;;.  i).    Fra;;rMciil  of  the 
KiitaMalurc  of  the  Tholos  of  Fpidauros 


GREEK   ORDERS 

outline,  sometimes  nearly  or  quite  straight,  but  never  a  quarter- 
round.  The  capital  is  separated  from  the  shaft  only  by  the 
sinkaoe.     There  are  no  moulding's  below  the  fillets  terminatins: 

o  o  O 

the  echinus.  ]\[ost  characteristic  of  all,  the  shaft  has  no  base, 
but  rests  directly  on  the  stylobate. 

The  Greek  Doric,  to  be  appreciated,  must  be  considered 
in  connection  with  the  colored  and  plastic  ornament  on  which 
its  effect  must  have  largely  depended.  The  metopes  and  pedi- 
ments were  usually  filled  with  sculptures  which,  while  of  per 
fectly  architectural  character,  were  still  of  the  highest  merit  as 
individual  works  of  art.  In  the  Parthenon,  the  continuous 
frieze  of  the  cella  wall  was  also  ornamented  with  reliefs,  and 
all  these  sculptures  were  highly  colored.  Even  the  mouldings 
were  richly  decorated  with  tints  and  painted  motives,  and  the 
blank  wall  spaces  were  colored,  or  received  a  rich  golden  tinge 
from  the  natural  weathering  of  the  marble.  Thus  a  Greek 
Doric  temple  in  its  glories  of  sculpture  and  polychromy  must 
have  presented  a  richness  of  color  and  a  variety  of  detail  which 
it  is  difficult  for  us  to  imagine. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  Greek  Doric  order,  although 
evolved  as  it  was  five  centuries  or  more  before  Christ,  embodies 
in  itself  all  that  is  best  in  columnar  architecture.  Further  study 
will  always  reveal  new  perfections.  No  subsequent  builders 
have  ever  so  effectually  combined  vigor  and  strength  with  grace, 
refinement,  and  delicacy. 

The  Greek  Ionic  (111.2)  has  even  more  grace,  but  less  strength. 
Its  most  striking  characteristic,  of  course,  is  the  capital  with 
volutes.  The  abacus  here  is  no  longer  a  square  block,  but  is 
moulded  in  the  form  of  a  cyvia  reversa.  The  necking  falls  some 
distance  down  the  shaft.  The  shaft  itself  has  twenty-four  flutes 
meeting  in  flat  arrises.  The  base  usually  consists  of  two  tori, 
separated  by  a  scotia,  the  upper  torus  being  often  fluted  horizon- 
tally. As  for  the  general  proportions,  -  the  slenderness  of  the 
shaft  and  the  lightness  of  the  entablature  at  once  strike  the  eye. 
In  tlie  Ionic  order  the  architrave  is  moulded,  and  it  is  the  frieze 
which  remains  plain  —  just  reversing  the  disposition  of  orna- 
ment in  the  Doric  entablature. 

A  few  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order  —  really  an  Ionic 

5 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

order  with  a  new  kind  of  capital  (111.  3  a)  —  are  found  in 
Greece,  but  as  this  order  was  never  freely  used  by  the  Greeks 
of  the  best  period,  it  will  be  described  later  in  the  chapter,  in 
connection  with  Roman  architecture. 

Employing  thus,  in  general,  only  two  orders  —  the  Doric  and 
the  Ionic  —  the  architecture  of  the  Greeks  or,  at  least,  the  mon- 
umental architecture  —  was  not  highly  varied.  The  plans  of 
Greek  temples  (111.  4)  were  for  the  most  part  simple.  A  rectan- 
gular '  building  of  stone  with  elementary  internal  divisions  was 
preceded  by  a  portico  formed  of  free  standing  columns.  This 
portico  might  be  continued  around  all  four  sides  of  the  build- 
ing. These  simple  elements  were  united  in  various  combina- 
tions so  as  to  form  a  variety  of  types  of  building  ranging  from 
the  plain  little  temples  in  antis  (111.  4,  Fig.  9)  to  the  great  perip- 
teral structures  (Figs.  2,  10,  etc.).  Examples  of  most  of  the 
regular  types  of  Greek  building  and  some  exceptional  cases  are 
shown  in  111.  4. 

Even  less  complex  than  the  plans,  were  the  interiors  of  Greek 
monuments.  In  this  portion  of  the  edifice  the  Greeks  seem  to 
have  clung  to  forms  almost  naively  simple.'  At  least,  in  the 
temples  —  the  most  truly  characteristic  and  monumental  Greek 
buildings '  —  little  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  internal  arrange- 
ment and  decoration,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  judge  from  the 
fragmentary  ruins  that  have  come  down  to  us.  Since  there 
were  ordinarily  no  windows,  the  light  could  have  been  admitted 
only  through  the  grill  work  of  the  great  doors.*  In  larger  struc- 
tures the  cella  was  divided  into  three  aisles  by  ranges  of  columns, 
—  so  placed,   perhaps,  partly  with  a  view  of  furnishing  inter- 

'  The  Greeks  constructed  a  few  circular  temples,  precisely  analogous  to  the  rectangular 
types,  except  that  a  circular  core  was  substituted  for  the  rectangular  one  (111.  4,  Fig.  6). 

'  The  Greeks  were  an  out-of-door  people,  who  loved  the  fresh  air  and  who  did  not  care  to 
be  confined  within  a  building.  Hence  it  was  that  their  architecture  was  so  es.sentially  external. 
Even  the  temples  were  seldom  entered; — they  were  intended  to  be  \'iewed  only  from  the  outside. 

3  Beside  the  temples,  theaters  stoas  and  propylaea  were  given  monumental  treatment  by 
the  Greeks.  Buildings  for  utilitarian  purposes  were  in  the  main  irregular  and  unpretending. 
Since  the  theaters,  propylsea,  and  stoas  were  open  air  buildings,  practically  without  interior, 
only  the  temples  remained  to  offer  opportunities  for  internal  adornment. 

*  It  is  now  known  that  the  so-called  hj-psethral  temple  was  extremely  rare  in  Greece.  Per- 
haps the  only  instance  in  Greece  proper  that  has  come  do^^^l  to  us,  is  the  example  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  at  Athens.  The  best  preserved  example  elsewhere  is  the  Didymsean  of  Miletus  (111.  4, 
Fig.  10). 

6 


•  i 

•  i 

»##••#•• 
»••••••« 

1 

!•• 

•  •■^  •  • 

i     • 

•         <          #      « 

•         < 

•       4 

•       <        •     • 

>  to  # 

r 
h 

J        9    9 

k  ^  # 

^ 

•  ~  ( 

< 

E 

<        ^    ^ 

>- 

0 

i: 

•     (      •    • 

•     <      •    • 

#     # 

*      '      •    • 

^ ^^^H          ^      f 

k 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•      •      •                 •      • 

III.  4.     Greek  Temples 

1.  The  Parthenon.  Hexastyle  (with  six  columns  on  the  end)  peripteral  (with  columns 
on  all  four  sides).  '2.  The  Basilica  (so-called)  at  Pa-stum  (after  Koldewey).  Euneastyle  (with 
nine  columns  on  the  end)  peripteral.  3.  The  Temple  of  Zeus,  at  Girgenti.  Heptastyle  (with 
seven  columns  on  the  end)  pseudo-peripteral  (surrounded  by  columns  built  into  the  wall,  i.e., 
engaged).  4.  The  Erechtheion  (temple  of  Erechtheos)  at  Athens.  The  two  cellse  are  on  dif- 
ferent levels,  and  were  connected  by  a  staircase.  5.  The  Propylsea  (entrance  gates)  of  the 
Acropolis,  Athens.  6.  The  Philippeion  at  Olympia  (after  Curtius).  Peripteral  circular  build- 
ing. 7.  Treasury  (treasure-house)  of  Gela  at  Olympia  (after  Curtius).  —  Hexastyle  (with  six 
columns  on  the  end)  prostyle  (with  columns  on  the  front  end  only)  8.  Temple  of  Nike 
Apteros,  Athens  (after  Laloux).  Tetrastyle  (with  four  columns  on  the  end)  ampliiprostyle 
(with  columns  on  both  ends  but  not  on  the  sides).  9.  Treasury  of  Sikyon  at  Ol.vmpia 
(after  Curtius).  Temple  in  antis  (with  columns  only  between  the  Antae  —  AA).  10.  Temple 
of  Apollo  DidjTnseos,  at  Miletus.  Decastyle  (with  ten  colmnns  on  the  end)  dipteral  (sur- 
rounded by  a  double  row  of  columns).  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  roofing  so  large  a  temple  as 
tliis,  the  central  aisle  of  the  cella  was  made  an  hypsethrmn :  —  i.e.,  an  open  court 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

mediate  supports  for  the  beams  of  the  roof.  To  diminish  the 
diameter  of  these  columns,  that  they  might  not  occupy  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  floor  space,  they  were  built  in  two  superimposed 
stories  separated  only  by  an  archivolt.  In  some  cases  it  is 
probable  that  a  wooden  floor  was  thrown  across  from  this 
archivolt  to  the  wall,  forming  a  kind  of  gallery.  Th\xs  in  its 
general  arrangements,  the  Greek  temple  may  not  improbably 
have  been  the  prototype  of  the  Roman  basilica  and  hence  of  the 
Christian  church.  The  long  rectangle  divided  into  three  aisles 
of  which  the  central  one  is  highest;  the  timber  roof;  the  gal- 
leries; the  stately  rows  of  columns — all  this,  indeed,  presents 
striking  analogies  to  the  Christian  basilica.  Only  the  clearstory 
—  of  which  more  in  a  moment  —  is  lacking.  But  yet,  attract- 
ive as  seems  this  derivation,  the  restoration  of  the  Greek  temple 
interior  —  of  Avhich  no  example,  nor  any  very  certain  indica- 
tions have  come  down  to  us  —  remains  too  uncertain  to  make 
it  possible  to  present  the  hypothesis  with  confidence. 

Equally  simple  was  the  exterior  design  of  Greek  buildings. 
The  characteristic  and  practically  the  sole  motive  employed 
was  the  colonnade.  These  colonnades  might  be  constructed 
in  two  stories,  or  they  might  be  in  doubled  rows;  but  in  some 
form  or  other  every  monumental  building,  whether  temple  or 
stoa,'  propylfeon  ^  or  theater,  presented  somewhere  a  portico 
of  Doric  or  Ionic  columns.  Greek  architecture  thus  in  a  way 
lacked  variety.  Yet  no  more  beautiful  motive  than  these  colon- 
nades with  their  pediments  has  ever  been  devised.  There  is 
nothing  more  perfect  than  the  Greek  exterior  (111.  5)  — consum- 
mate beauty  of  detail  united  with  consummate  beauty  of  the 
whole.  As  far  as  Greek  architecture  went,  it  succeeded  en- 
tirely. It  took  a  simple  type  of  building  and  improved  and 
refined  it  until  absolutely  all  that  was  possible  had  been  done. 
The  force  of  man  could  go  no  farther.  It  is  impossible  to  find 
anything  to  blame,  any  fault  to  criticize.  And  yet,  when  com- 
paring the  perfection  of  this  Gi'eek  work  with  the  imperfections 
of  other  styles,  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  many  of 

'  An  open  colonnade  bordering  streets,  agorse,  etc.     It  consisted  of  two  or  more  ranges  of 
columns,  supporting  a  roof. 
^  A  monumental  gateway. 

8 


GREEK   DESIGN 

the  problems  with  which  hiter  architects  wrestled,  far  from 
being  solved,  were  not  even  thought  of,  by  the  Greeks.  If  Greek 
architecture  accomplished  its  task  more  perfectly  than  any  of 
the  subsequent  style?,  it  had  a  much  easier  task  to  accomplish. 

It  should  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  Greek  architecture 
is  stereotyped,  monotonous,  or  dull.  If  it  confined  itself  to 
one  type,  within  that  type  it  knew  how  to  introduce  infinite  vari- 
ety. The  changes  wrought  in  such  a  detail  as  the  curve  of  the 
Doric  capital  are  little  less  than  astounding  by  their  number. 
111.  -t  will  give  some  slight  idea  of  the  many  dift'erent  varieties 
of  plan  the  Greeks  employed.  The  Greeks  were  always  artists, 
and  consequently  free  designers.  New  variations,  new  propor- 
tions, new  refinements  were  ever  being  introduced.  Greek 
architecture  never  for  an  instant  stood  still.  It  was  character- 
istic of  the  Greek  spirit  as  it  was  of  the  Gothic,  frankly  to  meet 
necessity  and  to  make  it  beautiful,  at  no  matter  what  sacrifice 
of  precedent  or  formal  symmetry.  Hence  we  have  such  entirely 
free  treatments  as  the  plan  of  the  Erechtheion  (111.  4,  Fig.  4), 
the  mixture  of  orders  in  the  Propylfea  (111.  4,  Fig.  5),  and  other 
liberties  of  design  no  less  striking. 

Greek  construction  was  based  upon  the  principle  of  the 
lintel  —  a  stone  laid  crosswise  on  two  supporting  members. 
It  is  obvious  that  very  large  spaces  cannot  be  spanned  in  this 
manner  —  for  aside  from  the  difficulty  of  quarrying  a  lintel, 
say  thirty  feet  long,  no  great  wall  can  l)e  built  on  top  of  it  with- 
out risk  of  the  superimposed  weight  breaking  the  lintel  in  the 
middle.  Hence  Greek  buildings  of  any  size  were  roofed  with 
wood,  covered  externally  with  tiles.  The  arch  and  vault,  while 
apparently  known,  were  never  used  as  architectural  features.' 

The  stereotomy  —  stone  cutting  —  of  the  Greeks  is  un- 
equaled.  Except  where  destroyed  by  violence  Greek  walls 
stand  unimpaired  to-day,  so  precise  was  the  workmanship. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable  in  that  they,  were  constructed  with- 
out mortar,  which  the  Greeks  never  employed,  though  bronze 
clamps  were  sometimes  used  to  fasten  the  stones  in  place.  The 
fineness  of  the  joints  in  the  Parthenon  was  secured  by  slightly 

'  On  the  use  of  the  arcli  and  vault  in  the  Hellenic  periixl  see  G.  Baldwin  Brown,  From 
Schola  to  CatJtedral,  p.  8-2,  sc<j. 

9 


THE   HERITAGE    OF   ANTIQUITY 

hollowing-in  the  faces  of  the  blocks  that  were  to  touch  each 
other.  Thus  only  the  edges  met  and  the  great  superincumlient 
weight  forced  them  together  in  an  almost  imperceptible  joint. 

A  passing  glance  must  be  given  to  Greek  ornament,  as  it  is 
a  subject  to  which  we  shall  have  to  recur  again  and  again  in 
future  chapters.  The  Greeks  maintained  in  ornament  that 
same  preeminence  for  refinement  and  variety  that  they  dis- 
played in  the  other  arts.  Perhaps  the  most  pregnant  of  all 
Greek  ornaments  was  the  acanthus,  whose  leaves  enfold  the 
Corinthian  capital  (111.  3  a).  These  leaves  in  Greek  work  are  of 
a  "V"  section,  crisp  and  vigorous;  while  the  lobes  or  eyes  sepa- 
rating the  groups  of  five  petals  are  placed  far  out  from  the  central 
stem,  and  do  not  divide  the  leaf  into  separate  parts  (111.  3,  Fig.  9). 
Next  in  importance  to  the  acanthus  ranks  the  anthemion,  found 
in  myriad  forms,  one  of  the  most  exquisite  of  which  is  shown 
on  the  neckings  of  the  capitals  in  111.  2.  The  anthemia  them- 
selves are  separated  by  the  five-petaled  lotus  flower  (which 
may  be  considered  another  form  of  the  same  ornament),  and  the 
whole  design  is  connected  by  spirals  at  the  bottom.  111.  2  also 
shows  fine  examples  of  the  egg-and-dart  (on  the  abaci  of  the 
capitals  and  elsewhere),  the  heartleaf  (on  the  cyma  reversa  of 
the  architrave),  and  the  bead  mouldings  (on  the  volute  of  the  cap- 
ital seen  in  side  elevation),  —  mouldings  no  less  exquisite  and 
fresh  that  our  eyes  are  accustomed  to  the  modern  vulgarized 
forms  of  these  ornaments.  Their  grace  and  beauty  is  self- 
evident  in  the  Greek  examples,  and  it  is  noteworthy  how  perfectly 
the  shape  of  the  ornament  expresses  the  curve  of  the  moulding. 
111.  3,  Figs.  1-4  shows  a  series  of  frets,  which,  although  differing 
widely,  are  easily  recognized  as  different  forms  of  the  same 
motive.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  Vitruvian  scroll  (Fig.  8) 
is  related  to  this  ornament,  for  if  we  should  round  all  the  square 
corners  of  Fig.  4,  we  should  have  something  very  closely  resem- 
bling Fig.  8.  Perhaps  the  most  puzzling,  but  also  one  of 
the  most  important  of  Greek  ornaments  is  the  guilloche.  Its 
simplest  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Figs.  6  and  7  are  more 
complicated  variants.  It  may  always  be  recognized  by  its 
interlacing  bands,  which  cross  each  other  alternately  above 
and   below. 

10 


ROMAN   CONSTRUCTION 

Siic'li,  in  outline,  was  Greek  architecture,  and  such  the  forms 
it  beciueathed  to  the  hiter  builders.  Modest  in  its  attempts, 
never  attacking  the  really  great  problems  of  construction,  it 
still  erected  buildings  entirely  suitable  for  the  needs  of  the  time 
and  adorned  with  a  refinement  and  beauty  of  detail  the  world 
has  not  equaled  in  twenty-four  centuries.  It  is  essentially  an 
external  architecture,  where  the  interior  effect  was  largely 
a  matter  of  indifference,  an  architecture  where  utilitarian  con- 
siderations were  of  little  weight;  where  the  beauty,  not  the 
use,  of  a  building  was  its  main  raison  d'etre;  where,  in  short, 
was  voiced  the  spirit  of  a  people  who  were  artists,  but  not 
engineers. 


The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  were  primarily  engineers. 
A  people  eminently  warlike  and  practical,  their  contributions 
to  human  progress  have  ever  lain  in  the  direction  of  science, 
rather  than  of  art;  in  the  working  out  of  organization  in  law 
and  government,  in  the  construction  of  roads  and  aqueducts, 
in  the  civilizing  of  barbarian  countries,  rather  than  in  the  crea- 
tion of  masterpieces  of  sculpture,  literature,  or  architecture. 
What  arts  the  Romans  had  were  of  late  birth,  coming  into  being 
only  long  after  the  military  dominion  of  the  republic  had  been 
established.  Hence  Roman  art  has  a  ready-made,  exotic  qual' 
ity;  it  lacks  originality,  and  is,  in  fact,  little  more  than  an 
adaptation  of  Greek  models  to  suit  the  pomposity  and  vulgarity 
of  Roman  taste.  Under  Rome,  magnificence  was  substituted 
for  refinement;  Virgil  succeeded  Homer;  Seneca,  Sophocles; 
the  sculptors  of  the  I  century,  Phidias  and  Praxiteles. 

In  architecture,  however,  the  practical  turn  of  the  Roman 
mind  was  able  to  accomplish  what  it  was  unable  to  do  in  the 
case  of  the  more  abstract  arts.  Besides  imitating  the  Greek, 
it  added  certain  new  and  original  features  of  its  own.  These 
innovations  all  lay  in  the  direction  of  construction;  but  archi- 
tectural construction,  the  practical  Romans  developed  to  a  point 
far  in  advance  of  any  that  had  hitherto  been  reached. 

The  principle  of  the  arch  had  been  long  understood;  —  ex- 
actly who  first  discovered  it  will  probably  never  be  known  — 

11 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

but  there  is  no  doubt  that  its  use  goes  back  to  remote  antiquity.' 
The  Romans,  however,  were  the  first  to  treat  it  architecturally. 
The  arch  in  its  simplest  form  is  merely  a  device  for  spanning  an 


1       1 

I.I      1 

I      1     _ 

I       1       1       1       1       1       1 

1  1  1 

^ft 

II      1    '    ^ 

1  \±w. 

^-    '       ' 

\ 

II 

-^ 

'n 

1      1 

1  .„ 

1      1 

1    h 

i=^ 

^  1   '   1  ^ 

1 

1        1 

p 

? 

1  '   1   ' 

1 

II 

1 

1        1 

1 

1 

IT 

11      I      r     ' 

X2iJd\c:     b     =,      b     c/d 


III.  6.  — Diagram  of  tlie  Arch  and  Flat  Arch 

opening  by  means  of  several  blocks  of  stone,  when  for  any  rea- 
son it  is  undesirable  to  employ  a  lintel  or  a  wooden  construction. 
From  the  illustration  (111.  6)  it  will  be  seen  that  these  blocks, 

'  The  arch  at  Bet  Khallaf,  Egj'pt  (xxx  centurj'  B.C.),  is  the  earliest  dated  example  I  know. 

12 


THE   ARCH 

or  voussoirs,  as  they  are  called,  —  a,  b,  c,  d,  —  are  fitted  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  central  voussoir  (the  keystone,  a)  cannot  fall 
to  the  ground  without  first  shoving  to  one  side  the  adjacent 
voussoir  h.  B  in  its  turn  tends  to  push  out  c,  and  so  the  force 
which  at  a  had  been  merely  dead  weight,  pressing  straight 
towards  the  ground,  is  changed  in  direction,  and  at  x  becomes 
a  side  ihrusf,  tending  to  disrupt  the  arch  laterally,  in  the  direc- 
tion indicated  by  the  arrow.  If,  then,  a  heavy  mass  of  masonry 
be  built  against  the  arch  at  the  point  x,  so  as  to  prevent  the  vous- 
soirs c  and  d  from  being  forced  out  laterally,  an  almost  unlimited 
weight  may  be  safely  superimposed  on  the  arch,  for  the  key- 
stone a  cannot  fall,  except  the  weight  be  great  enough  to 
actually  crush  and  disintegrate  the  stone.  This  placing  of 
masonry  at  the  point  x  —  the  hauncJi  of  the  arch  —  is  called 
buttressing. 

An  arch  is  usually  constructed  by  means  of  a  wooden  mould 
—  called  a  centering  —  whose  outer  face  corresponds  with  the 
under  side  —  the  soffit,  or  intrados,  i  —  of  the  arch.  On  this 
centering  are  laid  the  voussoirs.  When  the  keystone  is  in 
place,  the  arch  becomes  self-supporting  and  the  centering  is 
removed.'  An  arch  is  usually  ornamented  by  a  series  of  mould- 
ings, k,  following  the  intrados,  and  called  the  archivolt.  The 
heavy  horizontal  moulding  {jj)  around  the  piers  (pp)  is  called 
the  impost.  It  is  usual  to  place  the  beginning  of  the  curved  por- 
tion of  the  intrados,  or  the  arch  proper,  above  the  impost.  The 
vertical  portion  of  the  intrados  (ss)  between  the  impost  and  the 
beginning  of  the  arch,  is  then  called  the  stilt.  The  highest  point 
I  of  the  intrados  is  known  as  the  crown  of  the  arch. 

The  characteristic  form  of  the  Roman  arch  was  semicir- 
cular, but  it  was  sometimes  flattened  into  an  elliptical  form,  or 
even  into  the  flat  arch  (Fig.  5-8).  The  higher  the  crown  of  the 
arch  the  less  its  thrust,  —  a  fact  which  was  turned  to  good  ac- 
count in  the  pointed  arch  of  Gothic  ~  architecture,  since  this 
pointed  form  has  the  greatest  height  and  consequently  the  min- 
imum possible  thrust.  By  the  same  principle  the  flat  arch  (Fig. 
5)    gives    the    maximum    thrust.     This   objectionable    construc- 

•  There  are  devices  (employed  especially  by  the  Byzantine  builders)  for  constructing  arches 
and  vaults  without  centering. 

13 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

tion  has  been  used  in  ancient  and  modern  times  in  cases  where 
it  is  desired  to  give  the  hntel  effect  in  spaces  too  wide  to  be  con- 
veniently spanned  by  a  single  block.  In  these  cases,  however, 
the  thrust  is  commonly  so  great  that  either  the  superimposed 
weight  must  be  eased  bv  a  concealed  relieving  arch  built  in  the 


<r-\' 

I 
<-1 


I 
I 


1-^ 
I 

I 

I 

u 


1-^ 

1 


III.  7.  —  Diagram  of  the  Barrel  Vault 

wall  above  the  flat  arch,  —  when  the  flat  arch  becomes  a  mere 
sham  and  economic  waste,  accomplishing  no  work  at  all  — 
or  else  iron  tie-rods  must  be  inserted  in  the  stones,  forming 
false  construction  of  the  most  flagrant  type.'  Occasionally 
the  flat  arch  was  used,  apparently  from  mere  caprice,  in  spans 

•  The  discredit  of  the  latter  method  rests,  I  believe,  wholly  with  modem  times. 
14 


THE   BARREL   VAULT 

wliicli  could  1)0  coveretl  with  a  lintel  quite  as  well.  A  converse 
case  we  shall  study  later  in  Syria,  where  in  Christian  times  it 
became  the  fashion  to  carve  a  lintel  in  a  circular  form  so  as  to 
give  the  appearance  of  an  arch. 

It  is  an  Arab  proverb  that  "the  arch  never  sleeps."  The 
thrust  may  be  adequately  buttressed,  but  it  still  exists;  and  if 
through  decay  the  strength  of  the  buttress  be  weakened,  the  arch 
is  always  ready  to  push  out  its  haunches.  The  invention  of 
the  arch  thus  brought  into  architecture  a  new  and  important 
element.  The  Greek  architects  had  only  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical forces  to  consider,  dead  weights  and  the  strength  of  the 
supports  that  must  bear  them,  a  comparatively  easy  problem, 
and  one  that,  perhaps,  they  never  attempted  to  solve  accurately. 
The  Romans  in  introducing  the  arch  created  the  new  and  much 
more  complicated  question  of  lateral  thrusts.  Architects  had 
thereafter  to  consider  not  only  the  tendency  of  buildings  to  fall 
tlownwards,  but  also  their  tendency  to  burst  outwards.  The 
calculation  and  overcoming  of  these  lateral  thrusts  is  a  mechan- 
ical antl  engineering  problem  of  the  utmost  difficulty  and  one 
which,  from  the  time  of  Rome  to  this  day,  has  absorbed  the 
energies  of  builders,  with  what  splendid  results  we  shall  see  in 
the  chapters  on  Gothic.  And  yet,  even  to-day,  the  mathematics 
of  this  elusive  problem  cannot  be  said  to  be  completely  under- 
stood. 

From  the  arch  to  the  vaidt.  the  step  is  easy.  A  builder  who 
wished  to  set  an  arch  in  a  wall  so  thick  that  a  single  set  of  vous- 
soirs  could  not  conveniently  be  made  to  penetrate  its  width, 
might  build  two  arches  side  by  side.  The  construction  would 
obviously  be  strengthened  by  interlocking  the  voussoirs  of  the 
two  arches  —  that  is,  placing  the  vertical  joints  in  such  a  way 
tiiat  they  would  not  come  directly  over  each  other,  thus  avoid- 
ing the  formation  of  a  continuous  crack  between  the  arches. 
This  process  continued,  the  arch  being  made  constantly  thicker, 
will  give  the  barrel  vault  (111.  7  and  111.  7«). 

The  barrel  vault  may  be  constructed  with  a  complete  cen- 
tering, in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  arch.  Such  a  pro- 
cess is  expensive  for  a  large  vault,  say  one  hundred  feet  long,  as 
it  would  require  a  centering  also  one  hundred  feet  long.     The 

15 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

thrifty  Romans  accordingly  devised  the  scheme  shown  in  111.  8 
and  111.  7,  Fig.  5.  Along  the  space  to  be  vaulted,  at  convenient 
intervals,  arches  —  called  ribs  —  were  erected.  These  arches 
were  all  of  the  same  size,  and  the  same  centering  could  be  used 
for  all,  being  moved  to  the  next  after  each  in  turn  had  been 
completed.     Then  using  the  arches  already  erected  as  centering. 


Perspective  of  the  Barrel  ^'ault 


intermediate  arches  were  sprung,   covering  the  space  between 
the  original  arches,  on  whose  edges  they  rested. 

If  the  introduction  of  the  principle  of  the  arch  was  an  ad- 
vance of  grave  significance,  the  vault  which  followed  as  a  neces- 
sary corollary  was  destined  to  bear  in  the  future  even  a  richer 
harvest.  It  now  became  possible  to  treat  the  interior  with  far 
greater  dignity  than  had  ever  before  been  accorded  it.  Larger 
spaces  were  spanned  and  this  without  the  aid  of  intermediate 
supports.     This  increase  in  the  size  of  rooms  was  well  suited 

16 


iix.  «.        l'.-r>,..Mtivt-  of  tlu-  iMt.-rior  ,.f  tl„-  ■IVini.l,-  ul'  Diana.  Nini.-s.  l.v  F.  15.  Warren 


THE   GROIN   VAULT 

to  the  grandiose  and  monumental  tendencies  of  Roman  art, 
while  the  vault  itself  was  capable  of  more  sumptuous  and  impos- 
ing ti'eatment  than  a  wooden  roof.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
the  interior  gradually  assumed  greater  and  greater  importance 
until  in  interest  it  far  surpassed  the  exterior.'  In  time  the  latter 
came  to  be  even  neglected.  Perhaps  the  most  vital  architec- 
tural change  wrought  by  the  Romans  was  this  transformation 
of  the  external  architecture  of  the  Greeks  into  the  internal  archi- 
tecture of  the  Middle  Ages.^ 

But  with  all  its  advantages,  the  barrel  vault  still  offered 
several  drawbacks.  In  appearance  it  was  little  more,  after  all, 
than  a  tunnel  (111.  7a),  heavy  and  gloomy,  its  surface  unrelieved 
by  play  of  light  or  shade.  It  could  be  lighted  only  at  the  ex- 
treme ends  )jy  windows  (called  lunettes)  comparatively  small, 
even  if  occupying  the  entire  wall  space.  But,  greatest  draw- 
back of  all,  being  nothing  but  an  exaggerated  arch,  it  required 
heavy  buttressing  its  entire  length  —  its  thrust  was  coutinuous. 
This  made  it  an  expensive  and  cumbrous  construction.  All 
of  these  difficulties  were  obviated  by  the  invention  of  the  groin 
vault  (111.  }),  10). 

A  groin  vault  consists  of  two  barrel  vaults,  of  equal  size, 
intersecting  at  right  angles.  The  lines  of  intersection  are  called 
the  groins.  There  are  four  of  these  groins,  each  pair  forming, 
as  is  evident  from  the  figure,  a  complete  arch  in  itself.  The 
Romans  frequently  constructed  groin  vaults  with  a  complete 
centering;  in  certain  instances,^  however,  they  employed  a  new 
method  of  building  which  is  of  the  greatest  importance  as  fore- 
shadowing the  medieval  rib  vault.  The  groins  themselves 
were  erected  first  as  complete  and  self-sustaining  arches.  As- 
suming the  vaults  to  be  semicircular,  it  is  evident  that  each 
pair  of  groins  will  form  an  arch  slightly  elliptical.  The  two 
arches  will  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  will  have  a  com- 
mon   keystone.     After   these   arches   have   been   constructed,   a 

The  Romans  diil  not  live  out-of-floors  nearly  to  tlie  extent  that  the  Greeks  had  done. 
'Another   ini[Kirtant   result   of    the  vault   was   the   I'aet   tliat   it   made  possible  fire-proof 
construction. 

'  E.g.,  the  Palatine,  the  Arch  of  Jainis  Quadrifrons,  and  tlie  Thernise  of  Diocletian  and  Cara- 
calla.  When  concealed  rihs  were  einploved  I  believe  the  remainder  of  the  vault  was  always 
filled  iu  with  rubble  or  concrete,  and  nut  with  cut  stone. 

17 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 


THE    GROIN   VAULT 

(•(Mit(M-ing  of  the  desired  form  may  he  j)laced  beneath  and  touch- 
ing the  groins,  and  a  vault  built  thereon  in  a  manner  precisely 
similar  to  the  procedure  in  the  case  of  a  barrel  vault.  This 
vault  would  be  carried  from  the  keystone  in  all  four  directions, 
being  bounded  by  the  groins.  The  groins,  as  complete  arches, 
will  be  fully  capable  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  vault,  what- 
ever tendency  there  might  be  of  the  vault  on  one  side  to  push 
the  arch  sideways  being  exactly  counterbalanced  by  the  con- 
verse thrust  of  the  vault  on  the  other  side.  Thus  the  entire 
weight  and  thrust  of  the  vault  is  gathered  on  the  four  groins; 
and  the  groins  being  arches  will,  by  the  principle  of  the  arch, 
transmit  all  the  weight  they  have  received  from  the  vault,  and 
tlischarge  it  as  a  thrust  at  a  single  point  on  each  of  their  four 
haunches.  That  is,  the  thrust  of  a  groin  vault,  instead  of  being 
continuous  like  that  of  a  barrel  vault,  is  concentrated  at  four 
isolated  points,  and  consequently  requires  buttressing  only  at 
those  points.  The  arrows  in  the  figure  roughly  indicate  the 
direction  of  these  thrusts. 

The  groin  vault,  as  we  have  been  considering  it,  is  limited 
to  a  j)Ian  either  nearly  square,  or  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  when 
the  vault  is  continued  over  the  arms  as  a  barrel  vault.  It  was 
so  useful,  however,  in  offering  isolated  thrusts,  and  in  allowing; 
light  from  four  lunettes  instead  of  two,  that  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore a  method  was  found  of  adapting  it  to  a  rectangular  plan. 
This  was  accomplished  by  dividing  the  long  side  of  the  space 
to  be  vaulted  into  any  number  of  divisions,  each  equal  to  the 
width  of  the  space.  A  groin  vault  was  then  erected  over  each 
square  so  formed.  Since  the  vaults  thus  adjoined,  each  counter- 
balanced its  neighbor's  longitudinal  thrust,  and  the  net  result 
was  a  thrust  directly  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  building, 
at  the  point  where  the  two  vaults  came  together  (111.  9,  Fig.  1'^). 
This  thrust  was  easily  buttressed. 

The  groin  vault  as  thus  applied  became  not  only  the  form  of 
vault  most  employed  by  the  Romans,  but  the  one  which  prima- 
rily influenced  medieval  architecture.  It  allowed  of  abundant 
lighting,  each  section  of  the  vault  permitting  the  introduction 
of  two  lunettes  in  addition  to  the  two  at  the  ends  of  the  series 
of  vaults.     The  one  great  drawback  it  shared  in  common  with 

19 


THE   HERITAGE   OF   ANTIQUITY 


111.  10.  —  Perspective  of  the  Groin  Vault 


20 


THE    CLOISTERED   VAULT 

nil  Roman  vaults  was  its  lack  of  flexibility.  As  long  as  the 
length  of  the  hall  to  be  vaulted  was  nearly  commensu- 
rable with  its  width,  the  scheme  worked  very  well;  but  when 
this  condition  did  not  exist,  the  construction  became  awk- 
ward. 

We  have  considered  the  groin  vault  as  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  two  equal  barrel  vaults,  meeting  at  right  angles,  with 
the  pieces  of  the  vaults  within  the  intersections  removed.  Now, 
if  we  should  retain  these  pieces  of  the  vault,  and  cut  out  the 
rest  of  the  barrel  vaults  —  that  is,  the  exterior  parts  used  in 
the  formation  of  the  groin  vault,  —  it  is  obvious  the  result  would 
1)0  a  four-sided  vault  on  a  square  plan.  The  exact  nature  of 
this  vault,  known  as  the  cloistered  vault,  will  be  evident  on  refer- 
ence to  the  figure  (111.  11).'  It  approaches  in  character  much 
more  closely  the  barrel  vault,  from  which  it  is  derived,  than 
the  groin  vault,  which  it  resembles  superficially.  Its  thrusts 
are  continuous,  not  localized;  and  it  requires  continuous  but- 
tresses. The  cloistered  vault  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  vaults 
to  light,  since  it  is  impossible  to  introduce  windows  except  as 
jjenetrations  —  a  device,  I  believe,  seldom  or  never  practised 
by  the  ancients.  It  is,  however,  slightly  more  economical  to 
build  than  a  barrel  vault,  and  in  certain  cases  is  more  pleasing.^ 

The  cloistered  vault  can  be  constructed  on  a  polygonal, 
quite  as  well  as  on  a  square,  plan.  Now,  if  we  conceive  the  num- 
ber of  sides  to  be  infinitely  increased,  we  shall  arrive  at  a  cir- 
cular plan  and  the  vault  will  become  a  dome.  The  dome, 
however,  oft'ers  one  very  striking  peculiarity,  in  which  it  dift'ers 
from  the  cloistered  vault  to  which  it  seems  so  nearly  akin,  and, 
in  fact,  from  all  other  vaults.  Every  vault  we  have  so  far  stud- 
ied depends  for  its  stability  on  the  principle  of  the  arch,  since 
a  keystone  is  required  to  hold  the  whole  in  place.  In  the  dome, 
on  the  other  hand,  each  course  is  complete  and  self-sustaining 
in  itself.  As  will  be  seen  from  111.  12,  Fig.  8,  the  stone  courses, 
as  in  all  vaults,  incline  towards  the  center.  The  tendency, 
then,  of  each  stone  is  to  fall  inwards.     But  when  a  course  is 

'  I  know  of  no  Roman  example  of  the  cloistered  vault.  It  is,  however,  prominent  in  Chris- 
tian Sjm'a. 

'The  cIoistere<l  vault  lias  found  its  chief  use  in  connection  with  the  barrel  vault  in  Ren- 
aissance and  modern  times. 

21 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

finished,  and  forms  a  complete  circle,  each  stone  is  locked  in 
its  position,  and  held  by  its  fellows  against  which  it  is  fitted. 
Thus  each  stone  of  a  dome  is  in  effect  a  keystone,  and  the  dome 
will  be  self-supporting  at  every  complete  course,  and  may  be 


III.  11.- — The  Cloistered  Vault,  Diagram 

there  terminated.  This  important  fact  allows  the  introduction 
in  the  center  of  a  dome  of  a  window  '  of  any  size  desired,  and 
makes  it  the  most  easily  lighted  of  all  vaults.  It  also  simplifies 
the  construction,  as  only  a  centering  sufl5cient  for  one  course 
need  be  erected  at  a  time. 

'  Kjiown  as  a  lantern. 


THE   DOME 

In  other  respects  the  dome  resembles  the  cloistered  vault. 
Since  the  thrust  is  continuous  and  at  its  haunches,  a  continu- 
ous buttressing  is  required  at  that  point  (III.  13).  The  dome 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  arch,  and  of  all  vaults,  in  that  the 


III    12.  —  Diagram  of  the  Dome 

flatter  its  line  of  curvature,  the  greater  its  thrust.  Just  as  the 
arch,  for  esthetic  reasons,  is  usually  stilted,  the  dome  is  com- 
monly raised  on  a  cylinder,  known  as  the  drum. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  all  vaults  as  formed  by 
cut  blocks  of  stone.  The  Romans  made  much  use  of  masonry 
in  their  building,  and  constructed  the  different  kinds  of  vaults, 

23 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

when  they  wished,  with  splendid  stereotomy;  but  they  also 
employed  extensively  a  sort  of  rubble  construction.  This 
consisted  of  irregular  stones,  bricks,  or  even  pebbles,  laid  on  at 
haphazard  and  held  in  place  by  a  peculiar  sort  of  cement,  poured 
in  on  top  of  them  and  allowed  to  harden.  This  Roman  cement 
was  much  more  powerful  than  any  used  to-day,  being  more 
like  concrete  than  any  other  substance  we  know.  When 
hardened  it  was  often  stronger  than  the  stone  itself.  In  Italy 
vaults  were  usually  built  in  this  manner.  In  a  groin  vault  only 
the  groins  were  constructed  of  cut  stone  or  brick.  The  adhe- 
sion of  the  cement  forms  the  whole  vault  into  one  solid  block, 
as  it  were,  and  as  the  thrust  of  an  arch  is  produced  by  the  ten- 
dency of  the  separate  blocks  to  slip  on  their  joints,  the  thrust 
in  a  vault  of  this  kind  is  almost  entirely  eliminated,  and  the 
vault  rests  on  the  walls,  as  the  cover  does  on  a  pot,  without 
exerting  lateral  pressure. 

Such  were  the  structural  innovations  introduced  by  the 
Romans  —  principles  of  the  most  far-reaching  results  in  the 
history  of  architecture.  In  no  form  of  vault,  nevertheless,  did 
the  Romans  say  the  last  word.  It  was  i-eserved  for  future  ages 
to  show  of  what  glorious  developments  the  dome,  the  groin 
vault,  and  even  the  barrel  vault,  were  capable.  But  the  credit 
of  first  applying  these  vital  principles  to  architecture,  of  per- 
ceiving though  dimly  the  esthetic  and  practical  uses  of  which 
they  were  capable,  is  all  due  to  Rome.  No  other  structural 
invention  of  architectural  history  can  outrank  in  importance 
this  —  not  the  pendentives  of  Hagia  Sophia,  nor  even  the  dis- 
coveries of  XII  century  France.  For  the  vault  we  owe  to  Rome 
unqualified  admiration  and  gratitude. 

Unfortunately,  no  such  unstinted  praise  can  be  given  the 
architectural  ornament  of  the  Romans.  After  the  IV  century, 
B.C.,  Greek  architecture  underwent  a  decline.  As  time  went 
on,  this  decline  became  more  and  more  precipitate,  until  in  the  I 
century,  B.C.,  the  art,  especially  in  Asia  Minor,  had  sunk  to  the 
lowest  depth  of  debasement.  The  technical  execution  still 
remained  fair,  but  design  deserted  entirely  the  severe  and 
thoughtful  taste  of  eai-lier  times,  and  ran  riot  in  every  conceiv- 
able extravagance  of  florid  ornament.     Typical  of  the  change 

24 


III.    i3.-^Sectio>"»^'^^'"""-n.R 


ROMAN   DESIGN 

was  the  ever-growing  taste  for  colossal  edifices.  Temples  of 
unheard-of  size  were  erected,  and  those  colonnaded  streets, 
miles  in  length,  which  later  became  so  typical  of  Roman  Syria, 
were  first  laid  out.  In  short,  for  refinement  and  delicacy,  was 
substituted  coarseness  aufl  display. 

Now  the  architects  of  imperial  Rome,  in  adopting  Greek 
ornament,  adopted  it  not  from  the  pure  examples  of  the  V  cen- 
tury, but  from  the  late  debased  types  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Ro- 
mans are  usually  accused  of  debasing  those  types  still  further; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  worst  examples  of  Asia  Minor 
are  practically  indistinguishable  from  Roman  work.  These 
forms  the  Romans  fixed  into  a  cut-and-dried  canon  from  which 
minor  variations  were  possible,  but  no  real  progress. 

The  orders  became  the  basis  of  all  architectural  ornamenta- 
tion. Columns,  originally  mere  utilitarian  props,  had  been 
happily  developed  by  the  artistic  Greeks  into  features  combin- 
ing in  a  perfectly  consistent  whole  ornamental  and  constructive 
functions;  the  Romans  made  them  almost  wholly  decorative. 
After  the  building  was  built,  the  columns  were  applied  as  a 
surface  decoration  —  either  in  the  form  of  free-standing  porticoes 
or  peristyles,  or,  more  frequently,  as  an  engaged  order  built  into 
the  wall.  These  engaged  orders  were  used  very  often  to  deco- 
rate an  arcade  —  i.e.,  a  series  of  arches  (111.  14).  This  arrange- 
ment is  known  as  a  Roman  arcade. 

Much  philosophical  discussion  has  arisen  among  critics 
as  to  the  propriety  of  this  and  similar  uses  of  the  orders.  It 
has  been  contended  that  it  is  essentially  false  and  wrong,  in 
that  tlie  columns,  being  a  supporting  member,  appear  to  carry 
the  entablature,  whereas  in  reality  they  do  not,  both  being 
merely  gratuitous  ornaments  applied  to  the  wall  surface.  To 
this  it  has  been  replied  that  in  such  a  use  of  the  orders  the  Ro- 
mans have  only  adopted  a  principle  dominant  everywhere  in 
the  history  of  art;  —  a  principle  by  which  forms  at  first  struc- 
tural are  made  at  last  purely  decorative,  as  witness  the  triglyphs 
of  the  Greek  Doric,  originally  beam  ends,  or  the  open  work 
gables  of  the  later  Gothic.  It  has  been  urged  that  if  the  Roman 
arcade  is  to  be  condemned  for  this,  condemned  also  must  be 
almost  every  work  of  architecture  that  has  ever  been  erected. 

25 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

Structural  truth  and  frankness,  however,  are  perhaps  the  lead- 
ing canons  of  architectural  criticism,  and  it  is  much  better  to 
over-,  than  under-estimate  their  importance.  Still  all  set  canons 
of  criticism  are  dangerous,  and  the  final  test  in  all  cases  must 
be  the  esthetic  result. 

Of  this,  in  the  case  of  the  Roman  arcade,  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  so  great  a  difference  of  opinion  as  prevails 
to-day  can  exist.  Nothing  that  human  art  has  devised  is  more 
dreary,  monotonous,  and  uninteresting  than  the  Roman  orders. 
The  lack  of  congruity  between  the  trabeated  ornament  and  the 
arched  construction,  if  pardoned  philosophically,  is  unpardon- 
able artistically.  The  depraved  taste  of  modern  times  has 
repeated  this,  with  other  Roman  vulgarities  so  often,  that  our 
eyes  have  become  accustomed  to  its  defects,  just  as  with  certain 
well-known  masterpieces  of  literature,  commonplaces  or  even 
serious  faults  have  become  glorified  into  charms  by  sheer  force 
of  familiarity.  Yet,  when  our  eyes  have  been  refreshed  by  the 
study  of  the  purer  forms  of  Greek  or  medieval  architecture, 
the  Roman  designs  at  once  appear  in  their  true  vulgarity.' 

The  Roman  Doric  (111.  14)  it  will  be  at  once  seen,  has  under- 
gone a  sea-change,  from  the  order  of  the  Parthenon  (111.  1). 
All  the  refinements  of  detail  have  been  eliminated;  the  hyper- 
bolas, the  parabolas,  and  the  ellipses  of  the  profiles  have  been 
supplanted  by  commonplace  segments  of  circles;  the  subtle 
hyperbolic  echinus  has  become  a  plain  quarter-round;  the 
carefully  worked-out  entasis  curve  has  become  an  ugly  broken 
line,  of  two  straight  parts,  vertical  about  one-third  of  the  height 
of  the  column,  sloping  inward  the  remaining  distance.  The 
capital  has  been  supplied  with  a  necking,  which  it  did  not  in 
the  least  need,  and  the  shaft  has  been  placed  on  a  base.     The 

'  In  this  connection  it  is  worth  while  to  remark  a  widely  circulated  error,  to  the  effect  that 
the  Greeks  never  used  an  engaged  order,  or  at  least  very  seldom.  On  the  contrary-,  engaged 
orders  are  of  common,  even  frequent,  occurrence.  There  is,  however,  tliis  very  great  dis- 
tinction to  be  noticed  between  the  engaged  orders  of  the  Greeks,  and  those  of  the  Romans.  The 
Greeks  of  the  best  period  never  employed  them  as  a  wholesale  and  promiscuous  ornament. 
They  were  used  with  propriety  and  moderation,  and  always  for  some  good  reason:  because 
the  intercolumniation  was  too  great  to  span  safely  by  a  single  lintel,  as  in  the  Zeus  Temple  at 
Girgenti;  for  the  sake  of  sjTnmetry  to  balance  a  free-standing  portico,  as  in  the  Erechtheion; 
to  form  a  respond  for  free-standing  columns;  and  for  other  logical  reasons,  but  never  as  pure 
ornament. 


n 


b.-;.-.-  - 


Il.I..   l.>.  —  Idiiic  (irdiT  (if  the  'rciiiplc  of  K.irtiiMa  X'irilis.   Unim- 


THE   ROMAN   ORDERS 

example  we  reproduce  (III.  14),  one  of  the  best  extant  Doric 
orders  of  Rome,  is  a  sufficient  commentary  on  the  decline  of 
taste  in  Roman  work.' 

The  Ionic  order  (111.  15)  shows  the  same  general  debase- 
ment, which  need  not  be  described  in  detail.  The  cushion  of 
the  capital  is  carried  straight  across,  instead  of  sagging  in  grace- 
ful curves,  as  of  yore.  The  base  has  a  plinth.  The  Romans 
in  their  constant  use  of  the  order  found  themselves  much  em- 
barrassed by  the  old  difficulty  of  turning  a  corner  because  of 
the  awkward  difference  between  the  front  and  side  elevations 
of  the  Ionic  capital.  The  Greeks  had  met  the  difficulty  by  bend- 
ing out  one  volute  of  the  corner  capital  as  shown  in  the  small 
order  of  111.  2.  The  Romans  "improved"  on  this  by  bending  out 
all  four  corners  of  all  the  capitals.  This  arrangement  was  so 
common  in  Rome  that  it  is  known  as  the  Roman  Ionic. 

The  Romans  have  been  given  much  more  credit  —  or  dis- 
credit —  than  they  deserve,  for  the  invention  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  The  Corinthian  order  developed  out  of  the  Ionic,  and 
although  we  have  few  examples  of  its  use  in  Greece,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  it  was  there  perfected.  Capitals  pilfered  from 
the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at  Athens,  were  brought  to  Rome 
by  Sulla,  and  are  believed  to  have  furnished  the  model  from 
which  all  subsequent  Roman  capitals  were  formed.^  The 
essential  design  of  the  capital  the  Romans  seem  to  have  altered 
little. 

The  most  characteristic  change  they  appear  to  have  wrought 
was  in  the  carving  of  the  acanthus-leaves.     The  crisp,  strong 

'  .\  significant  difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Doric  is  in  the  treatment  of  the 
triglyph  on  the  corner.  The  triglj-ph  normally  occurs  over  the  axis  of  the  column.  On  the 
corners  this  leaves  an  awkward  segment  of  a  metope.  The  Greeks  turned  the  difficulty  into  an 
addeil  grace  by  placing  the  triglyph  at  its  normal  distance  on  the  corner.  The  column  was  then 
moved  slightly  off  the  axis  of  the  triglyph,  making  the  last  bay  somewhat  smaller,  and  giving 
buoyancy  and  strength  to  the  design.  See  III.  1.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  made  all 
the  intercolumniations  equal,  and  terminated  the  frieze  with  the  awkward  segment  of  the  metope, 
tlic  triglyph  being  always  placed  on  the  axis  of  the  column  (111.  1-4).  The  problem  was  finally 
solved  (according  to  the  Roman  and  Renaissance  point  of  view)  by  Sansovino  in  the  XVI  century 
in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice.  Here,  by  coupling  a  column  and  a  pila.sterat  the  corner, 
the  frieze  was  ended  by  exactly  half  a  metope.  (See  Moore,  Character  of  Renaissance  Archi- 
tecture, N.  Y.,  1905.  p.  '211.) 

'  This  conventional  view  is  open  to  serious  question.  With  all  the  mcxiels  Greece  must 
have  afforded,  it  seems  indeed  strange  that  the  Romans  should  have  learned  the  Corinthian  order 
through  only  one  channel. 

27 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

form  of  the  Greek  leaf  already  described  (111.  3  a)  was  changed 
under  the  Romans  to  a  languid,  drooping  form  (111.  16,  17),  and 
the  eyes  separating  the  ditt'erent  lobes  were  brought  in  close  to 
the  center  vein.  The  Romans  also  made  still  more  florid  the 
entablature,  especially  by  the  addition  of  modillions,'  —  a  form 
which  probably  originated  in  the  carving  of  ornament  upon  the 
dentils.  As  the  modillions  developed  into  forms  very  different 
from  the  original  dentils,  it  occurred  to  some  genius  to  clap  both 
dentils  and  modillions  on  the  same  entablature  (111.  18). 

The  Corinthian  order  best  expressed  the  Roman  taste  for 
magnificence  and  ostentation,  and  was  in  consequence  almost 
universally  adopted,  the  less  blatant  orders  being  largely  crowded 
out.  It  was  occasionally  varied  by  the  carving  of  animals, 
grotesques,  etc.,  to  take  the  place  of  the  volutes  or  fleurons  ^ 
on  the  capitals ;  but  as  it  had  already  reached  the  extreme  of  pom- 
posity and  pretentiousness,  the  Romans  seem  to  have  felt  it 
was  capable  of  no  further  development.  In  the  three  cen- 
turies it  flourished  there  was  no  trace  of  growth,  or  consistent 
change. 

It  was  the  old  theory,  that  the  Romans  invented  the  Com- 
posite order,  by  uniting  the  Corinthian  and  Ionic,  and  "thus 
combining  the  beauties  of  both."  Of  such  an  enormity,  how- 
ever, not  even  the  Romans  seem  to  have  been  capable,  and  the 
Composite  order,  though  of  late  introduction.'  undoubtedly  is 
derived  from  Greek  prototypes.  We  know  that  the  Corinthian 
order  was  evolved  from  the  Ionic,  by  the  substitution  of  a  row 
of  acanthus-leaves  for  the  anthemion  necking  seen  in  such 
capitals  as  those  of  the  Erechtheion  (111.  2).  In  the  course  of 
evolution  a  form  very  similar  to  the  Composite  capital  must 
have  been  passed  through,  although  no  example  of  this  has 
come  down  to  us.*  This  intermediate  form  the  Romans  adopted 
to  make  a  new  order;  how  much  they  changed  it,  it  is,  of  course, 

'  There  is,  I  believe,  no  Greek  example  of  modillions.  It  is  not  always  safe,  however,  to 
conclude  the  Greeks  did  not  use  a  form,  simply  because  no  example  of  it  is  extant. 

-  The  fleuron  is  the  ornament  placed  in  the  center  of  each  face  of  the  capital,  midway  be- 
tween the  two  volutes. 

'  I  know  of  no  instances  of  its  use  in  Rome  earlier  than  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

*  A  Composite  capital  has  been  found  in  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Aizani — unfortunately  there 
is  no  e.xact  indication  of  date. 


III.  l(i.    -Coriiitliiiiii  t  apilal  «(  tin-  I'aMtlii'oii,  Hmiii-.      (.Fniiii  D'Esixuiy) 


^^p 

^ 

w 

Ok. 

Ii.l..    17.  —  Corintliiaii  I'ila.^tiT  of  tlu'  I'uitico  of  Ortavia.  Uciiiic.      J''ri)m  a  Frciicli  Dnnviiig) 


PILASTERS 

impossible  to  tell.  The  entablature  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  that  of  the  Corinthian  order.  The  Romans  seem  to  have 
been  aware  of  the  drawbacks  of  this,  the  ugliest  of  all  the  cap- 
itals, and  to  have  used  it  sparingly.  However,  it  persisted 
with  curious  vitality  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  (111.  19). 

Such  were  the  Roman  orders.  Their  non-structural  use  as 
mere  ornament  has  already  been  insisted  upon;  but  several 
curious  vagaries  which  followed  as  a  consequence  of  this  use 
have  yet  to  be  mentioned.  Among  these,  one  of  the  most  char- 
acteristic was  the  placing  of  pedestals  below  the  columns  (111. 
15,  31).  These  gratuitous  additions  have,  of  course,  no  struc- 
tural significance,  but  are  merely  employed  to  give  the  design 
pleasanter  proportions  and  rhythm  —  a  purely  decorative  aim 
which,  it  must  be  confessed,  they  often  accomplish  with  entire 
success. 

Similar  non-structural  members  were  pilasters  (111.  17,  28) 
which,  in  fact,  consisted  merely  of  rectangular  strips  applied 
to  the  wall  surface.  They  were  furnished  with  capitals  and 
bases  similar  to  those  of  the  columns;  the  shaft  was  commonly 
fluted;  and,  in  short,  the  member  was  treated  precisely  as  an 
engaged  order.  The  proportions  differed  from  those  of  columns 
chiefly  in  that,  as  a  rule,  the  shaft  of  the  pilaster  had  no  entasis 

—  a  fact  which  possibly  betrays  its  origin  in  the  Greek  anta. 
In  one  respect  a  pilaster  enjoys  a  great  advantage  over  an  en- 
gaged column.  A  half  column  is  unpleasant,  and  not  often 
used.  A  three-quarter  column  causes  a  very  wide  projection 
of  the  architrave  in  the  inter-columniations,  thus  causing  too 
heavy  a  line  of  shadow.  This  may  be  appreciated  from  a  glance 
at  the  drawings  (111.  15  and  8)  where,  even  when  half  columns 
are  employed,  the  projection  of  the  architrave  will  at  once  be 
felt  to  be  too  great.  The  only  way  in  which  this  difficulty  could 
be  avoided  was  to  break  back  the  entablature  over  each  column; 

—  a  device  much  employed  in  Ronxan  architecture.  Each 
break  is  called  a  ressaut.  To  my  mind,  this  constant  breaking 
of  the  entablature  forms  one  of  the  most  trying  features  of  the 
entire  system  of  imperial  ornament.  It  weakens  the  design 
by  destroying  the  horizontal  lines,  and  substituting  for  them  an 
unpleasant  and   restless  zigzag  (111.  ^S).     When  pilasters  were 

29 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

used  this  treatment  was  not  necessary,  for  the  projection  could 
be  made  as  sHght  as  the  architect  wished.  So  enamoured,  how- 
ever, had  the  Romans  become  of  the  broken  entabhiture  that 
they  usually  employed  it  even  with  pilasters,  thus  ignoring  the 
chief  advantage  of  the  latter  feature.  This  is  done,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  amphitheater  at  Nimes  (111.  28). 

A  similar  spirit  is  shown  in  the  design  of  pediments,  which, 
being  treated  as  merely  ornamental  features,  were  often  made 
round  instead  of  triangular,  since  they  no  longer  expressed  the 
shape  of  the  roof;  or,  most  absurd  of  all,  were  broken  in  two 
and  some  ornamental  feature  placed  in  the  center.'  The  Ro- 
man architects  seem  to  have  most  fully  realized  their  ideals  of 
the  use  of  the  orders,  when,  in  a  composition  like  the  rock-cut 
tombs  of  Petra,  or  the  proscenium  of  a  theater  (111.  30),  they  could 
eliminate  all  ideas  of  reason  and  propriety,  and  cover  the  entire 
wall  space  with  a  confused  agglomeration  of  architectural  frag- 
ments: columns,  pedestals,  entablatures,  pediments  within  ped- 
iments, niches  and  statues,  piled  in  without  the  slightest  thought 
of  logic  or  structure,  and  made  gorgeous  with  gilt  and  many- 
colored  marbles. 

From  this  it  must  not  be  understood  that  Roman  ornament 
never  attained  a  certain  degree  of  elegance.  The  technique, 
if  thoughtless,  was  often  extremely  facile.  In  the  best  examples 
at  Rome,  and  especially  in  the  arch  at  St.  Remi,  in  France,  the 
ornament,  though  in  itself,  perhaps,  not  beyond  reproach,  is 
sufficiently  small  in  scale  to  produce  that  effect  of  richness  which 
any  small  ornament  will  give  when  copiously  applied  to  a  large 
surface.  Then,  too,  such  ornaments  as  the  Greek  egg-and-dart 
or  heartleaf  mouldings  are  too  exquisite  to  lose  all  their  charm, 
even  under  Roman  debasement. 

The  pure  ornament  of  the  Romans,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  order  plates,  especially  111.  15  and  18,  was  as  nearly  a  repro- 
duction of  the  Greek,  as  the  Romans  could  make.  Egg-and- 
darts,  heartleaves,  anthemia,  frets,  guilloches,  and  other  motives 
still  survived  in  but  slightly  changed  form. 

1  See  the  Tombs  at  Petra,  for  example.  It  should  be  said  in  fairness,  however,  the  Romans 
never  carried  this  freak  of  design  to  the  extent  that  has  been  done  in  modern  and  Renaissance 
times. 

30 


U 


¥  ¥  JPfei 


'fWJ','^p.. 


-  CASTOR:POLL\/7 

-i-                                   A 

III.    18.  —  p:iital)latiiri'  of  llic  Tcinplc  of  Castor,  Home,  In  Covfll 


'--X,V„M-'it' 


^^A^^^'t^'  >ritv>iVj'iWi'vV/>^MtIj^ 


111.    19.  —  C'oinposilc  Order  of  tlir  Arch  of  'I'itiis,  Rome 


111.  '20.  —  Rinceau  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  Rome.    (From  a  French  Drawing) 


Ii.i..  '-'1.  —  Frieze  nl'  the  Fdnini  of  Nervu,  Rome.     (From  a  Freneli  Drawing) 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   ROMAN   ART 

Several  motives  which  first  became  prominent  in  Roman 
times  are  usually  credited  to  the  invention  of  the  imperial  archi- 
tects, although  they  are  clearly  adopted  from  Greek  prototypes. 
Of  these  the  most  important  is  the  rinceau  (111.  20).  An  orna- 
ment very  similar  had  been  used  by  the  later  Greeks  as  a  cyma 
decoration,  and  has  come  down  to  us  in  numerous  examples 
found  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  In  all  of  these  that  I  know 
the  ornament  is  interrupted  at  intervals  by  lions'  heads  through 
which  the  rain-water  from  the  roof  was  discharged.  But  it  is  a 
very  short  step  to  omit  the  lions'  heads  and  join  the  acanthus 
stems.  The  movement  of  this  ornament,  notwithstanding  its 
florid  foliage,  is  fine.  The  Romans  employed  it  constantly  to 
decorate  the  frieze  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  elsewhere  as 
well;  and  no  ornament  of  antiquity  has  more  powerfully  influ- 
enced the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Two  other  characteristically  Roman  ornaments  were  used 
to  decorate  the  more  elaborate  orders:  the  first  (111.  21)  which 
was  employed  especially  to  enrich  the  Corinthian  frieze,  con- 
sisted of  free  combinations  of  various  semi-conventionalized 
objects  —  vases,  grotesques,  genii,  acanthus-leaves,  etc.;  the 
second,  which  was  composed  of  carved  skulls,  draped  with 
festoons  of  fruit  or  flowers,  usually  adorned  the  metopes  of  the 
Doric  order.  (Examples  may  be  seen  on  the  frieze  of  the  Temple 
of  Mater  Matuta,  111.  23.)  Sometimes  either  skulls  or  festoons 
are  found  separately  —  (half  a  skull  may  be  seen  to  the  extreme 
right  of  the  frieze  of  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  111.  15). 
The  ornament  is  evidently  a  direct  imitation  in  stone  of  the  heads 
of  victims  nailed  on  the  exterior  of  a  temple.  The  recent  dis- 
covery of  an  example  of  this  ornament  on  the  Arsinoeion  at 
Samothrace,  dating  from  the  III  century,  B.C.  '  has  shown  that 
the  Romans  derived  this  motive  also  from  Greece. 


Perhaps  the  root  of  evil  in  Roman  architecture  was  its  whole- 
sale character.  The  Romans  were  too  pushing  and  "progres- 
sive" to  endure  patiently  the  long  delays  necessary  for  the  highest 

'  Conze.  The  same  ornament  also  occurs  on  the  Ptolomeion,  built  by  Ptolemy  II,  and 
the  proto-rinccau  on  the  Doric  hexastyle  temple,  all  of  Samothrace. 

31 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

artistic  perfection,  even  had  they  been  capable  of  appreciat- 
ing it  when  produced.  Quantity,  not  quaUty,  was  their  ideai, 
and,  when  in  the  Augustan  age  they  first  turned  their  hand  to 
covering  the  then  known  world  with  monuments  of  their  con- 
quests, there  resulted  a  period  of  architectural  production  that, 
for  the  number  and  size  of  the  edifices  erected,  the  world  has 
hardly  seen  equaled.  From  Arabia  to  Britain,  no  town  but 
had  its  triumphal  arches,  its  amphitheaters,  its  baths;  and  all 
these  buildings  were  commonly  of  fairly  colossal  dimensions. 
In  fact,  next  to  putting  up  the  gi'eatest  possible  number  of 
buildings,  the  Romans  aimed  chiefly  at  making  each  building 
of  the  largest  possible  size.  Colonnaded  streets,  miles  in  length, 
were  laid  out  in  almost  every  town  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 
Each  emperor  tried  to  outdo  his  predecessors  in  the  size  and 
number  of  the  public  buildings  he  erected.  Works  of  such 
dimensions  and  importance  were  pushed  to  completion  with 
incredible  haste.  The  Colosseum,  a  building  over  five  hun- 
dred feet  long,  one  of  the  vastest  heaps  of  masonry  ever 
assembled  by  the  hand  of  man,  was  practically  finished  in  ten 
years;  Timgad,  in  the  desert,  with  its  stately  arches  and  vast 
public  buildings,  sprang  up  almost  in  a  day. 

All  this  haste  and  wholesale  construction  could  have  only 
one  result.  No  age  and  no  people  could  produce  a  suflScient 
supply  of  good  architects  to  meet  so  great  a  demand;  not  even 
a  good  architect  could  do  good  work  in  such  feverish  haste. 
Hence  the  stereotyped,  thoughtless  character  of  Roman  orna- 
ment, that  we  have  noted;  hence  it  is  that  the  capitals  and 
mouldings  seem  to  be  machine-made,  and  the  efl'ect  of  the 
whole,  for  all  its  blatancy,  is  inexpressibly  dreary  and 
monotonous. 

Probably  this  same  cause  is  responsible  for  the  uniformity 
so  noticeable  in  Roman  architecture.  From  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  the  Firth  of  Forth,  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  reign  of 
Constantine,  Roman  art  shows  a  lack  of  variation  absolutely 
without  parallel  in  architectural  history.  It  is  impossible  to 
assign  a  date  to  a  Roman  building  from  its  style.'     The  Pantheon 

'  The  controversies  that  have  raged  over  the  dates  of  the  Maison  Carree  at  Nimes  and 
the  Arch  at  Orange  offer  amusing  illustrations  of  this. 

32 


■  KiWaWiL^ 


^  H 


m  n  n  *  w- 

n  n^  ^  mm 


•■  •  *  *  r  » 

•  »  «  «  « 


id 


rTTTT 


^  -its    > 

§  ^   z 


1   1     1  1           ^     1  1 

'Cr 

^]                       c 

^ 

LJ 

R()IVL\N   PLANS 

—  perhaps  the  most  studied  building  in  the  world  —  was  con- 
sistently misdated  a  hundred  and  fortv-one  years  by  all  the 
best  scholars,  and  if  its  true  date  is  now  known,  it  is  thanks  only 
to  a  happy  chance  in  uncovering  stamped  bricks.  In  a  general 
way,  it  is  true,  we  can  say  that  in  the  III  century  there  was  a 
period  of  debasement,  when  the  style  became  especially  florid; 
that  at  the  time  of  Constantine  there  was  a  marked  renaissance 
with  a  tendency  to  introduce  new  forms  —  a  renaissance  nipped 
in  the  bud  by  political  and  economic  developments.  Beyond 
this  it  is  impossible  to  go.  It  is  a  time-honored  convention  that 
any  inconvenient  monument  may  be  assigned  to  the  "Augustan 
age,"  "on  the  purity  of  its  style;"  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  while 
perhaps  the  general  average  of  taste  declined  in  later  times, 
the  character  of  any  particular  building  seems  to  have  depended 
entirely  on  the  taste  of  its  architect,  so  that  some  monuments 
erected  in  the  II  century  are  quite  as  "pure"  as  many  of  the 
Augustan  age  itself. 

A  similar  lack  of  variation  is  noticeable  in  Roman  art  geo- 
graj)hically  considered.  While  perhaps  slight  differences  may 
be  distinguished  in  the  architecture  of  widely  separated  parts 
of  the  Empire,  it  is  rarely  indeed  that  we  find  a  local 
school  of  art.  This  uniformity  contrasts  sharply  with  medieval 
conditions,  when  almost  every  town  possessed  a  distinct  archi- 
tectural style  of  its  own.  We  may  indeed  say  that  colonnaded 
streets  are  peculiar  to  Syria  and  Asia  Minor;  that  in  Africa 
archivolts  are  usually  omitted;  that  in  Spain  more  bridges  were 
erected,  in  Africa  more  triumphal  arches;  that  on  the  frontiers 
there  is  commonly  a  certain  crudeness  of  construction  notice- 
able, and  so  on,  and  so  forth.  But  all  these  variations  are 
surprisingly  slight,  and  throughout  the  Roman  world,  Roman 
architecture  is  essentially  the  same  in  spirit,  in  design,  and  in 
detail. 

If  the  Romans  repeated  everywhere  the  same  types  of  build- 
ing, it  should  in  fairness  be  said  that  they  had  more  different 
types  than  were  possessed  by  any  other  architecture  until  mod- 
ern times.  The  Romans  were  the  first  to  develop  the  science 
of  planning.  Greek  buildings  had  ofte4  been  symmetrical,  but 
had    never   been   complex  —  they   were   regularly   in   the   form 

33 


THE  HERITAGE  OF  ANTIQUITY 

of  a  plain  rectangle  with  various  simple  divisions.  It  was  left 
to  the  Romans  to  discover  how  to  plan  a  complicated  building. 
Their  baths,  for  example,  formed  blocks  sometimes  five  hun- 
dred feet  square,  divided  into  many  rooms  of  various  sizes.  To 
fit  these  rooms  together  with  exact  symmetry,  so  that  every  jog 
on  one  side  of  the  axis  has  a  corresponding  jog  on  the  other 
side;  and  at  the  same  time  to  meet  the  practical  conditions  of 
the  problem  —  to  give  the  various  rooms  the  relative  amount  of 
space  their  importance  required,  to  arrange  them  conveniently, 
to  plan  the  circulation  and  communication  between  them,  to 
light  satisfactorily  the  interior  rooms,  and,  in  short,  to  fulfil  all 
the  hundred-and-one  demands  of  practical  use  and  convenience 
—  this  was  a  task  of  colossal  difiiculty  and  one  at  which  the 
Roman  architects  excelled.  (The  plan  of  the  Baths  of  Cara- 
calla  —  perhaps  the  masterpiece  of  Roman  planning  —  is  given 
in  111.  25.) 

From  the  study  of  the  plan  resulted  that  rather  exaggerated 
symmetry  of  Roman  architecture,  which  has  passed  into  mod- 
ern work.  It  perhaps  adds  more  than  any  other  one  character- 
istic to  the  dreary  monotony  of  both.  Symmetry  is  undoubtedly 
an  element  of  beauty  when  it  is  used  as  it  is  in  the  Greek  temple; 
where  every  metope  is  varied  by  the  use  of  infinitely  beautiful 
sculpture,  where  every  figure  of  the  frieze  or  pediment  is  made 
a  point  of  separate  and  lively  interest  by  the  same  superlative 
art.  The  refinements  in  inter-columniation  and  curvature, 
also  served  to  give  life  and  buoyancy  to  the  Greek  designs.  But 
with  the  Roman  orders,  in  themselves  less  interesting  than  the 
Greek,  there  are  no  variations  to  break  the  dreary  succession 
of  oft-repeated  motive;  no  sculptures  to  add  interest.  The 
whole  sinks  into  lifeless  repetition. 


We  have  spoken  at  length  of  the  splendid  engineering  skill 
of  the  Romans  and  its  influence  on  later  times  as  the  most  im- 
portant contribution  of  Rome  to  medieval  art.  It  is  a  curious 
contradiction,  however,  that  the  types  of  building  which  Rome 
bequeathed  to  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  imitation  were 
not  the  types  commonly  vaulted. 

34 


^.   :.X^/i  i    \ 


1m„   ■,':!.         rniiiil.nl   \hil,r  Matiita.  Koiii.-.      iKnii.i  -.i   Vrrurh  Drawing) 


ROMAN   BASILICAS 

Especially  true  is  this  of  the  basilica,  which,  as  far  as  we 
know,  was  vaulted  in  only  one  very  exceptional  case  —  the  Basil- 
ica of  Constantine  at  Rome.'  The  origin  of  this  type  of  build- 
ing is  not  clear.  It  is  usual  to  refer  it  to  Greece  on  the  theory 
that  in  default  of  other  evidence,  everything  Roman  may  safely 
be  assumed  to  be  derived  from  Greek  models.-  Still,  no  trace 
of  a  Greek  basilica  has  ever  been  found. 

Unfortunately  not  a  single  example  of  the  Roman  basilica 
has  come  down  to  our  days  in  even  tolerable  preservation;  and 
this,  despite  the  fact  that  practically  every  Roman  town  pos- 
sessed at  least  one  example.  Ruins  of  twenty-three  basilicas'  are 
known  to  us,  but  of  these,  as  a  rule,  only  the  plan  can  be  made 
out.  At  Trier  and  Brixworth  the  walls  still  stand;  but  in  both 
cases  the  buildings  have  undergone  such  serious  alterations  in 
later  times  that  the  original  arrangements  are  even  more  difficult 
to  trace  than  in  the  examples  more  completely  destroyed. 

From  what  evidence  we  have,  it  seems  clear  that  basilicas 
were  used  in  the  administration  of  law  and  for  other  public 
business.  They  were  of  two  kinds,  public  and  private.  The 
latter  were  built  in  the  palaces  of  great  men  for  their  private 
convenience  in  the  dispensation  of  justice  and  in  the  transac- 
tion of  other  business  among  their  clients.  Only  one  example 
of  the  private  basilica  has  come  down  to  us,  the  Basilica  in 
the  Palace  of  Domitian.  It  seems  to  differ  from  the  estab- 
lished  public  type  in  no  respect  except  size. 

The  public,  basilicas  were  ordinarily  placed  next  to  the  forum. 
They  were  rectangular  in  plan,  with  a  semicircular  exedra, 
called  an  apse,  at  one,  or  both  ends.^     They  were  usually  placed 

'  The  side  aisles  of  the  Basilica  Julia  were  also  barrel-vaulted. 

■  The  name  basilica  is  clearly  Greek,  and  it  is  usual  to  connect  it  with  the  Sria  jSaiTiXiKeToy, 
the  "kingly"  stoa,  of  Athens.  Furthermore,  the  type  of  building,  which  seems  more  Greek  than 
Etruscan,  presents  certain  distant  analogies  to  the  Greek  stoa. 

'The  list  is  as  follows:  at  Rome,  the  Basilicas  of  Constantine,  Ulpia,  Julia,  Aemilia,  and 
the  private  basilica  in  the  Palace  of  Domitian;  elsewhere  "in  Italy,  at  Pompeii,  Herculaneum, 
Velleia,  Marechiaro,  and  Otricoli;  in  Africa,  at  Timgad,  Theveste,  Tipasa;  in  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  at  Jerasli,  Kanawiit,  Kal'at  il-Mudik,  Pambouk-Kalessi,  Ephesus,  and  Pergemon;  in 
Germany,  at  Trier;  in  Montenegro,  at  Dukle;  in  England,  at  Silchester  and  Brixworth  (?). 
This  list  comprises  all  the  pagan  basilicas  that  have  been  described,  which  can  be  identified 
with  confidence  as  basilicas.  Certain  other  ruins,  commonly  called  basilicas,  are  of  too 
doubtful  authenticity,  or  have  been  too  carelessly  published,  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  study. 

*  The  Basilica  of  Constantine  has  two  apses  on  adjacent  sides. 

33 


THE  HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

so  that  their  long  side  formed  the  short  side  of  the  forum,'  from 
which  was  the  main  entrance.  The  portico  which  bordered 
the  forum  on  the  other  three  sides  was  commonly  omitted  before 
the  basilica.  Basilicas  with  only  one  apse  frequently  had  a 
second  entrance  opening  through  the  rectangular  end  on  the 
street,  sometimes  by  means  of  a  portico.- 

The  interior  dispositions  are  not  entirely  clear.  The  apse 
seems  to  have  been  reserved  as  a  seat  for  the  judges.  Accord- 
ing to  Anderson  and  Spiers  it  was  curtained  off  from  the  rest 
of  the  hall.^  In  at  least  two  instances  *  the  wall  opposite  the 
forum  was  lined  with  shops.  Except  in  small  examples  ^  the 
rectangular  main  body  of  the  hall  was  divided  into  three  or  five 
aisles  by  two  or  four  ranges  of  columns,"  which  were  almost 
always  carried  on  across  the  short  ends  of  the  hall.  It  is  believed 
from  a  reference  in  Vitruvius  that  the  central  aisle  was  generally 
raised  higher  than  the  others,  and  that  it  was  supplied  with 
windows  opening  above  the  roofs  of  the  side  aisles.  Such  an 
arrangement,  known  as  a  clearstory,  is  found  in  other  types  of 
Roman  buildings,  notably  the  baths;  but  in  the  only  two  extant 
examples  of  basilicas,'  where  sufficient  remains  exist  to  show  the 
original  dispositions,  it  is  evident  that  there  was  no  clearstory. 
It  is  almost  certain,  however,  that  clearstories  were  regularly 
used.  At  Pompeii  there  were  galleries  over  the  aisles,  and  traces 
of  stairs,  leading,  no  doubt,  to  similar  galleries,  have  been  found 
at  Timgad  and  in  other  basilicas.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  in 
the  larger  examples,  such  as  those  of  Rome,  clearstory  and  gal- 
leries may  both  have  been  found.  The  roof,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned, was  always  of  wood,  but  the  apse  was  often  covered 
with  a  half-dome.  (The  disposition  of  typical  basilicas  may 
be  seen  from  the  plate  of  plans.  111.  22.) 

Next  in  importance  to  the  basilica,  from  the  medieval  stand- 
point,  was  the  circular  temple.     We  have  fewer  examples  of 

'  Timgad,  Silchester,  etc. 

2  Kanawat. 

*  On  what  authority  this  conclusion  is  based,  does  not  appear. 

'  Timgad  and  BasiHca  Julia. 

^  Notably  Dukle  and  Trier,  though  in  the  latter  there  may  have  been  aisles. 

°  Roman  arcades  in  the  Basihca  Julia. 

'  Trier  and  Pompeii. 

36 


ROMAN   THERMS 

round  buildings  than  of  basilicas;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  of 
the  fifteen  '  that  have  come  down  to  us,  several  are  in  excel- 
lent preservation.  They  are  clearly  derived  from  the  Greek 
circular  tcmjjics,  of  the  type  shown  in  111.  4,  Fig.  6,  and  niay 
be  divided  into  two  classes.  The  first,  with  timber  roof,  merely 
reproduces  the  Greek  form,  the  only  changes  being  the  raising 
of  the  whole  on  a  podium  and  the  introduction  of  windows  in 
the  cella  wall.  A  well  preserved  example  of  this  type  is  the 
Temple  of  Mater  Matuta  at  Rome  (111.  23).  The  second  type 
of  circular  temple  differed  from  the  first  originally  in  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  dome  for  a  wooden  roof.  Later,  as  the  builders 
perceived  the  possibilities  of  the  vault,  these  temples,  which  in 
their  peripteral  form  had  been  small,  were  increased  to  colossal 
dimensions;  the  peripteros  was  discarded;  and  the  result  was 
the  Pantheon  —  a  great  circular  hall,  covered  with  a  dome,  and 
preceded  by  a  portico.  This  building  is  admittedly  the  master- 
piece of  Roman  architecture  (111.  13). 

The  great  vaults  of  the  Romans,  though  used  in  such  build- 
ings as  the  Pantheon  and  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  received 
their  chief  application  in  the  thermae  or  baths.  The  vast  size, 
the  complicated  but  symmetrical  ^  plan,  and  the  splendor  of 
these  establishments  have  already  been  dwelt  upon.  (111.  25). 
The  two  most  interesting  and  important  rooms  of  the  thermte 
were  the  tepidarium  and  the  caUdarium.  The  former,  often 
a  hundred  feet  in  length  and  as  much  in  height,  was  generally 
covered  with  a  groin  vault  in  three  bays,  carrying  a  clearstory. 
Less  commonly,  it  was  roofed  with  a  plain  barrel  vault.  The 
calidarium  was  circular  or  polygonal,  and  covered  with  a  dome, 
riie  thcrmjTe  were  constructed  throughout  of  brick  or  rul)ble 
entirely  coated  with  marble  veneering.  In  these  establishments, 
Roman  architecture  found  its  freest  and  most  characteristic 
expression.  Here  size  and  gorgeousness  of  decoration  reached 
their  extreme.    It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that,  to  judge  from 

'  .^t  Rome,  the  Pantheon,  Temple  of  Hercules,  Ss.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  Temple  of  Vesta, 
an<l  Temple  of  Au(i^stiis;  elsewhere  in  Italy,  at  Tivoli,  Temple  of  V'esta  ami  Tempio  della  Tosse; 
at  Milan,  S.  Lorenzo  ( ':):  at  Albano,  Temple  of  Minerva;  at  Catania,  Sta.  Maria  della  Rotonda, 
in  Sj-ria,  at  Ba'all>ek;  in  France,  at  St.  Maur-tle-Glanfeuil :  in  Istria,  at  Spalato;  in  .Vsia  Minor, 
at  Ephesus  ("St.  I..uke's  Tomb"),  and  at  Aglasan;  in  England,  at  Silchester. 

^  Only  the  tlicniiiE  of  the  best  cla.ss  have  symmetrical  plans. 

37 


THE   HERITAGE   OF  ANTIQUITY 

modern  imitations  of  the  Roman  thermae,  the  largeness  of  their 
parts  must  have  to  a  large  extent  caused  these  colossal  halls  to 
lose  their  due  effect.  All  the  details  of  the  order  and  ornament 
being  made  proportionately  large,  the  scale  of  the  whole  must 
have  been  dwarfed. 

Roman  temples  are  too  sorry  affairs  to  call  for  extended 
comment  here.  In  the  main,  Greek  forms  are  parodied,  and 
it  is  singular  how  the  Roman  architect  by  such  slight  touches 
has  succeeded  in  destroying  all  the  beauty  of  his  original.  It 
will  be  seen  from  the  illustration  (26)  that  the  temple  has  been 
mounted  on  a  podium,  and  is  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
It  has  had  its  front  portico  deepened,  and  the  peripteros  no 
longer  runs  all  around  the  cella;  but  the  columns  on  side  and  back 
are  engaged  in  the  cella  wall,  —  i.e.,  the  temple  is  pseudo- 
peripteral.  Prostyle  temples,  which  are  more  frequent  than  in 
Greek  times,  show  the  same  peculiarities  of  podium  and  deep 
porch.  The  Romans  varied  the  design  of  their  temples  much 
more  than  did  the  Greeks;  they  often  added  an  apse  at  the  far 
end,  they  sometimes  covered  them  with  a  vault,'  and  wrought 
many  other  variations. 

It  is,  perhaps,  worth  while  to  say  here  a  few  words  on  the 
subject  of  the  Roman  house,  because  certain  authors  have  sus- 
pected it  of  being  the  prototype  of  the  Christian  basilica.  It  is 
a  common  error  to  quote  the  type  of  house  found  at  Pompeii  as 
typical  of  the  Roman  dwelling  everywhere,  though  in  point  of 
fact  this  was  only  one  among  many  types.  The  Pompeian  house 
(111.  27,  Fig.  6)  consisted  of  shops  in  the  front  part  succeeded  by 
two  courts  behind  called  respectively  the  atrium  and  the  peri- 
style, around  which  the  living  rooms  were  grouped.  Many  of 
the  important  chambers  were  placed  on  the  second  floor  —  a 
fact  often  slighted  because  all  these  second  stories  have  perished. 
Third  stories  existed  in  instances,  but  seldom  seem  to  have  been 
important.  Houses  of  similar  plan  have  been  found  at  Hercu- 
laneum  and  Velleia;  but  at  Rome,  to  judge  from  the  House  of 
Livia  and  the  House  of  the  Vestal  Virgin'',  —  the  only  really  well- 
preserved  examples  of  ancient  domestic  architecture  in  the  eternal 

1  As  the  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Nimes,  the  Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  at  Rome,  and  in 
three  or  fom-  other  cases. 


IhlH    I  »■  1 


D. 


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a 


lh 


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lE 


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E. 


B. 


JT3 


FIG.  5. 


5CALE-  FOR- 


JB. 


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K  M  ?     [lifn  c 


inoiMm 


riG.z. 


mqTpq 


TTH 


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5CALDF0R 
•FIG  2,-6. 


iffl 


Tf  t?  H    I  J- 


'    ' i..^ 


FIG. 6. 


FIG.  4. 


Iix.  27.  —  Roman  Houses 

Fig.  1.  —  Villa  at  Sponley  Wood,  England.  From  the  measurements  of  Middleton,  in 
Archseologia,  52',  p.  654.  This  figure,  it  should  be  noticed,  is  drawn  to  a  scale  just  twice  as 
large  as  the  other  plans  on  the  plate.  A  is  the  entrance  gateway  in  BBBB,  an  enclosing  wall 
of  masonry  presmnably  of  very  considerable  height.  C,  a  path,  led  through  DD,  a  garden  or 
court,  to  EEEE,  a  veranda,  covered  by  a  portico.  (Only  the  foundation  walls  on  which  the 
columns  of  tliis  portico  rested  have  been  discovered.  There  is  no  authority  for  the  number  or 
position  of  the  columns  as  restored  in  the  plan).  From  this  veranda  opened  the  various  rooms 
of  the  house,  of  which  H  was  the  tablinum,  a  combination  of  office  and  library,  /  was  the  oecus, 
or  state  reception  room:  G  was  the  culina,  or  kitchen;  FP  were  bathrooms. 

Fig.  i  is  the  house  of  Sertius  in  Timgad,  Africa,  after  the  measurements  of  Boeswillwald. 
The  apartments  are  lettered  the  same  as  in  Fig.  6,  which  see  for  explanation. 

Fig.  3.  —  Hou.se  of  the  Hermaphrodite,  Timgad,  after  the  measurements  of  Boeswill- 
wald.     The  apartments  are  lettered  the  same  as  in  Fig.  6,  which  see  for  explanation. 

Fig.  4.  —  House  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  Pompeii,  after  the  measurements  of  Niccolini,  Vol.  I, 
Tav.  1 .  See  list  of  monuments  for  a  commentary  on  this  house.  Corresponding  rooms  are  labeled 
with  the  same  letters  as  in  Fig.  6,  which  see  for  explanation. 

Fig.  5.  —  House  at  El  Barah,  Syria,  from  De  VogUe's  measurements,  pi.  36.  While  dating 
from  Christian  times,  it  shows  admirably  the  type  of  house  developed  by  the  Romans  in  Syria. 
The  second  storj-  was  usually  identical  with  the  first  in  plan,  and  was  reached  by  an  e.xterior  stair- 
csise.     The  letters  refer  to  the  explanation  under  Fig.  1. 

Fig.  6.  —  House  of  Pansa,  Pompeii.  aaa  were  a  row  of  fabernae,  or  shops,  opening  off 
the  street,  and  having  no  connection  with  the  house.  They  were  probably  rented  out.  B  was 
the  ostium,  or  entrance  vestibule;  cc,  the  atrium,  or  fir.st  court,  where  the  head  of  the  household 
conducted  all  buiness  transactions.  This  atrium  is  of  the  Tuscan  tvpe;  that  is,  the  portico  around 
the  court  rests  not  on  colunms,  but  on  beams  carried  across.  When  this  roof  rests  on  columns 
as  in  the  peristyle  ih)  the  atrium  is  said  to  be  of  the  Corinthian  type.  D  was  the  impluvium,  or 
central  space  of  the  atriimi,  open  to  the  sky;  eee,  cubiculte,  or  sleeping  apartments;  /,  the  aloe, 
or  wings  of  the  atrium,  often  occupied  by  statues  of  ancestors;  g,  the  tablinum,  a  sort  of  office,  or 
library;  h.  the  peristyle,  the  center  of  home  life  and  the  main  part  of  the  house.  In  the  center  of 
the  peristyle  was  a  court  open  to  the  sky,  with  the  piscina,  or  fisli-pond  in  the  center.  The  peri- 
style was  laid  out  in  gardens  with  shrubbery,  etc.,  and  surrounded  by  porticoes.  /  was  the 
triclinium  or  dining-room;  ;',  the  cecus,  or  state  reception  room;  A-,  the  culina,  or  kitchen;  /,  the 
porticus,  or  rear  porch  opening  on  m,  the  xystos,  or  garden. 


39 


THE   HERITAGE   OF   ANTIQUITY 

city  —  the  type  was  very  different.'  In  England  (111.  27, 
Fig.  2)  the  plan  varied  greatly  in  separate  examples,  but 
both  courts  were  generally  omitted  and  the  house  was  built 
around  three  sides  of  a  garden,  with  all  the  bedrooms  above 
the  ground  floor.  Glazing  was  used  extensively  in  the  windows, 
and  the  profiles  of  mouldings  and  capitals  show  surprising  free- 
dom. In  Syria  (Fig.  5),  on  the  other  hand,  the  typical  house 
formed  a  simple  rectangle,  without  courts,  opening  on  the  gar- 
den by  a  portico.  The  second  story  was  quite  as  important 
as  the  filrst,  was  also  finished  with  a  portico,  and  was  reached 
by  an  exterior  stairway.  In  Africa  still  another  type  is  found, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  2.  In  short,  the  manner  in  which  the 
Romans  adapted  their  domestic  architecture  to  the  exigencies 
of  climate  and  local  conditions,  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  fea- 
tures of  their  style,  and  it  is  no  more  fair  to  judge  of  the  Roman 
house  from  Pompeii,  than  it  would  be  to  judge  of  the  American 
house  from  a  seashore  cottage. 

Roman  tombs  show  quite  as  large  a  variety  of  types  as  the 
houses.  Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  form  is  the  mole  type, 
consisting  of  a  huge  mound  of  earth,  coated  with  stone  or  marble. 
This  marble  coating  was  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  resting  on  a 
podium.  The  cylinder  was  surrounded  by  a  peristyle,  and 
crowned  l)y  a  stepped  cone.  Other  types  were  rectangular 
structures  of  two  or  more  stories  crowned  with  a  cone,  temples 
in  miniature,  etc.,  etc.  It  was  at  one  time  believed  that  the 
circular  churches  of  the  Early  Christians  were  largely  derived 
from  tombs  of  the  mole  type,  but  that  theory  is  now  hardly  held 
seriously. 

Many  types  of  building,  such  as  the  aqueduct  (111.  24),  the 
market,  the  curia,  the  forum,  the  shop,  the  column,  interesting 
as  they  are  in  themselves,  do  not  concern  us  here,  for  they  can 
hardly  be  connected  with  the  destinies  of  medieval  art.  But 
no  description  of  Roman  art  can  omit  all  mention  of  the  tri- 
umphal arch  (111.  31),  one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  all  the 
imperial    monuments.     Of    single    or    triple    opening,    adorned 

'  The  houses  shown  on  the  Capitoline  plan  have  only  a  single  atrium.  The  value  of  land 
led  to  the  piling  up  of  stories  until  the  government  had  to  fix  a  limit.  See  Brown,  From,  Schola 
to  Cathedral,  pp.  40—41. 

40 


THE    ROMAN   TRADITION 

with  detached  or  engaged  orders,  they  sum  up  both  the  vanity 
and  the  power  of  Roman  architecture. 

Characteristic,  too,  are  the  theaters  and  amphitheaters  of 
the  Romans  (111.  28,  29,  30)  —  vast  heaps  of  masonry  before 
which,  for  all  their  debased  detail,  it  is  impossible  to  stand  with- 
out a  feeling  of  aw'e  at  the  sheer  bulk  and  mass  of  the  construc- 
tion. This  feeling  of  awe  is  kindred  to  that  which  is  inspired 
by  the  Great  Pyramids  of  Egypt  —  a  sort  of  wonder  at  the  pure 
physical  feat  of  puny  man  piling  up  such  huge  masses  of 
masonry;  but  in  the  one  case  the  severe  simplicity,  almost  lack 
of  design,  heightens  the  impression  —  in  the  other,  the  mass 
makes  itself  felt  in  spite  of  triviality  of  decoration.  ^ 

Such  was  the  heritage  which  Roman  architecture  bequeathedj 
to  the  Middle  Ages  —  an  admirable  system  of  construction,  a 
style  of  ornament  already  becoming  debased,  a  tradition  of 
sumptuous  and  splendid  building.  It  is  perhaps  unwise  to 
carry  too  far  the  search  for  precedents  of  medieval  architec- 
tural forms  in  antiquity.  In  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic 
periods  conscious  archaism  and  the  deliberate  copying  of  an- 
cient forms,  while  by  no  means  unknown,  were  happily  never 
carried  to  very  great  lengths.  The  vital  influence  which  Rome 
exerted  upon  these  ages  was  through  the  force  of  unbroken 
tradition,  through  the  fact  that  certain  forms,  such  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Composite  capital,  never  passed  out  of  use,  but 
were  employed  by  generation  after  generation,  the  later  builders 
borrowing  them  from  their  predecessors  and  not,  necessarily, 
from  the  ancient  monuments  directly.  At  times,  it  is  true,  as 
in  the  Romanesque  schools  of  Pisa  and  Provence,  we  find  the 
medieval  builders  indulging  in  antiquarian  research  with  an 
enthusiasm  that  is  bounded  only  by  the  resources  of  their  own 
imperfect  technique.  But  even  such  artists  were  in  no  sense 
archa-ologists;  they  had  but  the  most  casual  acquaintance  with 
the  works  of  antiquity,  and  the  features  which  they  reproduced 
were  the  common,  every-day  features  —  motives  so  obviously 
classical  that  they  are  perfectly  familiar  to,  and  easily  recogniz- 
able by,  even  the  most  superficial  modern  student  of  architec- 
tural history.  To  suppose  —  as  is  too  often  done  —  that  the 
builders  of  those  medieval  schools  which  show  no  evident  signs 

41 


THE   HERITAGE   OF   ANTIQUITY 

of  having  been  influenced  by  the  direct  study  of  ancient  archi- 
tecture deUberately  sought  for  precedents  in  classical  ruins,  and 
acquired  suflncient  archaeological  skill  to  unearth  motives  so 
obscure  that  they  have  again  come  to  light  only  thanks  to  the 
exhaustive  explorations  of  modern  scholarship,  is  to  misunder- 
stand profoundly  the  spirit  of  medieval  architecture.  ^Yhen, 
as  has  not  infrequently  happened,  a  new  classical  building 
which  seems  to  show  analogies  with  some  well-known  medieval 
motive  comes  to  light,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  medieval 
builders  were  acquainted  with  this  particular  structure  and 
reproduced  its  dispositions.  And  the  more  exceptional  these 
dispositions,  the  less  the  probabihty.  Parallel  development 
is  a  force  in  architectural  history  whose  importance  has  been 
many  times  demonstrated,  but  which  archaeologists  are  ever 
prone  to  ignore.  The  true  heritage  that  Rome  left  to  the 
Middle  Ages  was  not  the  exceptional,  unusual  constructions, 
however  strangely  analogous  these  may  seem  to  be  to  later  forms 
—  it  was  rather  the  vital,  living  tradition,  the  dispositions  that 
never  ceased  to  be  a  living  part  of  architectural  style. 


42 


CHAPTER  II 

THE    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    STYLE 

THE  IV  century  marks  an  epoch  of  transition  in  Roman 
history  —  a  time  when  the  old  order  changes  and  gives 
place  to  new.  During  the  preceding  fifty  years  decline  had  been 
steadily  progressing,  and  while  the  barbarians  had  been  gather- 
ing against  the  frontiers  in  ever-increasing  force,  the  military 
power  of  the  Empire  had  been  wasted  in  an  endless  succession 
of  civil  broils  between  rival  claimants  to  the  imperial  throne. 
Added  to  the  miseries  of  war,  were  those  of  misgovernment. 
Thirty  tyrants  were  followed  by  only  five  "good"  emperors. 
However,  at  the  very  end  of  the  III  century  there  came  a  period 
of  comparative  calm.  The  Empire,  grasped  for  a  moment  in 
the  firm  hand  of  Diocletian  (284-305),  enjoyed  a  brief  era  of 
hope  and  prosperity,  an  era  that  was  reflected  in  art,  and  espe- 
cially in  architecture,  by  the  dawning  of  a  great  revival  —  a 
renaissance,  which,  although  the  swan  song  of  Rome,  produced 
monuments,  lacking  perhaps  in  technique,  but  unequaled  for 
originality  and  interest  by  all  the  splendors  of  the  golden  age  of 
Augustus.^  This  renaissance  survived  the  recurrence  of  civil 
wars  with  which  the  IV  century  opened;  it  took  on  new  life 
under  the  encouragement  of  Constantine;  and  only  gradually 
did  it  pass  away  in  the  general  decline  of  civilization  and  the 
arts  that  ensued  between  the  death  of  that  emperor  and  the 
final  breaking  of  the  Roman  frontiers  in  375;  —  a  period  dur- 
ing which  the  Empire,  all  unconscious,  stood  tottering  on  the 
edge  of  its  final  disruption. 

It  was,  then,  at  the  height  of  a  period  of  great  artistic  and 
intellectual  activity,  that  Constantine,  in  the  year  313,  issued 
the  ever-memorable  Edict  of  Milan.  As  a  direct  conseqeuence 
of  this  edict.  Christian  churches  were  built  in  great  numbers 

'  e.g..  Basilica  of  Constantine,  Arch  of  Constantine,  Palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalato. 

43 


THE  EARLY   CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

from  one  end  of  the  Empire  to  the  other.'  It  was  indeed  a  happy 
chance  that  this  sudden  demand  for  monumental  Christian 
buildings  should  have  arisen  at  precisely  the  only  moment  in 
her  history  when  Rome  could  supply  architects  competent  to 
express  in  stone  and  marble  the  new  spirit  of  the  Church.  Dur- 
ing the  Constantinian  renaissance  the  imperial  builders  for  the 
first  time  broke  from  formula  and  tradition,  for  the  first  time 
displayed  a  spirit  of  progress  and  invention.  Thus,  when  the 
Church  came  to  require  on  a  large  scale  the  services  of  architec- 
ture, she  found  at  her  command  a  body  of  artists  exceptionally 
well  qualified  for  the  task. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  general  type  of  church  build- 
ing had  been  consecrated  by  tradition  long  before  the  Edict 
of  Milan  was  issued.  The  spread  of  Christianity  is  a  question 
of  extreme  historical  difficulty  and  one  that  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed. Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  had  had  a  long  and 
organized  career  as  a  compact  state  within  the  state  before  its 
recognition  in  313.  The  very  fact  that  when  Christianity  was 
once  established  churches  on  similar  models  sprang  up  simul- 
taneously all  over  the  Empire  seems  to  show  that  the  type  of 
church  building  had  already  been  firmly  established. 

The  vast  energies  thrown  into  the  building  of  these  countless 
ecclesiastical  edifices  were  levied  at  the  expense  of  civil  architec- 
ture.^ With  all  the  churches  built  in  Rome  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian centuries,  the  number  of  secular  buildings  of  which  we  have 
knowledge  could  almost  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand. 
Thus  the  Edict  of  Milan  marks  a  very  definite  crisis  in  architec- 
tural history:  before,  the  Church  had  been  of  no  importance 
in  moulding  the  destinies  of  the  art;  after,  the  Church  became  the 
sole  arbiter  of  these  destinies.  So  complete  was  the  change 
that  from  this  moment  until  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the 
Church  absorbed  all  the  energies  of  monumental  architecture, 
and  the  Christian  basilica  became  the  formative  and  generative 
influence  which  civil  architecture,  when  at  rare  intervals  it  strug- 
gled for  expression,  but  weakly  reflected.     Not  until  the  Gothic 

'  The  conversion  of  Constantine,  of  course,  affected  the  East  only  after  324,  when  Con- 
stantine,  by  the  defeat  of  Licinius,  for  the  first  time  became  ruler  over  all  the  Empire. 
^  Except  in  Syria. 

44 


THE   EASTERN   EMPIRE 

period  did  secular  buildings  of  dignity  and  beauty  come  to  be 
erected,  and  even  these  were  characterized  by  the  application  to 
civil  architecture,  of  stuctural  forms  and  decoration  essentially 
ecclesiastical.  Therefore,  from  this  time  on,  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  exclusively  to  the  study  of  church  architecture. 

Probably  no  human  document  ever  produced  a  greater  effect 
on  the  destinies  of  architecture  than  the  Edict  of  Milan.  In 
S'^T,  however,  Constantine  effected  another  change  of  hardly 
less  vital  importance,  —  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Constanti- 
nople. Henceforward,  Byzantium,  not  Rome,  was  the  center 
of  imperial  power,  and  consequently  of  imperial  culture.  Rome, 
indeed,  in  a  sense  remained  a  capital  city,  for  during  the  IV  cen- 
tury the  Empire  was  often  ruled  by  two  emperors,  one  of  whom 
had  his  seat  at  Rome;  and  in  395,  when  the  division  of  East 
and  West  became  permanent,  Rome  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
Western  Empire.  But  if  Rome  was  the  center  of  Europe,  Con- 
stantinople was  the  center  of  the  world,  and  the  political  and 
artistic  superior  of  the  Italian  metropolis.  As  time  went  on, 
the  two  capitals  drifted  into  paths  ever  more  widely  divergent. 
As  Rome  declined,  Constantinople,  natural  heir  to  Greek  culture 
and  learning,  rose  in  power  and  civilization.  The  arts  flour- 
ished; a  new  architecture  sprang  up,  more  beautiful  than  the 
world  had  seen  since  the  days  of  Pericles  and  Alexander,  — 
an  architecture  that  united  Roman  construction  with  Greek 
refinement  of  decoration,  and  both  with  a  technique,  inferior, 
indeed,  to  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks  or  even  of  the  Romans, 
but  immeasurably  superior  to  contemporary  work  in  the  West. 
This  style  reached  its  full  bloom  in  the  VI  century,  simulta- 
neously with  a  great  revival  of  political  and  material  prosperity. 
Justinian,  emperor  of  the  East  (527-565),  seemed  on  the  point 
of  reestablishing  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Empire;  the  flood 
of  barbarian  invasion  was  for  the  moment  turned  back,  and  suc- 
cess after  success  crowned  the  Eastern  arms.  In  534  North 
Africa  was  reconquered  from  the  Vandals,  and  soon  after  the 
subjugation  of  Italy  was  commenced.  Ravenna  fell  in  539, 
and  fourteen  years  later  the  entire  peninsula  had  been  subdued. 

This  capture  of  Ravenna  is  one  of  the  turning-points  in 
Western  architectural  history.     By  reason  of  the  Byzantine  oecu- 

45 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN   STYLE 

pation  of  this  important  city,  and  especially  by  reason  of  the 
Byzantine  monuments  there  erected,  the  Early  Christian  style 
underwent  essential  modification  from  Byzantine  influence. 
From  this  union  were  born  those  subsequent  European  styles 
which  are  known  under  the  general  name  of  Romanesque. 

This  outside  stimulation  was,  it  must  be  confessed,  sadly 
needed  by  Latin  architecture,  whose  history  from  the  time  of 
Constantine  is  the  record  of  a  slow  but  continuous  decline.  As 
the  barbarians  advanced,  overrunning  province  after  province, 
they  bi'ought  the  art  of  architecture  to  a  standstill  wherever  they 
penetrated.  In  general,  the  permanent  barbarian  occupation  of 
a  province  may  be  taken  to  mark  the  end  of  the  Early  Christian 
style  in  that  locality,  for  when  at  last  the  Teuton  took  up  the 
problems  of  architecture,  it  was  in  a  different  spirit  and  in  a  style 
which  it  is  better  to  class  as  Romanesque. 

The  first  barbarian  invaders  to  penetrate  within  the  Roman 
frontiers  were  the  Visigoths,  who  under  the  brilliant  leadership 
of  Alaric  defeated  the  imperial  army  at  Adrianople  in  378  and, 
after  wandering  with  varying  fortune  through  Moesia,  Greece, 
and  Illyricum,  finally  turned  towards  Rome.  In  410  the  city  was 
sacked.  To  defend  the  capital  the  Roman  troops  were  with- 
drawn from  Britain  (411),  leaving  that  province  at  the  mercy 
of  the  Angles,  Jutes,  and  Saxons.  Simultaneously  the  Vandals 
burst  into  Gaul,  plundered  its  fairest  provinces,  and  wandered 
into  Spain  and  Africa,  where  they  finally  established  themselves. 
The  Visigoths,  meanwhile,  turned  from  Italy  and  established  in 
Gaul  and  Spain  a  great  kingdom,  stretching  from  the  banks  of 
the  Loire  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules. 

The  Empire  of  the  West  still  continued  to  exist,  though  shat- 
tered in  power  and  prestige,  and  slowly  passing  by  unconscious 
stages  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians.  The  Arian  Goth,  Ric- 
imer,  held  the  supreme  power  from  457-472,  deposing  four 
emperors.  In  476  Odoacer  became  the  first  really  German 
king  of  Rome,  and  the  Empire  of  the  West,  externally,  had 
ceased  to  exist. 

How  this  end  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  external  only,  and 
how  its  vital  spirit  still  lived  on,  has  already  been  dwelt  upon. 
The  real  successor  to  the  W^estern  emperor  was  the  pope.     The 

46 


THE   BARBARIAN   INVASIONS 

supremacy,  temporal  and  spiritual,  of  the  See  of  St.  Peter  can- 
not be  said  to  have  been  universally  acknowledged  before  the 
XI  century;  but  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  distinguished  among 
his  fellow  bishops  as  early  as  the  IV.  While  the  emperors  in  fear 
of  barbarian  invasions  fled  from  the  imperial  city  and  trans- 
ferred their  capital  now  to  ^lilan,  now  to  Ravenna  (-tO'2),  the 
popes  remained  at  Rome,  which  gradually  came  to  be  thought 
of  as  their  capital.  Under  the  German  Odoacer  or  the  Ostro- 
goth Theodoric  it  remained  no  less  so.  Thus  at  Rome,  alone 
of  all  the  cities  of  Italy,  of  all  the  cities  of  Europe  in  fact,  we 
find  no  decisive  influence  of  the  barbarian  invasions  reflected 
in  the  architecture.  The  Early  Christian  style  persisted  at 
Rome  essentially  unchanged  from  the  days  of  Constantino  to 
the  Renaissance. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  V  century  a  new  wave  of  barbarian 
invasions  swept  over  the  West.  North  and  east  Gaul  —  all 
not  previously  held  by  the  Visigoths  —  fell  into  the  hands  of 
tlie  Franks  (486).  Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths  wrested  Italy 
from  Odoacer,  and  established  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  in 
Italy  with  its  capital  at  Ravenna.  This  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished and  governed  on  exceptionally  enlightened  lines.  Theo- 
doric himself  was  the  most  broad-minded  and  advanced  of  all 
the  German  conquerors;  he  was  a  man  of  culture,  and  had  been 
educated  at  Constantinople,  where  he  had  become  thoroughly 
imbued  with  imperial  civilization.  His  rule  is,  therefore,  more 
like  a  revival  of  Roman  ideas  than  a  barbarian  conquest.  Ac- 
cordingly we  need  not  be  surprised  to  find  him  decorating  his 
capital  city,  Ravenna,  during  the  period  of  his  occupation  (493- 
526)  with  a  series  of  monuments,  which,  although  strongly 
tinctured  with  Byzantine  influence,  yet  constitute  perhaps  the 
finest  examples  we  possess  of  the  Early  Christian  style.  Theo- 
doric was  an  Aryan  and  opposed  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  This 
fact  and  his  education  at  Constantinople  are  sufficient  to  ex- 
plain the  strong  Byzantine  elements  so  noticeable  even  in  those 
monuments  of  Ravenna  which  antedate  the  Byzantine  con- 
quest. 

Of  the  far-reaching  consequences  of  this  conquest  (539)  on 
Romanesque  art,  it  will  be  necessary  to  speak  at  length  in  a 

47 


THE   EARIA'   CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

future  chapter.  As  far  as  the  Early  Christian  style  is  concerned, 
the  Byzantine  occupation  produced  results  only  at  Rome,  and 
there  only  in  ornament;  for  in  the  rest  of  Italy  the  course  of  the 
style  had  already  been  run.  In  568,  only  fifteen  years  after  Italy 
had  been  finally  subdued  by  Constantinople,  the  Lombards,  under 
Alboin,  descended  on  the  Po  A'alley;  and  with  their  invasion, 
the  curtain  falls  on  Early  Christian  architecture  for  Italy,  ancl, 
indeed,  for  all  the  West,  excepting  always  Rome. 

Of  the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Empire,  especially  Syria  and 
Egypt,  the  history  is  more  simple.  The  official  recognition  of 
Christianity  (324)  brought  forth  many  churches  in  these  prov- 
inces,' as  elsewhere.  We  have  seen  how  the  strong  hand  of 
Rome  almost, but  notquite,  extinguished  local  differences  of  school 
between  the  various  provinces  in  the  imperial  epoch.  These  same 
differences,  slightly  accentuated, appeared  in  the  earliest  churches. 
But  as  time  went  on,  and  the  grip  of  the  Empire  slowly  relaxed, 
the  schools  continued  to  develop,  each  along  its  own  individual 
lines,  until  in  the  VI  century  there  grew  up  in  Syria  and  Egypt 
styles  quite  as  distinct  from  the  Latin,  as  from  the  Byzantine. 
To  the  Byzantine  architecture,  the  school  of  Syria  bears  indeed 
some  slight  analogies,  and  since  it  was  situated  so  near  the  Eastern 
capital  it  would  be  natural  to  see  here  direct  influence  from 
Constantinople.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  these  anal- 
ogies are  largely  accidental  and  that  the  two  styles  developed 
side  by  side  without  either  one  directly  influencing  the  other. 
The  Syrian  style  was  brought  to  a  complete  and  untimely  end 
by  the  INIohammedan  invasion  of  634. 

Egypt,  while  enjoying  the  same  comparative  peace  and  pros- 
perity that  contributed  so  largely  to  the  growth  of  architecture 
in  Syria,  possessed  a  population  less  progressive  and  less  skilled 
in  the  arts.  At  the  time  of  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in  641, 
a  fair  amount  of  technical  skill  seems  to  have  been  acquired, 
and  a  distinctive,  if  not  a  progressive  style.  The  caliphs 
treated  the  Christian  Copts  with  toleration,  and  churches  con- 
tinued to  be  erected  after  the  Arabian  occupation  in  num- 
bers, if  not  of  great  size  or  splendor.     Even  to-day  the  Coptic 

'There  are,  however,  no  very  early  authentically  dated  churches  extant,  either  in  Syria 
or  Egypt. 

48 


MEMORIAL   CELL.E 

churches  of  Egypt  are  still  built  in  essentially  the  same  form 
as  in  the  \l  century.  The  Coptic  school,  in  consequence,  must 
he  reckoned  the  longest  lived  member  of  the  Early  Christian 
style. 

It  has  already  been  hinted  that  the  Early  Christians  probably 
possessed  a  fully  established  form  of  church  building  long  before 
Constantine.  Unfortunately,  however,  no  vestige  of  a  pre- 
Constantinian  church  has  come  down  to  us.  All  the  remains 
that  we  have  of  distinctly  Christian  architecture  of  pre-Con- 
stantinian  date  belonjj  to  one  or  the  other  of  two  classes:  — 


III.  3'2.  — Plan  of  Sidi-Mohanmied-el-Gue- 
bioni.     (From  Saladin) 

catacombs,  underground  galleries  filled  with  tombs,  —  or  exedrse, 
the  so-called  memorial  celhe,  built  for  the  celebration  of  the 
funeral  feasts  held  annually  over  the  graves  of  martyrs.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  derive  the  Christian  churches  from 
both  of  these  sources.'  Neither  of  these  theories  is  held  to-day, 
but  the  type  of  cella  shown  in  111.  32  is  sufficiently  interesting 
in  itself  to  deserve  at  least  a  passing  notice.  In  all,  some  five 
examples  of  buildings  of  this  type  ^  have  come  down  to  us  in 
varying  states   of  preservation. 

Before  taking  up  the  vexed  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Chris- 
tian basilica,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  in  some  detail  the  form 

'  Fn)in  file  cataroml>.s  hy  March!  and  Martigny,  followed  l)y  Kraiis:  from   Ihe  exedrse  by 
G.  Baldwin  Brown. 

^  Two  at  Rome;  in  Africa  at  Sidi  Mohamcd-('I-(juebioni,  Maatria,  and  Tliugga. 

49 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

for  which  we  have  to  account.  The  Christian  basiUca  was  ordi- 
narily a  rectangular  building  with  the  sanctuary  at  one  end,  and 
was  extremely  simple  in  design,  showing  only  slight  changes 
from  Roman  methods  of  construction.  It  seems  rather  like 
an  irony  of  fate  that  what  was,  perhaps,  the  most  striking 
characteristic  of  these  primitive  Christian  buildings  —  a  char- 
acteristic abandoned  only  upon  compulsion — was  the  flagrant 


III.  33. — Plan  of  Sta.  Agata,  Ravenna. 
(From  Dehio) 

breach  of  the  eighth  commandment.  The  pagans  had  already 
established  the  custom  of  pilfering  building  materials  from 
older  structures  for  use  in  new  edifices.  Even  on  the  Arch 
of  Constantine  —  justly  esteemed  as  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  Roman  architecture  —  were  sculptures  which  were  pilfered 
from  the  Arch  of  Hadrian;  and  the  evil  example  thus  set  was 
eagerly  followed  by  the  Christian  architects.'     This  use  of  second- 

'  This  pilfering  of  art  works  has  been,  indeed,  characteristic  of  Roman  methods  from  the 
earliest  times.  The  capitals  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus  at  Athens  had  been  pilfered  by 
Sulla,  while  after  the  conquest  of  Greece,  the  Hellenic  peninsula  had  served  as  a  vast  quarry, 

50 


Ii.L.  3-1.  ^  Fiivadc  of  the  Temple  at  'Atil.     (Kestoration  based  on  IJutler's  Measureiuents) 


PILFERED    MATERIALS 

hand  materials  becomes,  in  fact,  the  dominating  characteristic 
of  Early  Christian  art  (111.  38).  New  stone  seems  to  have  been 
quarried  only  when  no  ancient  monuments  were  at  hand  to  be 
despoiled;  and  so  great  was  the  supply  of  classic  material  that 
that  event,  in  general,  occurred  only  at  a  very  late  date,  or  in 
remote  provinces.  This  habit  of  pilfering  necessarily  degraded 
the  style.  A  slovenly  appearance  is  the  invariable  result  of 
jamming  together  in  an  edifice,  willy-nilly,  materials  intended 
for  another  building.  Furthermore,  the  sculptors  and  stone- 
cutters, already  unskilful,  lost  what  little  art  they  still  possessed 
from  sheer  lack  of  practice.  As  there  became  less  and  less  of 
the  old  material  to  choose  from,  more  and  more  heterogeneous 
and  disproportionate  fragments  of  columns,  capitals,  entabla- 
tures, gravestones,  and  every  sort  of  debris  came  to  be  piled 
together,  until,  in  the  V  century,  the  technique  of  building  sank 
to  the  lowest  depths. 

Aside  from  this  use  of  pilfered  materials,  perhaps  the  lead- 
ing characteristic  of  Early  Christian  construction  was  the  cus- 
tom of  placing  arches  on  columns.  This  device,  while  known 
by  the  classic  builders,  was  only  exceptionally  employed.  A 
solitary  instance  is  found  at  Pompeii,  in  the  house  of  Regione 
IX,  Isola  VII.'  In  Syria,  generally,  the  so-called  "Ba'albek 
arch  motive"  is  common,  the  entire  architrave  being  bent  up 
in  the  form  of  an  arch,  as  in  the  little  temple  at  'Atil  (111. 
34).-  A  somewhat  similar  effect  is  given  by  the  purely  deco- 
rative treatment  of  an  arch  under  a  pediment  on  the  ends  of 
the  triumphal  arch  at  Orange  (111.  31).  The  motive  is  also  well 
developed  at  Spalato,  where  arches  resting  directly  on  columns 
occur  in  the  famous  arcade. 

Thus  the  Early  Christian  builders  found  no  lack  of  classic 
examples  for  this  usage.  The  step  from  the  flat  entablature,  how- 
ever, was  such  a  short  one,  that  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether 
they  did  not  rediscover  it  for  themselvesj  The  Roman  builders 
frequently  used  concealed  relieving  arches  over  lintels  to  reduce 

whence  were  drawn  statues,  paintings,  and  works  of  art  of  all  kinds  in  incredible  numbers  to 
adorn  the  villas,  palaces,  and  temples  of  It^ily. 

'  Publishe<l  by  Nicolini. 

'  I  am  deeply  indebted  to  Mr.  Howard  Crosby  Butler  for  his  kind  permission  to  have  this 
facade  redrawn  from  tlie  half-fone  published  in  Architecture  and  Other  Arts  in  Syria. 

51 


THE   EARLY   CHRISTIAN   STYLE 

the  strain  (111.  34).  Such  a  construction  might  easily  be  intro- 
duced into  a  basilica,  where  the  height  of  the  nave  walls  would 
bring  considerable  weight  on  the  architrave.  If  the  useless 
filling-in  material  were  omitted,  the  result  would  be  a  continu- 
ous flat  entablature  with  arches  above  it.'  This  design  being 
felt  awkward,  the  next  step  would  be  to  saw  out  the  portions 
of  the  entablature  between  the  columns,  leaving  the  arches  free, 
but  resting  on  square  blocks  of  entablature  over  each  column 
(111.  U). 

These  entablatures,  or  stilt-blocks,  as  they  are  called,  were 
long  retained,  for  the  final  step  of  placing  arches  directly  on 
columns  offered  certain  technical  difficulties.  According  to 
the  classic  rules  of  proportion  the  archivolt  of  the  arch  must  be 
considerably  wider  than  the  half  of  the  abacus  of  the  capital  it 
was  to  occupy.  Consequently,  when  two  of  these  archivolts 
fell  together  on  a  column,  trouble  ensued;  the  archivolts  must 
be  made  to  intersect,  a  most  unpleasant  expedient,  and  one  of 
such  difficulty  of  execution  as  to  require  a  technique  more  facile 
than  the  Early  Christians  possessed.  A  solution  of  this  problem 
in  the  treatment  of  the  classical  orders  has  never  been  found. 
Hence,  in  the  basilicas  we  find  these  stilt-blocks  omitted  only 
after  the  classical  orders  and  proportions  had  come  to  be  neg- 
lected, so  that  the  archivolts  could  be  diminished  in  size  or  elim- 
inated altogether.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  stilt-block  was  a  con- 
venient, if  homely,  makeshift.^ 

Such  were  the  humble  structural  innovations  introduced  in 
the  Early  Christian  basilica.  For  the  rest  its  design  was  simple: 
no  vaults,  no  dome,  no  complex  questions  of  thrusts  and  but- 
tressing. Except  for  the  modest  half-dome  of  the  apse,  the 
entire  structure  was  simply  roofed  in  timber. 

The  plan  of  the  basilica,  on  the  other  hand,  showed  a  num- 
ber of  new  and  important  features,  many  of  which  were  des- 
tined to  endure  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  to  modify 
sensibly  the  destinies  of  Western  art.     One  of  these  was  the  intro- 

'  An  actual  example  of  this  constuction  occurs  in  the  baptistery  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano, 
Rome.  This  construction  is  also  common  in  Syria,  but  almost  always,  I  believe,  over  the  Untel 
of  a  doorway  or  window,  as  in  111.  34. 

^  The  stilt-block  was  also  found  useful  in  equalizing  the  awkward  discrepancies  in  height 
between  various  pilfered  columns. 

52 


rtiii'^Rifv' 


III.  35.  —  Plan  of  old  S.  I'ietro,  Home 


ORIENTATION 

duction  of  a  definite  system  of  orientation.  This  was,  again, 
not  an  entirely  new  idea.  Greek  temples,  with  rare  exceptions, 
had  been  constructed  with  the  principal  front  facing  the  east, 
so  that  the  light  of  the  rising  sun  penetrated  the  great  doors 
and  bathed  the  sanctuary  in  light.  Similarly,  the  Persian 
sun-worshipers  always  faced  the  east,  and  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue was  generally,  although  not  always,  orientated  towards 
the  Holy  of  Holies  at  Jerusalem,  as  the  later  Mohammedan 
mosque  was  orientated  towards  Mecca.  But  the  Romans  attached 
no  value  to  this  idea.  Their  temples  were  turned  as  often  in  one 
direction  as  in  the  other.  It  is'  consequently  curious  to  find 
that  in  Rome,  as  throughout  the  western  half  of  the  Empire, 
the  earliest  churches  seem  to  have  been  orientated  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  Greek  temple,  with  the  principal  entrance  toward  the 
east,  the  sanctuary  towards  the  west.  Nissen  has  attempted  to 
prove  (not  altogether  convincingly)  that  the  orientation  of  these 
early  churches  was  carried  out  with  such  nicety  that  their  axis 
exactly  points  to  the  sunrise  on  the  day  of  the  saint  to  whom 
they  are  dedicated.  In  the  East,  strangely  enough,  where  we 
should  rather  have  expected  Greek  influence,  the  contrary  ori- 
entation was  used;  the  sanctuary  was  towards  the  east,  the 
entrance  towards  the  west.  This  reversed  orientation  was 
introduced  in  Rome  in  the  Y  century.  The  first  example  we 
have  of  it,  is  the  second  (present)  building  of  S.  Paolo  f.l.m. 
Although  it  was  long  before  the  new  rule  became  established, 
it  gradually  prevailed,  and  so  universal  did  it  finally  become  in 
western  Europe  that  it  is  always  customaiy  to  speak  of  the 
sanctuary  of  a  church  as  the  "east  end."  The  "south  side" 
is  consequently  to  the  right,  as  one  enters,  the  "north  side"  to 
the  left.  The  south  is  also  sometimes  known  as  the  side  of  the 
epistle,  the  north,  as  the  side  of  the  gospel,  from  the  fact  that 
the  rites  of  the  church  required  the  reading  of  those  portions  of 
the  Scripture  from  these  sides  respectively.' 

Bearing  in  mind  these  points  of  the  compass,  let  us  pass 
within  the  church  and  examine  in  detail  the  plan  and  disposi- 
tions.    The  Christian  basilica,  in  its  most  typical  form,  consisted 

'  The  reversal  of  orientaliim  did  not  effort  this:  tlie  north  is  always  the  side  of  the  Gospel 
whether  the  church  faces  east  or  west. 

53 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

of  a  nave  and  two  side  aisles,  separated  from  each  other  by  two 
ranges  of  columns  and  terminated  to  the  eastward  by  a  semi- 
circular apse  (111.  33).  In  the  superstructure  the  church 
was  equally  simple.  The  nave,  which  was  raised  above  the 
aisles,  was  lighted  by  a  row  of  large  clearstory  windows,  and 
was  covered  with  a  wooden  ceiling  or  an  open-timbered  roof. 
The  aisles  had  lean-to  roofs,  resting  against  the  nave  walls, 
thus  necessitating  a  blank  wall  space  in  the  interior  of  the  nave 
between  the  lower  edge  of  the  clearstory  windows  and  the  upper 
edge  of  the  main  arcade.  This  space,  known  as  the  triforium, 
(111.  37,  39,  41  and  43)  was  a  favorite  spot  for  decoration.  The 
columns  of  the  main  arcade  carried  either  a  flat  classical  entabla- 
ture, as  in  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  (111.  36),  or  arches,  as  in  S. 
Paolo,  f.l.m.  (111.  43),  Sta.  Agnese,  f.l.m.  (111.  38),  and  S.  Clem- 
ente  (111.  41). 

The  basilica  of  three  aisles  was  the  most  typical  form,  and 
it  is  probably  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  twenty  churches 
were  erected  on  this  plan  for  every  example  supplied  with  one 
or  five  aisles.  However,  both  one  and  five-aisled  basilicas  some- 
times occur.  Edifices  of  the  single-aisled  type  are  for  the  most 
part  small  and  imimportant.  Those  we  know  in  Rome  '  are 
earlier  secular  buildings  remodeled,  and  many  of  those  found 
in  Syria  would  seem  to  have  been  originally  houses,  and  to  have 
been  converted  into  churches  by  the  removal  of  the  partition 
walls  and  the  addition  of  an  apse.  Compare,  for  instance,  the 
plan  of  the  chapel  at  Rbe'ah,  (111  59)  ^  and  the  house  at  El 
Barah  (111.  27,  Fig.  5).  But  in  Africa  single-aisled  churches 
obtained  considerable  importance.  They  were  given  an  archi- 
tectural treatment  quite  similar  to  that  bestowed  upon  the  three- 
aisled  type,  except  that,  of  course,  the  main  arcade  was  replaced 
by  a  solid  wall. 

The  five-aisled  basilica  (111.  35,  43),  although,  numerically 
speaking,  but  comparatively  few  examples  have  come  down  to  us, 
is  nevertheless  of  great  importance  from  the  circumstance  that 
these  churches,  when  they  do  exist,  are  commonly  of  extraordi- 

•  S.  Andrea  in  Barbara,  S.  Balbina. 

^  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Howard  Crosby  Butler  for  his  kind  permission  to  reproduce  this 
plan  from  Architecture  and  Other  Arts  in  Syria. 

54 


nn 


El 
Sir 


a 
DDgn 


@r 


□O 

□n 

DO 

on 


@ 


□o|d 
dd|d 


nniDD 
nainn 


□dIqd; 

ugIdd; 

nnmo 

na|DD 

nn|ooj 

□ngoo 

nnlDD 

nemo 

nntan 

□n|oni 

nnloo, 


ll.l..  3(i.  —  Plan  ol'  Sta.  M;iria  MaKf;i(.ii-.  Hurnf 


THE   TRANSEPTS 

nary  dignity.  The  extra  width  and  capacity  afforded  by  plans 
of  tliis  type  rendered  them  especially  suitable  for  accommodat- 
ing a  vast  congregation.  A  three-aisled  church  might  be  indefi- 
nitely prolonged  in  length,  but  only  those  worshipers  who  could 
l)e  accommodated  in  the  front  part  would  be  able  to  see  and  hear 
the  ritual.  With  five  aisles  the  number  of  front  places  would 
be  increased  by  at  least  one-third.  So  in  the  great  metropol- 
itan churches  five  aisles  seem  to  have  been  preferred,  while  in 
the  smaller  edifices  the  three-aisled  type  was  usually  followed, 
perhaps  because  even  at  this  early  date  the  number  three  had 
acquired  a  mystic  significance. 

Basilicas,  whether  of  one,  three,  or  five  aisles  were  all  occa- 
sionally supplied  with  transepts.  The  transept  is,  in  essence,  a 
single-aisled  nave  (with  its  axis  at  right  angles  to  the  main  axis 
of  the  basilica),  inserted  between  the  apse  and  body  of  the 
church.  The  roof  was  ordinarily  of  the  same  height  as  that  of 
the  nave,  so  that  the  transept  became  a  great,  lofty,  open  space 
in  front  of  the  apse.  The  transept  sometimes  projected  beyond 
the  outer  walls  of  the  aisles  (111.  35),  sometimes  was  flush  with 
them  (111.  36). 

It  has  been  widely  held  that  the  transept  was  introduced 
for  mystic  reasons  in  order  to  give  the  church  a  cruciform  plan; 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  resulting  outline  is  at  most  "T- 
shaped."  and  is  often  purely  rectangular.  Furthermore,  prim- 
itive Christianity  did  not  delight  in  memories  of  the  passion. 
Not  until  the  V  century  was  the  cross  represented  in  art  under 
its  true  form.  However  influential  this  symbolism  may  have 
been  in  urging  the  retention  of  the  transept  in  later  times, 
it  can  hardly  account  for  its  origin,  —  a  prol)lem  which  is  not 
made  less  perplexing  by  the  fact  that  transepts  seem  to 
occur  in  a  purely  episodic  manner.  They  are  found  some- 
times in  the  earliest,  sometimes  in  the  latest  churches.  Since 
the  more  important  basilicas  were  generally  provided  with 
them,  we  find  but  few  examples  of  a  five-aisled  basilica 
where  transepts  are  lacking.'  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
frequently    found     in    three-aisled    basilicas,     even     when     the 

'  Siifh  basilicas  arc  found,  liowever,  at  Orlcansville  in  Algeria;  .\I  'Adra  in  the  Harat-az 
Zuailah,  at  Cairo;  in  tlie  Ilauran,  etc. 


THE   EAllLY   CHRISTIAN   STYLE 

latter  are  of  small  importance.  Transepts  occur  well  nigh 
universally  in  Eygpt,  while  they  are  practically  unknown  in 
Syria.  Thus  there  seems  little  uniformity  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  employed,  and  their  origin  cannot  be  deduced 
from  the  evidence  of  the  basilicas  themselves. 

Archjeologists  have  consequently  been  obliged  to  resort  to 
pure  hypothesis  to  explain  the  appearance  of  these  important 
features.  Many  and  complex  have  been  the  theories  advanced. 
The  most  plausible  of  these  —  although  one  by  no  means  proved 
—  suggests  that  the  transept  was  adopted  to  provide  additional 
room  for  the  clergy.' 

That  the  transepts  were  not  designed  with  a  view  to  purely 
architectural  effect  seems  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  arch  of 
triumph  (so  called,  doubtless,  in  allusion  to  the  Roman  monu- 
ments of  victory)  was  thrown  across  the  nave  of  the  basilica 
just  in  front  of  the  transept,  repeating  the  arch  of  the  apse.^ 
This  curious  feature  so  narrowed  the  vista  from  the  nave  as 
often  to  hide  the  transepts  completely  from  sight  (111.  43,  37), 
and  always  interfered  seriously  with  any  architectural  effect 
the  latter  may  have  possessed.  These  arches  of  triumph,  being 
made  the  center  of  interest  in  the  Early  Christian  basilicas,  were 
always  the  object  of  the  most  sumptuous  decoration. 

Another  conspicuous  feature  often  introduced  into  the  Early 
Christian  basilicas  was  the  triforium  gallery  (111.  38).  This 
was  in  effect  a  second  story  to  the  side  aisles,  opening  on  the 
nave  by  a  second  arcade  directly  over  the  first.  In  Egypt, 
where  the  sexes,  as  in  all  Early  Christian  churches,  were  sep- 
arated, these  galleries  were  used  for  the  women,  and  in  the 
West  they  may  also  have  had  a  similar  use.  They  seem  to 
have  been  quite  as  sporadic  in  their  appearance  as  the  transepts. 
Although  Herr  Mothes  has  tried  to  prove  that  they  were  a  later 

'  This  is  not  the  place  to  bring  forward  new  and  untried  theories.  I  cannot,  however, 
refrain  from  suggesting  that  the  transept  may  have  been  derived  from  the  prothesis  and  apodosis 
chapels  of  the  East.  At  Kfer  and  in  the  cathedral  of '  Amman  these  chapels  were  brought  fom  ard 
of  the  apse  to  flank  the  crossing.  Compare  also  the  chapel  at  Rl>e'ah  (111.  59).  The  step  to 
forming  a  fully-developed  transept,  was  a  very  short  one.  At  S.  Pietro  (111.  35)  which  had  one 
of  the  earliest  transepts  known  to  us,  the  wings  were  shut  off  by  columns,  so  as  to  form  rooms 
quite  analogous  to  prothesis  and  apodosis  chapels. 

'  In  basilicas  without  transept  this  apse  arch  is  sometimes  incorrectly  termed  the  arch  of 
triumph. 

56 


THE   APSE 

development,'  they  seem  to  have  been  always  known,  and  used  or 
not  used  quite  arbitrarily.  Generally  speaking,  however,  we 
seldom  find  them  in  very  large  or  important  basilicas.  I  know 
of  few  instances  where  they  are  found  in  a  five-aisled  church, 
and  only  rarely  do  they  occur  in  a  basilica  with  transepts.-  In 
Egypt  and  the  Ilaurrui  they  are  very  common;  in  northern 
Syria  they  are  hardly  known. 

The  typical  eastern  termination  of  an  Early  Christian  basil- 
ica was  the  apse  —  a  semicircle  projecting  from  the  rectangle 
of  the  church  and  covered  with  a  half-dome.  In  the  West  there 
was  usually  only  one  apse,  which  was  placed  facing  the  nave. 
In  the  Eastern  Church,  however,  great  importance  came  early 
to  be  attached  to  the  rites  of  the  prothesis  and  apodosis,  and  it 
became  the  well-nigh  universal  custom  to  flank  the  main  apse 
with  two  others,  one  facing  each  side  aisle,  and  set  apart  to  serve 
as  chapels  for  these  rites  (111.  55,  62,  63,  64).  The  northern 
of  the  side  apses  was  known  as  the  chapel  of  the  prothesis;  the 
southern,  as  the  chapel  of  the  apodosis  or  diaconicon.^  These 
lateral  apses  were  usually  square  in  plan,  at  least  externally, 
and  a  difficulty  arose  in  the  exterior  treatment  of  the  east  end. 
The  eftect  given  by  a  round  apse,  swallowed  up,  as  it  were, 
between  two  square  ones,  was  not  happy.  Occasionally  in 
Syria,  this  awkwardness  was  tolerated;  but  it  was  usual  through- 
out the  East  to  mask  the  central  apse  by  continuing  the  walls  of 
the  side  apses  straight  across,  thus  giving  the  east  end  externally 
a  perfectly  flat,  unbroken  wall,  like  that  of  a  west  fa9ade  (111. 
C^).     This  scheme  of  making  a  circular  interior  square  exter- 

'  The  triforium  galleries  of  Sta.  Agnese,  f.l.m.  and  S.  Lorenzo,  f.I.m.  are  clearly  part  of  the 
original  structures. 

2  The  apparent  exceptions  are  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli  and  SS.  Quatro  Coronati  at  Rome.  The 
galleries  at  lx)th  are  probably  later  additions,  however. 

^ "  Both  the  diacouicon  and  the  prothesis  are,  I  believe,  f)eculiar  to  the  Eastern  Church. 
The  diaconicon  —  usuallj'  the  southern  of  the  three  apses  —  corresponded  to  the  modern  sac- 
risty.    Vessels  and  vestments  were  kept  there,  and  there  the  priests  and  deacons  robed. 

"The  office  of  the  prothesis  is  more  difficult  to  explain.  Ifi  the  Eastern  Church  much  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  manner  of  otiering  the  elements  —  bread  and  wine  —  to  be  consecrated 
during  the  technical  'liturgy.'  A  priest  anil  a  deacon  performed  the  preliminary  service  with 
them  in  the  chapel  of  the  prothesis.  .\fter  this  they  were  left  on  this  side  altar  until  the  moment 
in  the  liturgy  called  the  Grand  Entrance.  Then  the  elements  were  carried  in  procession  from 
the  side  chapel  to  the  high  altar.   .   .   . 

"How  early  there  were  crremoiiial  processions  T  do  not  know.  They  were  certainly  in  use 
by  -.'50."  —Note  kindly  furnished  me  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Durham. 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

nally  had  been  a  great  favorite  of  the  Romans,  and,  as  we  shall 
presently  see,  was  much  adopted  by  the  Christians  in  their 
circular  churches.  However,  it  was  a  structural  lie;  and  a 
better  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  three  apses  was  found  by 
the  Copts  and  the  Syrians  of  the  VI  century,  when  the  interior 
was  frankly  sacrificed  to  the  exterior,  and  all  three  apses  made 
rectangular  (111.  55,  62,  63).  Thus  the  external  regularity  of 
the  east  end  was  secured  without  structural  falsification. 

According  to  Mr.  Butler,  Syrian  apses  showed  another 
striking  peculiarity:  "In  almost  every  other  example  [except 
Behyo]  in  northern  Syria,  so  far  as  the  ruins  give  evidence,  the 
eastern  walls  of  churches  are  but  one-story  high,  and  the  roofs 
which  they  carried,  whether  they  covered  a  semi-domed  apse 
or  a  rectangular  sanctuary,  abutted  the  high  walls  at  a  point 
only  a  little  above  the  lower  level  of  the  clearstory,  which  stops 
at  the  line  of  the  chancel  arch."  '  This  arrangement  did  not, 
however,  prevail  in  the  West.  There  the  apse  was  as  lofty  as 
the  roof  of  the  clearstory  permitted,  the  sanctuary  thus  dominat- 
ing the  entire  building. 

The  type  of  plan  with  two  apses  —  one  at  the  east,  the  other 
at  the  west  end,  —  is  characteristic  of  the  churches  of  Africa,^ 
and  is  found  in  at  least  one  instance  in  Egypt,^  and  once  at 
Rome.*  In  the  Egyptian  example  the  western  apse  was  pierced 
by  the  main  doorway,  and  consequently  could  not  have  been 
used  as  a  sanctuary,  but  must  have  been  designed  either  merely 
for  symmetry  or  as  an  unthinking  reminiscence  of  earlier  build- 
ings. It  is  otherwise  with  the  African  examples.  In  Africa, 
as  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  lateral  entrances  to  the  basilica  were 
often  the  main  portals,  and  the  western  apse  seems  to  have 
enjoyed  a  dignity  equal  to  that  of  the  eastern  sanctuary.  These 
lateral  entrances  are  not  found  at  Rome,  a  fact  which  may 
explain  the  rarity  of  double-apsed  churches  there. 

The  earliest  apses  had  no  windows,  but  in  the  V  century 
they  were  occasionally  pierced  by  one,  two,  or  three  openings. 

'  Howard  Crosby  Butler,  Archileclure  and  Oth^r  Arts,  p.  '20-1. 

*See  churches  at  Orleansville,  Chemtou,  Ain  Touiiga  (111.  65),  Feriana. 

»  Armant  [Hermonthis]. 

*  In  the  basilica  of  S.  Andrea  al  Vaticano,  built  by  Pope  Symmachus  (-tQS-Sl-t). 

58 


THE   SANCTUARY 

Later,  the  idea  in  a  few  instances  was  carried  to  such  an  extent 
that  certain  apses  became  })ractically  open  arcades  of  windows.' 

Internally,  the  space  within  the  apse,  known  as  the  bema, 
was  reserved  for  the  higher  clergy.  It  was  lined  with  a  series 
of  seats  formed  like  steps  rising  towards  the  back.^  In  the 
center  was  the  episcopal  throne.  In  early  times  this  was  prob- 
ably merely  a  pagan  chair  pilfered  from  some  ancient  build- 
ing. It  would  be  ornamented  in  the  classical  style  with  heads 
of  lions,  griffins,  etc.  Hence  such  decorations  became  con- 
ventional for  the  episcopal  throne,  even  when  it  was  manufac- 
tured especially  for  this  purpose.  Thus  it  resulted  that  in 
Rome  the  throne  retained  such  ornamentation  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages.  Designs  of  this  character  appear  in  the  thrones 
sculptured  by  the  Cosmati  in  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries. 

The  most  holy  spot  in  the  basilica  building  was  what  is  known 
as  the  crossing  —  the  great  square  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  nave  and  transepts  —  where  the  high  altar  was  placed,  and 
where  were  lavished  all  the  resources  of  decorative  art.  Archi- 
tecturally this  portion  of  the  church  was  dignified  by  the  arch 
of  triumph,  erected,  as  we  have  seen,  just  before  it.  In  churches 
without  transept  the  high  altar  was  placed  directly  beneath 
the  great  apse  arch,  which  then  served  to  accentuate  the  im- 
portance of  the  sanctuary. 

The  altar  itself  was  usually  a  simple  table  of  marble,  orna- 
mented with  sculptured  doves,  lambs,  vine-tendrils,  etc.  In 
many  cases  it  was  merely  an  ancient  pagan  altar,  or  funeral 
stone,  being  altered  only  by  the  introduction  of  the  cross  or 
monogram  of  Christ  to  serve  as  the  symbol  of  purification  amidst 
the  sculptured  garlands,  flowers,  and  fruit.' 

Over  the  altar,  supported  by  four  columns,  was  the  cibo- 
rium,  the  most  magnificently  adorned  of  all  the  church  furni- 
ture. To  judge  from  the  descriptions  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  tho.se  of  the  IV  century  must  have  been  almost  barbaric 
in  their  splendor.     I  paraphrase  the  account  given  in  the  Liber 

'  Examples  at  Rome,  SS.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  Sta.  Maria  Masfjiore,  S.  Sebastiano;  at  Naples, 
S.  Severio. 

'The  catlicilral  of  Torcello  offers  tlie  only  Early  Christian  apse  retaining  its  original  dis- 
positions. 

'  Venturi. 

59 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

Pontificalis  of  the  ciborium  presented  by  Constantine  to  S.  Gio- 
vanni in  Laterano:  "It  was  all  made  of  silver.  The  columns 
carried  a  canopy,  on  the  front  of  which  was  a  silver  figure  of  the 
Saviour,  five  feet  high,  weighing  120  pounds,  and  silver  images 
of  the  twelve  apostles,  crowns  in  hand,  each  image  weighing 
90  pounds.  On  the  opposite  side,  towards  the  apse,  was  the 
Saviour  seated  on  a  throne  of  purest  silver,  140  pounds  in  weight, 
and  four  silver  angels,  five  feet  high,  each  105  pounds  in  weight, 
with  eyes  of  Alabanda  stone  and  stars  in  their  hands.  The 
canopy  itself,  on  which  stood  the  angels  and  the  apostles,  all  of 
silver,  weighed  2025  pounds.  The  vault  of  the  canopy  was  of 
the  purest  gold  and  a  lamp  of  the  purest  gold  hung  from  it, 
adorned  with  fifty  dolphins.  The  lamp  weighed  50  pounds,  the 
chain  25  pounds.  There  were  four  crowns  of  purest  gold 
adorned  with  twenty  dolphins,  and  each  crown  weighed  15  pounds." 
Allowing  as  much  as  is  evidently  necessary  for  over-enthusiasm 
on  the  part  of  our  historian,  this  ciborium  was  doubtless  a  work 
of  the  greatest  magnificence.  In  smaller  and  poorer  churches 
the  ciboria  must,  of  course,  have  been  far  more  modest,  and 
indeed  the  Liber  Pontificalis  itself  in  speaking  of  Pope  Sergius 
states:  "The  ciborium  of  Sta.  Suzanna,  which  before  had  been 
of  wood,  he  made  of  marble."  '  Still,  in  general,  the  ciboria 
were  doubtless  most  lavishly  decorated,  and  marble  seems  to 
have  been  the  material  regularly  employed.  The  usual  orna- 
ments were  sculptured  flowers,  recalling  the  custom  of  strewing 
flowers  about  the  altar.  The  ciborium,  of  which  fragments 
still  remain  at  S.  Clemente  in  Rome,  was  erected  by  Mercurius 
(later  Pope  John  II)  in  514-523.  Its  decoration  shows  columns 
twined  about  with  ivy  and  basket-capitals  wreathed  with  vines. 
No  trace  of  classic  tradition  remains  in  this  Byzantinesque  work, 
and  it  is  remarkable  how  much  earlier  the  new  spirit  shows  itself 
in  such  ornamental  details  than  in  architecture  properly  so-called. 
Early  examples  of  ciboria,  as  of  all  the  primitive  church  furnish- 
ings, are  extremely  rare.  Besides  these  fi'agments  of  the  VI 
century  in  S.  Clemente,  we  find  few  examples  earlier  than  the 
X  century.     In  the  late  Middle  Ages,  the  type  illustrated  by  the 

1  "Ciborium  S.  Susannae  quod  ante  ligueum  fuerat,  ex  marmore  fecit  .  .  .  vel  immobilia 
loca  illi  donavit." 

60 


lu..  :t!t.    -  I.iti-rior  ..r  S.  CK-iiiinlr.  U,,m.-.      ,  Frniii  IMiio) 


THE    CONFE3SIO 

present  ciboriuni  of  S.  Clemente  (111.  39),  or  of  Sta.  Maria  in 
Trastevere  (111.  40)  was  developed. 

From  the  time  of  Constantine  columns  with  spiral  flutes 
seem  to  have  been  employed  in  the  ciboria.  In  two  medals 
published  by  De  Rossi,'  ciboria  are  shown  with  columns  regu- 
larly twisted.  Nor  was  this  peculiarity  of  design  confined  to 
ciboria.-  It  had  already  been  used  as  an  architectural  orna- 
ment by  the  Romans  ^  and  was  frequently  adopted  by  the  Early 
Christians,  especially  in  cases  where  the  column  was  used  as 
pure  decoration,  and  not  as  a  supporting  member.  Spiral 
flutings,  especially  in  those  extreme  cases  when  the  column  itself 
becomes  twisted  out  of  all  semblance  of  a  column  like  a  piece 
of  soft  molasses  candy,  are  eminently  unstructural,  and  are 
unpleasant  if  used  in  a  structural  manner.  As  a  purely  fanciful 
ornament,  however,  as  they  were  later  used  by  the  Cosmati 
or  by  certain  baroque  architects,  they  possess  an  undoubted 
decorative  charm.     (111.  41.) 

Beneath  the  high  altar  and  below  the  level  of  the  basilica 
lay  the  confessio  or  crypt,  where  was  regularly  placed  the  body, 
or,  at  least,  some  relics  of  the  martyr  or  saint  to  whom  the  church 
was  dedicated.  Often  this  crypt  was  the  original  burying-place 
of  the  martyr  whose  tomb  was  preserved  in  its  exact  original 
location  with  scrupulous  care.  The  confessio  frequently  had 
full  basilica  form,  with  three  aisles  and  apse,  and  usually  is 
found  to  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  main  edifice.  In  rebuild- 
ing, the  confessio  of  the  old  church  was  either  preserved  intact, 
or  sometimes  the  entire  primitive  edifice  was  itself  turned  into 
a  confessio.^  To  leave  room  for  this  crypt  it  was  sometimes 
necessary  to  raise  the  floor  of  the  presl)yterium  —  that  is,  that 
portion  of  the  church  above,  which  was  occupied  by  the  clergy.^ 

In  front  of  the  altar  and  ciboriuni  was  placed  the  schola 
cantorum,  or  choir  (111.  39).     This  was  occupied  by  the  lower 

'  liidl.  di  arch,  crist.  iii,  1869,  p.  49  seq. 

'  M  S.  Pietro  tlip  columns  by  the  Door  of  the  Jubilee  in  the  oratory  of  John  VI  were  twistrd. 
Twisted,  too,  were  those  erected  by  Constantine  over  the  confessio:  "Supra  columnis  purphy- 
reticis  ct  alias  columnas  vitineas"  — I.ihcr  Ponlificalis. 

^  In  the  Porta  dei  Borsari,  Verona;  in  the  building  next  the  Tribune,  Timgad;  in  the  Col- 
onnaded Street  of  Kal'at  il-Mudik;  in  the  Propyla?a  of  Aphrotlisias. 

<  Rome,  S.  Clemente.  S.  Lorenzo  f.l.m. 

^  Rome,  Sta.  Maria  Nuova,  etc. 

fil 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTL\N  STYLE 

clergy,  whose  chief  duty  it  was  to  sing  the  responses.  Omitted 
entirely  or  of  slight  importance  in  the  early  church,  this  division 
later  came  into  great  prominence,  occupying  at  times  as  much 
as  half  the  entire  nave.'  It  was  divided  from  the  western  parts 
of  the  church  by  a  marble  screen,  in  early  times  probably  not 
more  than  three  or  four  feet  high  and  quite  similar  to  the  ancient 
pagan  balustrades  and  podia.  In  the  V  and  VI  centuries  these 
screens  came  to  be  perforated  with  open  work  patterns,  or 
ornamented  with  carved  discs,  crosses,  and  monograms.  In 
the  Coptic  school  the  height  of  the  screens  was  increased 
until  they  became  veritable  partition  walls,  entirely  shutting  off 
the  choir  from  the  nave.  These  Coptic  screens  were  made  of 
wood,  and  elaborately  carved.  Indeed  it  was  primarily  in  the 
decoration  of  these  screens  that  the  Copts  developed  that  pecu- 
liar style  of  ornament  we   always   associate   with   their  name. 

Beside  the  screen  separating  the  nave  from  the  choir,  there 
was  another  screen,  called  the  iconostasis  or  pergula,  separating 
the  choir  from  the  crossing  and  apse  (111.  39).  In  the  earliest 
times  this  consisted  of  ornamental  columns  connected  by  a  con- 
tinuous low  podium  below,  and  an  architrave  above.  In  the 
open  spaces  were  hung  veils,  or  light  curtains.  Thus  the  schola 
cantorum  was  enclosed  on  all  its  four  sides. 

On  either  side  of  the  choir  were  the  two  ambos,  or  pulpits, 

—  accessories  which  were  used  as  early  as  the  IV  century,  for 
we  are  told  that  S.  Paolino  ascended  an  ambo  in  order  to  preach 
to  the  people.  In  the  VI  century,  however,  the  design  of  ambos 
seems  to  have  been  greatly  developed  at  Constantinople.  The 
new  type  was  thence  copied  in  the  West,  and  all  the  ambos 
that  have  come  down  to  us  —  like  that  of  S.  Clemente  (111.  41) 

—  are  of  this  later  Byzantine  type.  There  were  usually  two 
stairways  leading  to  the  pulpit,  though  one  was  occasionally 
omitted.  Beside  the  ambo  was  regularly  placed  a  little  column 
bearing  a  lamp  (111.  41). 

Before  completing  our  survey  of  the  interior  of  the  Early 
Christian  church  a  word  must  be  said  on  the  subject  of  the  light- 
ing. The  interior,  with  its  clearstory  and  aisle  windows,  is 
to-day  a  blaze  of  sunshine,  so  bright  as  to  be  positively  distress- 

'  Cf.  Rome,  Sta.  Maria  Antiqua. 


lu..  40.  —  Ciboriiiiu  (if  St:i.  Maria  in  ■Ir.isli-v.iv,  Konie 


THE   ATRIUM 

intr.  Nothino;  impresses  so  strongly  the  modern  visitor  as 
this  over-ilhiinination.  That  the  early  Christians  themselves 
were  conscious  of  it,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  often  contrast 
the  lightness  of  their  churches  with  the  comparative  gloom  of 
pagan  temples.  But  it  seems  probable  that  in  early  times  the 
light  was  more  or  less  subdued  by  means  of  perforated  stone 
screens  placed  in  the  windows.  In  Rome,  where  these  perfora- 
tions were  probably  left  open,  the  tracery  must  have  been  sim- 
ilar in  effect,  though  of  course  far  inferior  in  design,  to  the 
marvelous  pierced  marble  windows  we  find  to-day  in  India, 
especially  at  Ahmedabad.  But  at  Der  Seta,  in  Syria,  frames 
with  pieces  of  open  work  attached  to  them  were  found  in  the 
windows.  Though  no  pieces  of  glass  were  found  on  the  spot, 
flat  glass  may  be  found  in  many  other  ruins  of  the  country, 
and  this  tracery,  though  very  much  weathered,  certainly  shows 
gi'ooves  for  the  insertion  of  leaded  glass,  or  some  other  translu- 
cent material.' 

The  exterior  of  the  basilica  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
atrium  or  court  which  lay  before  the  church.  This  atrium 
was  i-egularly  a  square  of  the  width  of  the  church,  and  was  placed 
westward  of  the  main  entrance.  It  was  surrounded  on  all  four 
sides  by  porticoes,  usually  formed  of  arcades.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  instances  in  Syria  of  an  atrium  having  no  such  por- 
ticoes, while  occasionally  such  an  atrium  was  so  extended  as  to 
completely  surround  the  church  —  probably  representing  in 
these  cases  an  ancient  temenos,  the  church  being  built  on  the 
site  of  the  old  temple.  In  Syria,  the  atrium  was  also  sometimes 
removed  from  the  west  end  of  the  basilica,  and  placed  instead 
before  the  lateral  entrances  on  the  south  or  north  sides.  Around 
the  atrium  were  grouped  the  various  ecclesiastical  and  conven- 
tual buildings  which  became  necessary  as  the  monastic  system 
developed,  until  at  length  the  atrium  had  come  to  contain  in  germ 
all  the  features  that  later  made  so  lovely  the  cloisters  of  medieval 
Europe.  A  capital  example  is  found  at  Bal)iska,  Syria,  dating 
from  401  (111.  60).  This  monument  is,  in  fact,  the  earliest 
cloister  known. 

The  Early  Christian   atrium  was  also  the  prototype  of  the 

'  Howard  Crosby  Butler,  Architecture  and  Other  Arts,  p.  196. 
6S 


THE   EARLY   CHRISTIAN   STYLE 

Mohammedan  mosque.  In  the  center  was  placed  a  fountain 
for  the  abhitions  of  the  faithful,  —  a  fountain,  in  the  mystic 
eyes  of  the  early  Church,  symbolizing  the  blood  of  Christ 
which  washed  away  the  sins  of  the  world  —  and  this  fountain 
may  still  be  found  to-day,  surrounded  by  its  court  and  porticoes 
in  every  Moslem  sanctuary.  The  atrium  itself  with  its  gardens  * 
and  colonnades  and  running  water  has  long  ago  passed  away 
—  since  the  year  1000  new  churches  have  been  almost  uniformly 
constructed  without  this  feature  so  characteristic  of  primitive 
Christian  art;  and  even  the  atria  of  the  old  churches,  if  not 
actually  torn  down,  have  seldom  been  kept  in  repair,  and  all 
too  often  have  disappeared  through  sheer  decay.  Thus,  even 
in  well-preserved  basilicas,  we  usually  find  to-day  that  the  atrium 
is  lacking,-  and  this  unique  and  beautiful  feature  may  be  said 
indeed  to  live  chiefly  in  its  incongruous  descendants,  the  cloister 
and  the  mosque.  So  general  has  been  the  destruction  of  the 
old  atria  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  extensively  they  were 
used  in  the  early  centuries.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  they 
were  omitted  only  exceptionally.  The  dispositions  of  a  typical 
early  atrium  may  be  seen  in  the  plan  of  old  S.  Pietro  at  Rome 
(111.  35). 

Between  the  atrium  and  the  main  body  of  the  church  was 
placed  a  vestibule,  known  as  the  narthex.  Here  penitents, 
pilgrims,  beggars,  and  others  not  admitted  to  the  full  communion 
might  still  enjoy  the  service.  The  narthex,  which  was  also  used 
as  a  judgment  hall,  and  for  various  secular  assemblies,  after 
the  VI  century  was  commonly  employed  as  a  burial-ground. 
There  were  two  sorts  of  narthex  —  the  exterior  narthex  —  as 
at  old  S.  Pietro  (111.  35)  —  which  was  formed  by  extending  the 
arcades  of  the  atrium  across  the  fa9ade  of  the  basilica;  and  the 
interior  narthex,  formed  by  returning  the  side  aisles  across 
the  western  end,  as   at  Sta.   Agnese,  f.l.m.   (111.  38).  In  Egypt 

'  After  the  IX  century  these  gardens  came  to  be  very  elaliorately  hiid  out,  and  were  known 
as  the  paradise  or  parvis. 

^  The  most  noteworthy  atria  still  extant  are  as  follows:  —  at  Rome,  S.  Martino  ai  Monti,  Sta. 
Prassede  (both  of  the  IX  century),  Ss.  Quatro  Coronati  (1111),  S.  Clemente  (1108);  at  Parenzo, 
the  cathedral  (VII  century);  at  Milan,  S.  Ambrogio;  at  Capua  and  Salerno,  the  cathedrals  (IX 
and  XI  centuries  respectively) ;  and  at  Feriana  (Africa),  the  basilica.  There  are  in  addition 
many  atria  extant  in  Syria. 

64 


III.  •*!.  — Anil),,  ,,r  S.  ClrTMciilr,  R,>ii 


ORIGIN   OF   THE    CHRISTIAN   BASILICA 

the  interior  narthex  enjoyed  especial  popularity.  The  gallery 
above  became  the  so-called  "matroneum"  —  probably,  in  real- 
ity, not  a  place  set  apart  for  women,  as  the  name  would  seem  to 
imply,  but  rather  reservefl  for  persons  of  rank  or  wealth.  In 
the  West,  however,  the  narthex  was  more  often  external.  Hence, 
when  the  atrium  disappeared,  the  narthex  went  with  it,  except 
in  a  few  cases  '  where  it  was  retained  as  a  sort  of  portico  (111.  52). 

Otherwise  there  is  little  that  is  remarkable  about  the  exterior 
of  the  Christian  basilica.  Constructed  coarsely  of  stone  or  brick, 
these  edifices  marked  the  completion  of  the  transition  commenced 
bv  the  Romans.  The  exterior  was  no  longer  a  dominating  con- 
sideration in  architectural  design;  on  the  interior  alone  the  efforts 
of  the  builders  were  lavished.  The  external  effect,  indeed,  as  a 
rule,  was  entirely  neglected.  Occasionally,  as  the  provincial 
schools  developed,  a  certain  amount  of  exterior  decoration 
showed  itself,  particularly  in  Syria  and  at  Ravenna;  but  in  the 
main,  lack  of  external  adornment  remained  characteristic  of 
Early  Christian  art  (111.  42,  52). 

Such  was  the  type  of  basilica  developed  by  the  Early  Chris- 
tians. If  now  the  reader  will  bear  clearly  in  mind  the  various 
peculiarities  pointed  out,  and  will  turn  to  compare  this  type  of 
building  with  the  pagan  basilica  (111.  22),  he  will  at  once  per- 
ceive that  there  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  two. 
The  division  into  nave  and  aisles,  the  clearstory,  the  apse,  the 
wooden  roofs,  the  general  proportions  of  length  and  width  — 
all  seem  remarkably  similar.  Furthermore,  the  atrium  recalls 
strikingly  a  forum  placed  like  that  at  Pompeii  (111.  22,  Fig.  3) 
at  the  end  of  the  basilica.  Most  remarkable  of  all,  the  very  term 
"basilica"  used  to  designate  their  churches  by  the  Early  Chris- 
tians themselves,  from  times  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  IV 
century ,=  seems  clearly  to  imply  that  they  recognized  the  close 
resemblance  between  the  two  structures.  So  strong  did  the 
evidence  on  this  point  seem,  that  from  the  time  of  Alberti,  in 
the  XVI  century,  until  1840,  all  historians  of  architecture 
roundly  asserted   that  the  Early  Christians,  finding  the  ancient 

•  At  Rome;  Ss.  Vinccnzo  ed  Anastasio  alle  tre  Fi)ntaiie  (1140),  S.  Giorgio  in  Valaliro,  Ss. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo,  S.  Lorenzo,  f.l.m. 

'  Some  traces  of  its  use  are  found  in  the  records  of  the  Diocletian  persecutions  in  Africa, 
303  A.I). 

65 


THE   EARLY   CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

basilicas  well  adapted  for  their  rites,  built  their  new  churches 
on  this  plan,  or  else  bodily  converted  old  basilicas  into  churches. 
Zestermann  was  the  first  to  question  this  view.  He  pointed 
out  the  essential  differences  between  the  two  types  —  differences 
that  excavations  since  his  time  have  gone  far  to  define.  First 
of  all,  he  noted  the  fact  that  the  aisles  are  returned  across  both 
ends  of  a  pagan  basilica ; '  in  the  Christian  basilica,  though  we 
now  know  that  they  were  sometimes  returned  across  the  west 
end,  this  was  never  done  to  the  eastward.  Consequently,  the 
apse  must  have  been  a  far  different  affair  in  the  pagan  build- 
ing. Its  roof  was  necessarily  lower  than  the  side  aisles,  and  the 
entire  semicircle  must  have  formed,  in  fact,  a  room  shut  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  structure.  In  the  Christian  basilica,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  apse  was  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  church.^  Again,  the  forum  was  usually  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  pagan  basilica,  and  on  the  side  were  the  prin- 
cipal entrances;  the  Christian  basilica,  on  the  contrary,  had  its 
atrium  and  main  entrances  usually  at  the  end.  Furthermore, 
the  pagan  basilica  had  usually  two  or  more  great  apses,  while 
the  Christian  rarely  had  more  than  one.  But  what  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished the  two  types  was  their  very  nature.  The  pagan 
basilica  was  essentially  a  covered  extension  of  the  Forum,  and 
the  two  words  "forum"  and  "basilica"  were  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans interchangeably;  it  was  a  place  of  noise  and  bustle,  of 
shops  and  bargaining,  of  business  and  gossip;  it  was,  above 
all,  a  place  of  passage,  little  more  than  a  covered  street. 
This  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  number  of  entrances  that 
are  found  in  all  the  Roman  basilicas  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  but  especially  in  the  Basilica  Julia.  How  strangely  at 
variance  all  this  with  the  quiet  and  silence  of  a  Christian  church ! 
It  would  seem  as  strange  for  the  Early  Christians  to  form  their 
churches  on  the  model  of  a  basilica  as  it  would,  for  instance,  for 
the  modern  Christian  Scientists  to  pitch  upon  a  department 
store  as  the  model  for  all  their  houses  of  worship.  As  for  the 
idea  of  "converted"   basilicas,   that  is  clearly  disproved  by  a 

'  The  basilica  at  Otricoli  is  an  exception. 

^  It  has  already  been  stated  that  in  Syria  the  apses  of  basilicas  are  usually  oiJy  as  high 
as  the  aisles.     In  the  main,  however,  this  distinction  holds. 

66 


i^ 


ORIGIN   OF   THE    CHRISTIAN   BASILICA 

study  of  the  buildings  themselves.  There  is  no  single  instance 
extant  where  a  pagan  basilica  has  been  used  as  a  Christian 
church.  Therefore,  in  view  of  all  these  differences  (or  such  of 
them  as  were  then  known),  Zestermann  pronounced  the  Chris- 
tian basilica  to  be  an  independent  invention  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tians and  quite  uninfluenced  by  the  pagan  type.  These  views 
were  later  sanctioned  by  Hiibsch,  whose  authority  lent  them 
great  weight. 

Meanwhile,  other  scholars  had  been  at  work  trying  to  de- 
duce from  the  literary  sources  and  from  the  history  of  primitive 
Christianity  some  indications  of  the  origin  and  early  form  of 
the  meeting-places  of  the  cult.  The  results  of  these  researches 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows.  The  earliest  Christian 
assemblies,  during  the  lifetime  of  Jesus,  seem  to  have  taken 
place  in  the  synagogues  which  were  freely  opened  at  first  to  all 
"teachers."  Soon,  however,  the  hostility  of  the  Jews  drove 
the  new  sect  from  the  temples,  and  forced  it  to  take  refuge  in 
the  private  houses  of  its  members.  While  the  cult  was  spread- 
ing over  the  then  known  woi"ld,  the  house  continued  to  be  its 
usual  meeting-place.  But  during  the  heat  of  the  persecutions 
the  Christians  retired  for  safety  to  the  catacombs,  where  their 
secret  assemblies  were  held.  The  sect  found  protection  in  its 
resemblance  to  the  Roman  secret  societies,  organizations  which 
possessed  club  houses  or  scholse,  and  also  exedrse'  or  funeral 
cellae  (111.  32)  in  the  cemeteries,  w'here  were  celebrated  the  an- 
nual funeral  feasts  in  honor  of  deceased  members.  It  is  estab- 
lished that  the  Early  Christians  possessed  such  cellse,  and  the 
type  as  we  know  it  from  the  five  examples  extant  has  been  briefly 
described  above  (p.  48).  That  they  also  possessed  scholse  has 
not  been  proved.  During  the  periods  of  comparative  freedom 
that  intervened  between  the  various  persecutions,  the  Church 
prospered  and  its  membership  greatly  increased;  the  houses 
became  too  small  to  accommodate  the  assemblies,  and  outside 
halls  had  to  be  built.  That  churches,  as  such,  were  erected  as 
early  as  the  II  century  is  definitely  proved  from  literary  sources; 
and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  church  building  had 
taken  its  fully  developed  form,  such  as  we  find  it  under  Con- 
stantine,  at  least  fifty  years  before  the  time  of  that  emperor. 

G7 


THE   EARLY   CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

Working  backward  from  these  facts,  Prof.  G.  Baldwin  Brown 
some  thirty  years  ago  advanced  a  theory  which  derived  the  church 
from  the  synagogue.*  The  one  thing  we  know  definitely  about 
Jewish  architecture,  is  the  negative  fact  that  it  possessed  no 
fixed  forms;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  often 
adopted  the  basilican  type  for  its  synagogues.  Hardly  more 
convincing  are  the  alternative  theories  of  the  same  author  de- 
riving the  church  from  the  funeral  cella  —  which  it  resembles 
not  at  all  —  or  the  schola  —  a  type  of  building  little  known  but 
which  probably  consisted  ordinarily  of  a  small  rectangle  ending 
in  an  apse.  An  hypothesis  which  has  found  much  wider  accept- 
ance was  brought  forward  by  INIarchi  and  Mai'tigny,  and  has 
been  followed  by  Kraus.  This  derives  all  the  later  types  of 
Christian  building  from  the  catacombs,  in  whose  labyrinthian 
passages,  indeed,  are  to  be  found  chapels  of  almost  any  desired 
form.  It  does  not  seem  probable,  however,  that  these  under- 
ground caves  could  ever  have  given  the  prototype  for  such  a 
construction  as  the  basilica  with  its  lofty  clearstory. 

Of  those  to  derive  the  church  from  the  Roman  house,  Schultze 
was  the  first.  He  found  the  atrium  of  the  basilica  in  the  atrium 
of  the  house  (111.  27,  Fig.  6  c),  the  nave  and  aisles  in  the  peri- 
style {h),  the  apse  in  the  cecus  (j).  This  theory  on  its  face  is 
improbable.  The  resemblance  between  the  rooms  mentioned 
and  a  Christian  basilica  could  be  imagined  only  by  a  German. 

Most  ingenious  of  all  is  the  derivation  advocated  by  Wein- 
gartner  and  Messner.     It  is  founded  on  a  passage  of  Vitruvius,^ 

'  The  earliest  synagogues  that  have  come  down  to  us  are  found  in  Galilee.  They  were 
attributed  by  medieval  Jewish  pilgrims  to  the  famous  Cabbalist,  Simeon  Bar-Jochai,  of  the  II 
century,  A.D.  (c.  135).  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  tradition  may  be  correct,  for  scholars 
agree  in  supposing  these  monuments  to  date  from  that  time.  They  are  oblong  buildings,  divided 
into  aisles  by  rows  of  pillars.  They  do  not  seem  to  l)e  especially  orientated,  nor  are  they  turned 
towards  Jerusalem.  Indeed,  save  in  the  instance  of  Irbid,  the  doors  are  always  to  the  south,  so 
that  the  congregation  turned  their  back  to  the  Holy  City.  The  double  semi-pillars  found  com- 
monly at  one  end  of  the  building  are  thought  to  have  been  intended  to  support  a  gallery  for  the 
women.  Synagogues  are  extant  in  Galilee,  two  each  at  Kefr  Bir'im  and  Jish,  and  at  Meiron, 
Irbid,  Tell  Hum,  Kerazeh,  Nebratein,  Umm  el'  Amed,  Semmaka-on-Carmel  and  Sufsaf.  The 
other  early  sjniagogues  —  at  Alexandria,  Rome,  etc.  —  are  known  only  from  literary  sources. 

^"Nobilibus  vero,  qui  honores  magistratusque  gerundo  praestare  debent  officia  civibus, 
faeienda  smit  vestibula  regalia  alta,  atria,  et  peristylia  amplissima,  selvae,  ambulationesque 
laxiores  ad  decorem  majestatis  perfectae,  praeterea  bibliothecae,  pinacothecae,  basilicae  rum 
dissimxdi  modoquam  pidiliconim  operum  magnificentia  ramparatae,  quod  in  domibus  eorum  saepius 
et  publica  consilia  et  privata  judicia  arbitriaque  conficiuntur." 

68 


::^^^i:-.         /,| 


■■j'^;x 


Vv" 


ORIGIN   OF   THE   CHRISTIAN   BASILICA 

which,  in  describing  tlie  houses  of  nobles,  states  that  such  struc- 
tures should  be  su})plie(l  with  private  basilicas,  not  inferior  in 
magnificence  to  public  basilicas,  because  they  were  very  often 
used  for  both  public  councils  and  private  judicial  hearings. 
Here,  then,  was  a  chance  to  reconcile  the  actual  form  of  the 
Christian  basilica  with  the  fact  that  the  early  meetings  took 
place  in  private  houses.  Naturally  the  dwellings  of  the  wealth- 
iest members  would  be  selected,  as  being  the  largest,  to  accom- 
modate the  ever-growing  congregations;  and  what  apartment 
of  the  house  would  so  naturally  be  picked  out  for  such  an  as- 
sembly as  the  basilica.  Thus  all  the  analogies  to  the  public 
basilica  could  be  given  an  explanation  at  least  plausible. 

This  theory,  probably  on  the  whole  one  of  the  most  satis- 
factory yet  advanced,  has  still  its  difficulties,  which  have  been 
frequently  pointed  out.  First  of  all,  excavations  have  shown 
us  that  private  basilicas  were  not  by  any  means  so  common  as 
Vitruvius  would  lead  us  to  believe.  Only  one  has  been  discov- 
ered, and  that  in  the  Palace  of  the  Csesars  at  Rome.  None  of 
the  houses  at  either  Pompeii  or  Timgad  —  both  important  pro- 
vincial cities  —  was  supplied  with  one.  We  must  then  infer 
they  were  to  be  found  only  in  the  palaces  of  the  most  powerful 
in  the  land.  Such  men  did  not  belong  to  the  Christian  cult 
in  its  early  years  of  struggle,  nor  in  later  times,  when  each  small 
city  had  at  least  its  half  dozen  congregations,  were  they  suffi- 
ciently numerous  that  the  private  basilica  could  ever  have  been 
the  usual  place  of  Christian  assemblies. 

A  final  theory,  proposed  by  the  great  scholar  Dehio,  has 
gained  considerable  acceptance,  largely,  it  seems,  through  the 
authority  of  his  name.  This  is  really  a  revision  of  Schultze's 
idea.  Herr  Dehio  sees  in  the  atrium  (111.  27,  Fig.  6,  c)  of  the 
Pompeian  house  the  germ  of  the  nave  of  the  basilica,  since  the 
atria  of  the  so-called  Corinthian  type  have  a  court  surrounded 
with  columns,  which  might  conceivably  be  the  prototype  of  side 
aisles  and  a  nave  with  clearstory.  The  aire  (/  /)  would  give  the 
transepts,  the  tablinum  {g)  the  apse.  He  recognizes  direct  influ- 
ence from  the  public  basilica.  This  scheme  explains  the  existence 
of  the  transepts  —  and  is  one  of  the  few  explanations  worthy  of 
serious  consideration,  that  have   been  advanced  to  account  for 

G!) 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTL\N  STYLE 

that  puzzling  feature.'  But  the  entire  idea,  while  not  impos- 
sible, seems  far-fetched  and  improbable.  It  certainly  has  been, 
in  no  sense  of  the  word,  proved. 

So  we  come  to  the  end  of  the  great  basilica  controversy 
with  the  feeling  that  after  all  we  are  not  very  much  farther  along 
the  road  than  when  we  started.  The  striking  resemblances 
between  the  Christian  and  pagan  basilicas  remain,  and  none 
of  the  many  attempts  to  derive  the  Christian  church  from  other 
sources  is  entirely  satisfactory.  One  important  fact,  however, 
has  been  conclusively  demonstrated:  the  basilica  type  did  not 
spring  full-grown  into  being  at  the  command  of  Constantine, 
but  it  had  previously  undergone  a  long  course  of  development, 
although  the  steps  of  this  are  now  entirely  lost  to  us.  In  study- 
ing the  various  monuments  of  the  IV  and  later  centuries  that 
have  been  preserved,  and  the  remarkable,  if  futile,  work  of  all 
the  excellent  scholars  who  have  tried  to  trace  their  origin,  the 
conviction  is  borne  in  upon  me  with  ever-increasing  force,  that 
the  various  schools  of  Italy,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Africa,  are,  as  it 
were,  sisters,  derived  from  a  common  parent.  From  this  an- 
cestor they  have  inherited  certain  common  characteristics,  in 
which  they  all  share;  but  also  each  has  preserved  from  the  parent 
certain  features  her  sisters  have  failed  to  inherit.  Such  fea- 
tures would  seem  to  be  the  double  apses  of  Africa,  the  returned 
west  aisles  of  Egypt,  the  lateral  entrances  and  single-storied 
apses  of  Syria.  If  now,  from  the  characteristics  of  the  children, 
we  should  try  to  restore  the  parent,  joining  to  their  common 
features  such  peculiarities  of  the  prototype  as  the  individuals 
may  be  supposed  to  have  separately  preserved,  —  we  should 
deduce  a  building  (with  the  significant  exception  of  the  returned 
eastern  aisle)  precisely  similar  to  the  pagan  basilica.  The 
Christian  church  in  some  one  of  its  types,  preserves  practically 
every  distinctive  structural  feature  of  the  latter  building. 

Why,  when,  and  where,  the  pagan  basilica  came  to  be  adopted 
as  the  prototype  of  the  Christian  church,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
Accidents  have  more  than  once  turned  the  scale  in  architectural 
history.     The  makeshift  of  the  masons  at  Caen  established  the 

'  It  is  certainly  a  curious  coincidence  that  basilicas  are  supplied  with  transepts  much  more 
frequently  in  those  provinces  where  the  Roman  house  had  regularly  been  furnished  with  al£e. 

70 


CIRCULAR   CHURCHES 

type  of  vault  for  many  of  the  most  important  French  cathedrals. 
The  first,  or  the  first  important,  Christian  congregation  to  build 
a  church  may  by  pure  chance  have  occupied  or  made  over  a 
secular  basilica.  Since  it  was  found  well  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  cult,  the  same  type  may  have  been  adopted  by  the 
second  congregation  when  the  second  church  came  to  be  built; 
and  so  the  type  would  soon  become  established  by  tradition. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered  —  as  many 
archaeologists  have  failed  to  do  —  that  Rome  in  the  early  cen- 
turies by  no  means  occupied  the  commanding  ecclesiastical 
position  she  was  later  to  acquire.  Her  bishops  may  have  been 
the  equals,  but  they  certainly  were  not  the  superiors  of  the  bishops 
of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  or  Carthage.  In  the  East,  as  in  all 
the  far  provinces,  the  rigor  of  the  persecutions  was  less  relent- 
less than  at  the  capital;  consequently  the  Oriental  church  devel- 
oped more  rapidly.  It  is  well  known  that  monasticism  and 
many  other  important  ecclesiastical  institutions  were  brought 
from  the  East  to  the  West.  In  the  East  was  the  first  bloom  of 
Christianity,  and  here  must  the  origin  of  the  basilica  —  a  char- 
acteristically Greek  type  —  be  sought. 

The  second  type  of  building  erected  by  the  Early  Christians 
was  the  circular  church.  Circular  temples,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  been  built  by  the  Greeks  (111.  4,  Fig.  6)  and  Romans  (111. 
13,  23).  The  Early  Christians  did  not  adopt  these  types  with- 
out change,  however,  and  the  question  of  their  derivation  offers 
doubtless  quite  as  wide  an  opportunity  for  controversy  and  in- 
genious theorizing  as  does  that  of  the  basilica.  Of  far  less 
importance  than  the  latter,  the  circular  church  has  received 
correspondingly  less  attention. 

In  the  West,  the  circular  building  was  usually  used  for  a 
baptistery,  and  it  is  at  present  the  fashion  to  derive  the  round 
church  from  the  circular  hall,  or  calidarium,  of  the  Roman 
thermje  (111.  "io).  Why  the  room  of  the  hot  bath,  instead  of 
the  cold  or  lukewarm,  should  have  been  selected,  does  not  appear. 
This  theory  on  its  face  seems  to  have  little  but  unconscious 
humor  to  recommend  it.  However,  the  entire  subject  is  so 
involved  that  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  confidence.  Only 
two  facts  bearing  upon  the  question  seem  to  be  established:  the 

71 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

first,  that  the  circular  cliurch  was  probably  a  western  develop- 
ment, but  very  few  circular  churches  earlier  than  the  V  century 
having  come  down  to  us  in  the  East;'  and  the  second,  that 
there  is  no  indication  of  such  church  having  existed  before  the 
time  of  Constantine. 


III.  44.  —  Plan  and  Section  of  Sta.  Costanza,  Rome.     (From  Canina) 

The  great  innovation  introduced  by  the  Early  Christians  in 
the  circular  type  of  building  was  the  addition  of  side  aisles.  The 
Romans  had  never  made  use  of  this  device.  They  had,  how- 
ever, frequently  surrounded  their  circular  edifices  with  deep 
niches  and  Dehio  sees  the  origin  of  the  aisles  in  doorways  cut 
from  one  of  these  niches  into  its  neighbor.     That  is  going  rather 

1  St.  George  at  Salonica  is,  I  believe,  the  single  exception.  It  is  known  from  literary  sources, 
however,  that  the  churches  at  Antioch  and  the  early  Hagia  Sophia  were  circular.  The  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  is  an  edifice  too  exceptional  in  character  to  be  classed  as  a 
circular  church. 

72 


DOMED    EDIFICES 

far  afield.     Analogy  with  the  basihca  form  undoubtedly  offers 
a  sufficient  and  easier  explanation  of  this  innovation. 

By  no  means  all  circidar  churches  were  supplied  with  side 
aisles,  although  this  form  was  preferred.  (See  111.  44,  45,  46, 
and  47.)  Similarly,  the  nave,  while  usually  covered  with  a 
dome,  in  certain  cases  —  notably  S.  Stefano  Rotondo  at  Rome 
—  was  merely  roofed  with  wood.  Wherever  the  dome  was  em- 
ployed, it  was  usually  covered  externally  by  a  low  roof  of  tiles 
to  protect  it  from  the  weather,  thus  essentially  changing  the 
exterior  appearance  of  the  building. 


III.  45.  —  Plan  of  the  Baptistery,   S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano. 
(From  De  Rossi) 

Much  as  the  dome  was  appreciated  as  an  architectural  fea- 
ture, the  Early  Christians  seem  to  have  strongly  felt  the  undesir- 
ability  of  a  circular  ground  plan.  A  plain  cylindrical  building 
crowned  by  a  dome  is  not  only  normally  of  little  architectural 
interest,  but  in  a  city  is  wasteful  of  land,  for,  since  city  lots  are 
naturally  rectangular,  a  circular  building  cannot  be  set  upon 
one  without  making  useless  the  corners  of  the  lot.  So  there 
early  began  a  struggle  to  discover  a  method  of  setting  a  circular 
dome  on  a  polygonal  or  square  substructure.  This  problem 
the  Early  Christians  never  fully  mastered,  although  atZor'ah 
and  Ravenna  they  made  substantial  progress  towards  its  solution. 
The   usual    manner   in   which   the   difficulty   was   avoided   is 

7.S 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 


illustrated  in  the  plan  of  St.  George  of  Zor'ah  (III.  47).  Here 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  octagon  of  the  dome  is  carried  down  in 
the  plan  of  the  main  arcade,  which  is  surrounded  by  an  aisle. 
But  the  aisle,  octagonal  on  its  inside  edge,  by  means  of  niches, 
walls  of  varying  thicknesses,  and  other  devices  is  made  exter- 
nally to  fill  out  a  rectangle.     This  scheme,  though  often  carried 


III.  47.  —  Plan  of  St.  George  of  Zor'ah 

out  with  great  ingenuity,  is  really  nothing  but  "faking"  a 
round  building  to  make  it  look  square,  and  shows  much  more 
sense  of  cleverness  than  of  artistic  propriety.  It  was  undoubt- 
edly a  reminiscence  of  Roman  methods  of  design. 

The  problem  was  much  simplified  when,  as  was  usually 
the  case  in  the  West,  the  circular  church  was  used  for  a  bap- 
tistery, and  not  for  the  celebration  of  the  ordinary  ofiices ;  in  a 

74 


J 


III.  +1).  —  Iiitcriiir,  S.  (i 


Foi.lr.   Ka 


THE   SCHOOL   OF   ITALY 

baptistery,  there  was  no  need  of  an  apse,  and  the  location  of  the 
font  under  the  central  dome  was  given  its  becoming  architec- 
tural emphasis.  When  the  circular  building  came  later,  in  the 
East,  to  l)e  used  as  a  church,  the  case  was  altered.  It  was  im- 
possible to  place  the  altar  in  the  center  of  the  building,  since 
tradition  and  natural  instinct  demanded  that  the  altar  should 
be  at  one  end.  Accordingly  an  eastern  apse  was  constructed; 
but  the  feeling  remained  that  the  altar,  which  should  be  the 
center  of  interest  in  the  church,  was  shut  off  in  a  relatively  un- 
important excrescence  to  the  building,  while  the  dome,  which 
instantly  caught  and  fixed  the  spectator's  attention,  covered  the 
least  holy  part  of  the  edifice  (111.  47).  This  difficulty  was  later 
minimized  by  the  Byzantines,  but  has  never  been  completely 
solved. 


Of  the  great  schools  of  Early  Christian  art,  none  is  so  deser- 
ving of  close  study  as  that  of  Italy.  It  was  the  Italian  basilica 
that  became  the  model  for  all  medieval  western  art,  and  in 
themselves  the  Early  Christian  churches  of  Rome  and  Ravenna 
are  better  preserved  and  more  beautiful  than  any  of  the  same 
period  extant  in  Syria,  Egypt,  or  northern  Africa. 

Of  original  sculpture,  the  basilicas  in  Italy  show  hardly  a 
trace.  Built  entirely  of  pilfered  materials,  these  monuments 
can  rarely  boast  of  even  a  single  moulding  newly  cut.  At  most 
we  find  a  few  crude  representations  of  the  labarum  (111.  61,  the 
figure  enclosed  in  a  circle  on  the  lintel  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner),  the  Greek  cross,  or  some  monogram  carved  among  the 
ancient  decorations.  Doubtless  the  altars  and  other  church 
furniture  showed  more  elaborate  plastic  decoration,  such  as  we 
find  on  sarcophagi,  but  of  these  none  has  come  down  to  our  day. 

The  glory  of  the  Italian  school,  however,  was  its  mosaics. 
No  other  accessory  art  —  with  the  single  exception  of  stained 
glass  —  is  of  such  beauty  in  itself  and  at  the  same  time  so  per- 
fectly architectural  in  character,  as  mosaic.  This  decoration, 
which  was  used  lavishly  to  accentuate  the  importance  of  the 
apse  and  arch  of  triumph,  was  often  continued  also  in  the  tri- 
forium  space,  or  between  the  clearstory  windows;  in  fact,  over 

75 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

the  entire  wall  surface,  until  the  church  was  completely  aglow 
with  that  soft  and  luminous  splendor  that  is  peculiarly  the  prop- 
erty  of  this   decoration. 

There  are  three  different  varieties  of  mosaic  that  should  be 
carefully  distinguished.'  The  opus  sectile  was  employed  by 
the  Romans  in  the  late  Empire,  and  was  occasionally  used  to 
decorate  Early  Christian  edifices  as  in  the  famous  arcade  of  Sta. 
Sabina,  or  in  the  well-known  figure  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  both 
at  Rome.  The  characteristic  of  this  species  of  mosaic  is  the  fact 
that  each  piece  of  marble  is  cut  to  a  definite  shape  to  occupy  a 
certain  position.  If,  for  instance,  a  tiger  should  be  represented, 
the  form  of  the  tiger  would  be  entii-ely  cut  out  of  a  single  piece 
of  yellow  marble,  inlaid  on  a  dark  background,  consisting  also 
of  a  single  piece  of  marble.  The  tiger's  stripes  would  each  be  a 
separate  black  slab,  cut  to  the  desired  shape,  and  inlaid  on 
the  yellow  body.  This  method  of  mosaic  is  so  difficult  of  exe- 
cution as  to  more  than  counterbalance  any  advantage  in  the 
freedom  of  design  it  affords. 

Opus  alexandrinum  had  been  extensively  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans, especially  for  floors,  and  by  them  had  been  raised  to  the 
highest  rank  as  a  decorative  art.  It  consists  of  many  cubes  of 
marble  of  various  colors,  all  of  the  same  size  and  fitted  together 
to  form  the  desired  design.  Naturally  this  method  gives  a  cer- 
tain stiffness  to  the  curves  of  a  pictorial  representation,  but  this, 
however,  even  increases  the  architectural  character  of  the  orna- 
ment. By  the  Romans  this  method  had  been  applied  to  purely 
conventional,  as  well  as  to  pictorial,  designs  with  equal  success. 
It  was  seldom  used  on  the  walls,  but  was  a  favorite  decoration 
for  pavements.  The  Christians  adopted  the  opus  alexandrimivi 
from  the  earliest  times.  Certain  important  tombs  among  the 
catacombs  of  Rome  show  pavements  and  even  wall  surfaces 
decorated  with  mosaics  of  a  classic  type.  Later  this  ornament 
was  borrowed  for  the  adornment  of  churches. 

Numerous  examples  of  this  art  have  come  down  to  us  in 
the  Early  Christian  basilicas  —  at  Rome  excellent  types  may 
be  found  in  the  churches  of  Sta.  Costanza  (early  IV  century), 

'  There  is  much  divergence  among  authorities  as  to  the  terms  for  designating  the  various 
mosaics.     I  have  adopted  what  on  the  whole  seems  the  simplest  classification. 

76 


ITALIAN   MOSAICS 

Sta.  Pudenziana  (end  of  the  IV  century),  and  in  the  beautiful 
desin;n  of  vokites  and  foHage  which  adorns  one  of  the  apses  of 
the  ancient  portico  of  the  baptistery  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano 
(end  of  the  IV  or  early  V  century).  The  mosaics  of  Sta.  Cos- 
tanza  (IH.  48),  thoroughly  typical  of  this  period  and  method, 
are  purely  pagan  in  design  and  technique.  The  patterns  show 
interlacing  vines,  vintage  scenes,  and  similar  compositions  treated 
in  a  thoroughly  classical  spirit. 

The  third  and  most  important  species  of  mosaic  which  is 
known  as  opus  graecanicum,  is  purely  an  Early  Christian  art, 
and  in  its  general  principles  quite  similar  to  opus  alexandrimim , 
except  that  the  cubes  are  slightly  larger  and,  instead  of  being 
of  marble,  are  of  glass.  Through  opus  groecanicum  became 
possible  those  ravishing  effects  of  color  we  always  associate 
with  Early  Christian  mosaics,  for  the  glass  possessed  a  lumi- 
nous quality  of  color  quite  impossible  to  obtain  in  marble.  The 
early  artists  excelled  especially  in  producing  a  deep  blue,  whose 
pure  serenity  has  been  equaled  only  by  Gothic  stained  glass, 
while  an  intense  expression  of  golden  splendor  was  obtained  by 
laying  thin  leaves  of  gold  over  a  red  background. 

The  mosaics  in  opus  groecanicuvi  flourished  at  Rome,  except 
for  a  single  interruption,  from  the  IV  century  to  the  Renais- 
sance. Their  history  is  a  fascinating  study.  The  earliest  ex- 
amples are  vigorous  and  good  in  drawing,  although  already  that 
defect  which  marred  the  works  of  the  first  half  of  the  V  century 
begins  to  be  felt  —  a  certain  monotony  and  rigorous  symmetry  of 
composition.  The  subjects  represented  after  the  middle  of  the  IV 
century  are  usually  strictly  ecclesiastical,  and  we  here  enter  upon 
that  splendid  series  of  pictorial  representations  of  Church  and 
Bible  history  later  destined  to  glorify  and  be  glorified  by  the 
arts  of  sculpture,  painting,  and  stained  glass.  Saints  and  martyrs 
in  endless  procession  gaze  serenely  upon  us  from  triforium  and 
clearstory,  while  apse  and  arch  of  triumph  are  glorious  with 
scenes  drawn  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  It  is  notice- 
able, however,  that  the  sufferings  of  the  passion  are  never  repre- 
sented before  the  VI  century.' 

'  There  is  a  noticeable  return  to  the  style  of  classic  art  in  the  mosaic  of  the  vault  of  the  ora- 
tory of  the  baptistery  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  dating  from  the  last  half  of  the  V  century. 

77 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ST\XE 

Byzantine  influence  first  becomes  evident  in  the  Roman 
mosaics  of  the  VI  century.  The  earliest  example  where  it  is 
distinctly  shown  is  the  great  apse  mosaic  in  the  church  of  Ss. 
Cosma  e  Damiano  (111.  49).  The  early  part  of  this  Byzantine 
period,  whether  at  Rome  or  at  Ravenna,  was  the  high-water 
mark  of  Christian  mosaics.  Under  Byzantine  influence,  the 
figures  were  drawn  in  good  proportions,  and  posed  in  noble  atti- 
tudes. The  draperies  were  simple,  yet  dignified.  All  the  monu- 
ments of  Ravenna  furnish  noble  examples  of  this  period,  which 
reached  its  culmination  towards  the  end  of  the  \T  century. 
Soon  after  there  began  a  rapid  decline.  The  figures  became 
stiff,  awkwardly  elongated,  and  the  draperies  excessively  rich,  in 
imitation  of  the  costumes  of  the  Byzantine  court.  Examples  of 
this  type  may  be  seen  at  Rome  in  the  arch  of  S.  Lorenzo,  in  the 
apses  of  S.  Teodoro,  Sta.  Agnese,  and  S.  Stefano  Rotondo.  The 
art  of  mosaic  leaving  farther  and  farther  behind  its  primitive 
ideals,  now  advanced  with  rapid  strides  towards  its  extreme 
decadence.  Its  last  phase  is  represented  in  the  mosaic  of  S. 
Marco,  the  final  example  —  the  death  agony  —  of  this  primitive 
art  (111.  50).  After  this,  for  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half, 
the  noble  decoration  seems  to  have  passed  out  of  use.  There 
exists  no  trace  of  any  mosaics  executed  in  Rome  during  this 
period. 

In  the  XI  century  the  art  of  mosaic,  so  long  forgotten  in  Italy, 
revived,  thanks  to  the  school  founded  at  Rome  by  the  mosaic- 
workers  summoned  from  Constantinople  to  Monte  Cassino  by 
the  Abate  Desiderio  in  1066.  These  Greek  artists  were  more 
or  less  inspired  by  Byzantine  models  for  their  principal  figures, 
but  clothed  them  often  in  the  Latin  fashion.  The  decorations 
imitated  the  charming  designs  in  flowers  and  foliage  with  birds 
and  animals,  that  we  find  so  often  in  the  mosaics  of  the  IV  to 
VI  centuries.  To  this  Italio-Byzantine  period  belong  the  mo- 
saics of  the  apse  of  S.  Clemente,  the  fa9ade  and  apse  of  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore,  and  many  others. 

But  the  Roman  mosaic-workers  emancipated  themselves 
little  by  little  from  the  rigid  and  conventional  forms  of  the 
Byzantine  school.  This  movement  began  towards  the  end  of 
the  XIII  century,  chiefly  under  the  influence  of  Giotto.     The 

78 


ri'.  Uoiiie.      (Kniiii  De  Rossi) 


COSMATI   WORK 

traditional  types  became  more  supple  —  the  hard  lines  were 
softened,  the  draperies  fell  in  more  natural  folds.  Yet,  until 
the  middle  of  the  XIV  century,  the  mosaics  betray  the  persist- 
ent influence  of  Byzantine  tradition,  as,  for  example,  Pietro 
Cavallini's  composition  in  the  apse  of  Sta.  INIaria  in  Trastevere. 
The  works  of  this  artist,  like  those  of  Mino  da  Torrita  and  Fil- 
ippo  Rusuti,  who  decorated  the  apse  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano 
and  the  arcade  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  mark  the  moment  when 
Italian  art  enters  the  era  of  the  Renaissance.' 

The  Early  Christian  mosaics  in  pure  design  are  second  in 
interest  only  to  the  figure  mosaics.  Executed  in  opus  groecanicum, 
they  sometimes  supplanted  figure  mosaics  even  in  the  great  apses. 
Decorative  borders  occur  also  in  many  of  the  figure  mosaics. 
The  patterns  used  are  usually  the  Vitruvian  scroll,  together 
with  monograms  or  volutes.  Rinceaux  and  garlands  are  also 
common,  but  most  used  of  all  is  a  new  motive,  consisting  of 
alternating  squares  and  circles  (shown  in  the  border  of  the  S. 
Marco  mosaic.  111.  50).  As  a  rule,  there  is  little  chronological 
development  noticeable  in  these  decorations,  although  after 
the  XI  century,  a  design  consisting  of  alternating  circles  and 
diamonds  becomes  common. 

In  the  vault  of  the  oratory  of  S.  Zenone  in  Sta.  Passede  at 
Rome  is  inlaid  a  porphyry  slab.  This  slab  seems  to  be  a  sluice 
cut  out  of  an  ancient  column,  and  marks,  perhaps,  the  first  step 
in  the  formation  of  that  school  of  mosaic-workers  who  appeared 
in  Rome  in  the  XII  century,  and  are  known  from  the  name  of 
the  family  which  excelled  in  this  handicraft  as  the  Cosmati. 
The  basis  of  their  peculiar  designs  were  such  round  slabs  of 
colored  marble.  About  them  they  turned  flowing  and  inter- 
lacing guilloches  of  mosaic  in  compositions  of  the  most  ravish- 
ing loveliness.  These  bands  of  mosaic  were  composed  in  turn 
of  various  square  and  star  patterns,  interesting  and  varied  in 
themselves.  This  Cosmati  work  made  use  of  a  combination 
of  the  methods  employed  in  opus  alcxandrinnm  and  opus  cjroE- 
canicum,  small  pieces  of  both  glass  and  marble  being  combined. 
But,  instead  of  all  the  pieces  being  cubes,  some  were  triangles, 
and  others  were  cut  in  various  dift'erent  shapes.     Thus  great 

'  Cf.  Gatti's  Introduction  to  De  Rossi's  Musaici. 
7!) 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

freedom  of  design  was  obtained.  These  charming  works  of 
the  Roman  artists,  wedding  at  once  sculpture  and  mosaic,  com- 
bining opus  sectile  with  opus  alexandriuum  and  opus  groecanicum, 
must  rank  with  the  greatest  achievements  of  purely  deco- 
rative art.  During  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries  this  lovely  orna- 
ment unwound  its  graceful  curves  in  countless  ambos,  ciboria, 
scholse  cantorum,  altars,  friezes,  facades,  and  pavements  through- 
out southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  but  especially  at  Rome.  Our 
illustration  (111.  51),  though  of  course  giving  no  idea  of  the  rich 
color  of  the  original,  will  still  serve  to  suggest  the  inexpressible 
grace  and  loveliness  of  the  design. 

Side  by  side  Avith  mosaics,  paintings  and  frescoes  were  used 
in  Rome  as  mural  decorations.  We  have  early  examples  in 
the  churches  of  S.  Paolo,  f.l.m.,  Ss.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  and  Sta. 
Maria  Antiqua.  Judged  from  a  purely  decorative  standpoint, 
painting  is  an  art  less  adaptable  to  architecture  than  mosaic; 
and  the  latter  seems  to  have  been  generally  preferred,  especially 
for  the  more  important  parts  of  the  buildings,  such  as  the  apse. 
Still  painting  undoubtedly  played  a  large  part  in  Early  Chris- 
tian architectural  decoration  —  a  much  larger  part,  in  fact, 
than  its  scant  remains  would  lead  us  to  infer.  Its  history  and 
development  form  a  chapter  of  the  history  of  art  quite  as  long 
as  that  of  architecture  itself,  and  too  well  known  to  require  sum- 
mary here. 

In  singular  contrast  to  the  eventful  history  of  the  accessory 
arts  in  Italy,  especially  that  of  mosaic,  was  the  course  of  Early 
Christian  architecture  itself.  In  fact,  its  leading  character- 
istic may  be  said  to  be  its  utter  lack  of  progress.  The  supply 
of  classic  ruins  from  which  convenient  materials  might  be  pil- 
fered was  well-nigh  inexhaustible,  so  that  the  builders  were 
able  to  continue  indefinitely  the  old  methods  of  construction, 
and  were  not  forced,  as  in  the  North,  to  invent  for  themselves 
new  forms  where  classical  columns  should  not  be  required. 
Furthermore,  the  very  conservatism  of  Rome  opposed  any  change 
in  the  traditional  and  time-honored  types.  Hence  it  came  about 
that  for  twelve  centuries  the  basilica  remained  essentially  un- 
altered. 

The    slight    changes    that    took   place    may,  in   general,    be 

80 


III.  o'i.  —  Faviiile  of  S.  (iiorjjii)  in  Velaljro,  Rome 


lu,.  53.  —  H;isili<a  at  ('lia(|.|a.      I'lT-piT-liM-  of  ('(inslnictioii.      (Kroiii  Dc  Viicriie) 


CAMPANILES 

stated  in  a  few  brief  sentences.  Atria  gradually  passed  out  of 
use.  In  the  IX  and  X  centuries  the  decay  of  technique  fell 
to  its  lowest  depths,  but  in  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries  it  again 
revived.'  In  certain  churches  rectangular  piers  were  substi- 
tuted for  columns  in  every  two  or  three  bays,  and  at  Sta.  Pras- 
seda  transverse  arches  spanning  the  nave  were  sprung  from 
such  piers. 

One.  and  only  one  innovation  of  importance  was  made:  — 
the  introduction  of  campaniles  or  bell  towers.  The  subject 
presents  singular  obscurities.  At  Ravenna,  round  towers  (111. 
42)  were  erected  at  an  unknown  date  (perhaps  in  the  VII  or 
VIII  century),  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  basilicas,  but  directly 
connected  with  them,  if  at  all,  only  by  means  of  underground 
passages.  The  purposes  of  these  towers  is  up  to  the  present 
an  unsolved  enigma.  They  certainly  have  the  external  ap- 
pearance of  being  towers  of  defense;  but  it  is  hard  to  see  how 
they  could  have  effectively  served  this  purpose  within  a  walled 
stronghold  like  Ravenna.  At  all  events  they  seem  later  (IX 
century)  to  have  been  imitated  at  Rome,  —  only  here  they  re- 
appear in  square  form,  and  undoubtedly  served  as  campaniles, 
or  bell  towers.  These  campaniles  were  adopted  by  all  the  medi- 
eval Italian  styles,  undergoing  for  the  most  part  no  further 
change.  They  always  remained  square  towers  of  brick,  de- 
prived of  architectural  adornment  save  for  the  windows  which 
were  spaced  so  as  to  be  more  numerous  towards  the  top.  The 
campanile  regularly  stood  detached  from  the  church,-  thus  form- 
ing a  totally  separate  piece  of  architecture.  These  towers,  by 
their  very  simplicity,  acquire  a  sort  of  quaintness  and  charm. 
Few  features  of  the  Italian  landscape  impress  themselves  more 
vividly  on  the  traveler's  remembrance  than  the  campaniles, 
with  which  the  countryside  is  everywhere  dotted  (111.  52).^ 

'  Roman  architecture  remainetl  to  tlie  Renaissance  unconscious  of  the  progress  of  its  neigh- 
bors. In  only  two  churches  —  S.  .\ntonio  and  S.  Tomniaso  in  Forniis  —  is  there  a  trace  of  Ro- 
manesque influence,  and  in  only  one  —  Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva  —  of  Gothic  decoration. 

'  S.  Giorgio  in  Valabro  at  Rome  and  S.  .Ambrogio  at  Milan,  witli  perhaps  a  few  other  in- 
stances, are  exceptions. 

'  The  origin  of  campaniles  lias  been  lately  much  discussed.  Sig.  Venturi  believes  that 
they  were  intended  originally  to  serve  as  lighthouses.  Sig.  Gardella,  the  most  recent  writer  on 
the  subject,  refutes  this  strange  idea  by  showing  that  many  of  the  earliest  examples  were  not  near 
the  water.     He  goes  on  to  argue  that  they  could  have  been  erected  only  to  serve  as  bell  towers, 

81 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ST\XE 

Ravenna  not  only  gave  to  Italy  the  campanile,  but  also  gave 
a  splendid  impetus  to  art  through  the  Byzantine  monuments 
there  erected  in  the  VI  century-.  As  we  shall  see,  this  influence 
later  bore  very  rich  fruit  in  the  Lombard  Romanesque.  At 
Rome  the  strength  of  the  Byzantine  influence  is  unmistakable, 
although  the  use  of  pilfered  materials  prevented  its  manifesta- 
tion in  architecture.  How  thoroughly  Byzantine  the  Roman 
mosaics  became  in  the  VI  century,  has  already  been  remarked, 
and  this  same  tendency  is  equally  unmistakable  in  the  carved 
ornament  of  this  time.  It  is  possibly  open  to  question  whether 
this  influence  may  not  have  been  exerted  from  Constantinople 
directly,  as  well  as  through  the  medium  of  Ravenna. 


The  Syrian  school  of  Early  Christian  architecture  is  of  such 
interest  not  only  in  itself,  but  because  of  the  circumstance  that 
it  anticipated  to  a  remarkable  extent  the  later  developments  of 
Western  art,  that  it  must  be  briefly  described,  although  it  cannot 
be  considered  as  having  directly  influenced  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture in  Europe.'  Unfortunately,  however,  it  is  in  many  ways 
a  singularly  diificult  and  complex  subject  to  treat  in  the  brief 
space  that  can  here  be  accorded  it. 

It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  three  main  sub-schools  of  Syrian 
art:  the  first,  which  is  found  in  the  region  about  the  Djebel 
Hauran,  we  may  call  the  southern  school;  the  second,  or  north- 
ern school,  centers  in  the  Djebel  il-A'la  and  the  Djebel  Barisha; 
the  third,  or  central  school,  in  the  Djebel  Riha,  and  adjacent 
regions.^     The  school  of  the  South  is    quite    distinct;    even  in 

and  consequently  cannot  have  come  into  use  before  the  IX  or  X  century,  large  bells  not  having 
been  used  before  this.  Comm.  Rivoira  takes  substantially  this  same  position,  which,  on  the  whole, 
carries  conviction.  No  one  believes  longer  in  Cattaneo's  ascription  to  the  VI  century  of  the  cam- 
panile of  S.  Satiro,  Milan.  M.  Enlart,  however,  (ilanuel  d'archeologie  jranfaise,  p.  174),  cites 
two  texts  which  seem  to  show  that  the  date  for  the  introduction  of  bell  towers  must  be  placed 
at  least  as  early  as  the  VIII  century.  One,  from  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  states  that  the  popes 
Stephen  II  (75i2-757),  Hadrian  I  (772-79,5),  and  Leo  III  (795-816),  placed  bells  in  the  towers 
of  the  Vatican  basilica.  The  other,  the  chronicle  of  the  abbots  of  Fontenelle,  mentions,  while 
speaking  of  Prevot  Tentsindus,  who  held  office  from  734-738,  that  he  had  made  a  bell  to  be  placed 
in  the  tower,  as  is  usual  in  churches.  Campanum  in  turricula  collocandum  ut  moris  est  ecrlesi- 
arum.     (Pertz,  M.  G.  H.,  Scr.  t.  II,  p.  284).     See  also  below,  p.  160. 

■  Many  eminent  scholars,  however,  and  especially  Viollet-le-Duc  have  seen  a  direct  connec- 
tion between  the  two. 

2  Including  the  Djebel  Sim'an. 

82 


^^^■^^ 


y-l      ■      ■      ■       ■      I 
^      ■      "      ■       ■      I 

I     B    ■    I     ■  ^ 


1 1  -  ■  ^  i  ■  M^iEMr 


III.  55.  —  Basilira  at  IlAss.       KmiTi  Dc  Wn^iu-) 


THE   SCHOOL   OF   SYRIA 

Roman  times  its  buildings  liatl  shown  strongly  localized  tend- 
encies, which,  by  the  l\  century,  had  become  so  developed 
that  for  the  most  part  its  monuments  present  few  analogies 
with  those  of  the  West.  The  school  of  the  North,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  distinctly  Latin,  or,  as  Mr.  Butler  will  have  it,  Greek. 
The  school  of  the  Center,  while  more  closely  allied  to  that  of 
the  North,  still  frequently  betrays  relationship  with  the  South, 
although  with  the  characteristics  borrowed  from  its  neighbors, 
it  also  combines  certain  traits  that  seem  to  be  original  to  itself. 
But  these  originalities  are  in  turn  sometimes  borrowed  both  by 
the  North  and  the  South.  Thus  the  three  schools  continually 
overlap,  and  the  difference  between  them,  while  evident,  is 
extraordinarily  difficult  to  define. 

This  difficulty  is  further  increased  by  the  growth  of  the 
schools,  which  show  distinct  phases  in  the  IV,  V,  and  VI  cen- 
turies. We  have,  therefore,  in  all,  nine  distinct  styles  to  ac- 
count for,  a  number  still  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  the 
same  school  in  the  same  century  will  often  exhibit  two  or  three 
synchronous  types. 

The  school  of  the  South  is  characterized  above  all  by  the 
use  of  a  stone  roof,  called  the  "Syrian  vault,"  whose  nature 
can  be  best  understood  by  reference  to  Illustration  53.  Trans- 
verse arches  —  one  of  the  great  discoveries  of  western  architec- 
ture four  centuries  later  —  are  thrown  across  nave  and  aisles, 
and  support  a  stone  roof  of  lintel  construction.  The  plan  of 
Tafha  (111.  54)  shows  a  typical  church  of  this  school  of  the 
Hauran.  Monuments  of  this  class  have  regularly  a  single  apse, 
or  sometimes  no  apse  at  all,  no  clearstory,  galleries,  and  a  nave 
divided  from  the  aisles  by  a  row  of  piers  '  instead  of  columns. 
The  mouldings  and  decorations  are  of  the  simplest  type,  or  are 
omitted  altogether.  Generally  the  entire  structure  was  covered 
by  a  Syrian  vault.  To  judge  from  the  buildings  that  have  been 
published  up  to  the  present,  this  school  of  the  South,  which 
promised  so  well,  showed  far  less  real  growth  and  progress  than 
its  sisters;  in  fact,  according  to  Mr.  Butler,  the  history  of  the 
style  is  one  of  continuous  decline.  In  the  VI  century,  never- 
theless, a  very  interesting  type  of  circular  building  came  into  use 

'  For  definition  of  a  pier  see  below,  p.  166. 
83 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ST\XE 

in  the  Haiiran.  The  plan  of  one  of  these,  St.  George  at  Zor'ah, 
we  reproduce  in  111.  47.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  on  the 
walls  of  this  church  were  discovered  traces  of  plaster,  which 
Mr.  Butler  believes  to  indicate  ancient  decoration  with  mosaic 
and  fresco.  These  circular  churches  were  roofed  with  domes 
of  concrete. 

Passing  now  to  the  northern  school,  we  find  the  Latin  basil- 
ica the  typical  form  of  church  building.  The  aisles  were  sep- 
arated by  columns,'  and  roofed  in  wood ;  the  nave  was  provided 
with  a  clearstory  (111.  60).  There  were  always  three  apses;  the 
main  entrances  were  often  on  the  sides.  The  details  of  carving 
were  at  first  classic,  of  a  debased  sort,  rapidly  becoming  Byzan- 
tinesque (111.  61).  Columns  on  arches  were  regularly  employed, 
although  the  flat  architrave  is  sometimes  found  as  late  as  the  V 
century.^  The  narthex  is  rarely  at  the  west  end,  but  is  often 
placed  to  the  north  or  south,  and  turned  into  a  sort  of  portico, 
especially  in  the  single-aisled  churches  (111.  59,  60).^  Arcuated 
lintels  are  commonly  used  instead  of  arches  (111.  55) ;  galleries 
are  never  employed.  Circular  buildings  do  not  occur,  bap- 
tisteries being  either  square  or  on  the  basilican  plan.  Towers 
were  often  built  in  several  stories  over  the  lateral  apses. 

As  time  went  on,  the  style  developed  certain  marked  pecu- 
liarities. The  mouldings,  which  at  first  had  been  sparingly 
used,  were  later  incised,  and  finally  assumed  characteristic  pro- 
files; in  the  VI  century  they  came  to  be  twisted  into  those 
unique  forms  which  we  may  call  the  Syrian  and  volute  mould- 
ing motives,  shown  in  111.  57.  About  the  same  period  the 
central  apse  was  made  square  internally  instead  of  semicircu- 
lar (111.  55). 

In  the  Center,  we  find  two  distinct  types  of  church.  The 
first,  which  finds  its  highest  expression  in  the  great  conventual 
establishment  at  Kal'at  Sim'an,  follows  essentially  the  school 
of  the  North  in  general  structure  as  well  as  in  decoration.     Yet 

'  Yet  in  some  of  the  churches  bordering  on  the  desert  piers  were  employed,  probably 
because  the  construction  was  in  basalt,  a  material  so  hard  as  to  be  difficult  to  work  into  the 
form  of  columns. 

^  At  Btirsa. 

^  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Howard  Crosby  Butler  for  his  kind  permission  to  reproduce  these 
plans  from  Architecture  aid  Other  Arts. 

84 


f  n 


"ii: — 


111..  .iT.        l'ai,:iilc  of  Basilica  at  Kalb  Lauzeh.     (From  I)e  Vi>>,'iii' 


Ji.I..  .is. —Apse  ot   K:iiat  Miii^iii.      il-roui  Ik-  \  o;;iu-) 


CENTRAL  SCHOOL  OF  SYRL\ 

these  cliurehes  developed  one  feature  peculiar  to  themselves 
and  of  the  highest  interest:  that  curious  decoration  of  the  ex- 
terior of  the  apse  with  colonnettes  and  corbel-tables  (111.  58), 
presaging  so  strangely  Romanesque  France. 

The  second  type  of  church,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Center, 
though  several  times  imitated  in  the  North,  is  the  most  interest- 
ing of  all  the  varied  types  developed  in  Syria  (111.  56).  The 
nave  and  aisles  were  separated  no  longer  by  columns  but  by 


III.  59.  —  Plan  of  Chapel  at  Rbc'ali.     (From  Butler) 


massive  piers  supporting  great  arches.  The  aisles  were  cov- 
ered with  the  Syrian  vault  of  the  South,  and  the  nave,  though 
still  roofed  in  wood,  was,  in  at  least  one  instance,'  spanned  by 
great  transverse  arches.  Most  remarkable  of  all,  the  fa9ade 
was  flanked  by  two  towers,  terminating  each  side  aisle  (111. 
57).  The  section  of  a  basilica,  if  frankly  expressed  in  the  fa9ade, 
is  unpleasing,  and  we  shall  later  see  that  one  of  the  happiest 
ideas  of  the  western  Romanesque  builders  was  to  flank  the  nave 
gable  by  twin  bell  towers.  Strange,  indeed,  to  find  this  same 
solution    anticipated    in  Syria  by  nearly  four  hundred    years! 

'  Ruweha. 
85 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

These  fa9ade  towers  of  the  school  of  the  Center,  together  with 
the  Syrian  mouldings  of  the  North,  and  the  Syrian  vaults  of 
the  South,  form  the  most  salient  peculiarities  of  this  interesting 
architecture. 


Less  striking,  and  sadly  neglected  alike  by  traveler  and 
archaeologist,  the  timid  and  retiring  Coptic  architecture  of  Egypt 
deserves  far  more  notice  than  has  vet  fallen  to  its  lot.     It  is  a 


m 
M 

<3  jpl 

1     ii 
;      a 

;  i 

H 

y 

D 

h" 

Q 


III.  60.  —  Plan  of  East  Church  at  Babiska.     (From  Butler) 

singularly  difficult  architecture  to  approach,  for  its  monuments 
have  never  been  adequately  studied  or  described,  and  many  of 
them  doubtless  remain  entirely  undiscovered.  Those  that  we 
know,  moreover,  are  for  the  most  part  without  indication  of 
date.  In  a  style  that  has  existed  from  the  IV  century  to  the 
present  day  there  is  often  nothing  to  show  whether  a  given 
monument  be  ancient,  medieval,  or  modern. 

With  this  total  absence  of  dated  monuments  it  is  impossible 
to  trace  any  development  in  the  style,  and  difficult  to  say  whether 

86 


li.i..  (il.  — Syrhiii  Carvol  (  )n..uiMTit  In.rii  II.mim's  in  Ser.ljilla.      iFrni],  1  )<•  V,«iie) 


COPTIC   ARCHITECTURE 

the  widely  divergent  types  of  building  we  sometimes  find  side- 
by-side  in  the  same  monastery  are  to  be  explained  as  reflections 
of  the  style  of  conflicting  local  schools,  or  as  constructions  of 
different  ages. 

The  first  characteristic  of  Coptic  churches  that  strikes  the 
student  is  their  small  and  unostentatious  character.  The  Coptic 
sect  was  conquered  and  oppressed,  if  not  actively  persecuted, 
before  their  architecture  reached  its  maturity ;  —  a  fact  to  be 
read  in  the  dark,  small  churches,  approached  through  tortuous 
passages,  and  often  externally  quite  hidden  from  sight  by  sur- 
rounding buildings.  Even  in  the  great  desert  monasteries, 
hundreds  of  miles  from  the  nearest  settlements,  the  exterior  is 
always  as  inconspicuous  as  possible. 

The  second  characteristic  was  induced  by  the  peculiar  cli- 
mate of  Egypt.  The  heat  and  blinding  sunlight  of  the  desert 
made  the  generous  lighting  of  a  AVestern  basilica  intolerable. 
Consequently  the  clearstory  was  omitted,  but,  to  preserve  the 
traditional  difference  in  height  between  the  aisles  and  nave, 
galleries  were  employed  almost  universally.  Light  was  often 
admitted  only  through  holes  in  the  roof.  Egypt  is  a  treeless 
country  and,  consequently,  the  construction  was  largely  of 
stone;  but  when  wood  was  obtainable  it  was  largely  used,  even 
to  the  extent  of  building  imitation  vaults,  and  it  was  regularly 
employed  to  form  the  architraves  for  columns  pilfered  from 
ancient  or  Arabian  buildings. 

The  Latin  or  basilican  plan  was  always  followed,  although 
treated  freely  (111.  62,  03,  64).  The  roof,  however,  was  essen- 
tially modified,  being  regularly  furnished  with  from  one  to  twelve 
domes  (111.  62-64)  —  a  feature  possibly  borrowed  from  Con- 
stantinople.' These  domes  were  placed  particularly  over  the 
haikal,  or  apse,  which,  as  in  Syria,  was  flanked  by  the  chapels 
of  the  prothesis  and  apodosis.  In  some  of  the  earlier  churches 
these  apses  were  placed  in  a  trefoil,  instead  of  being  alligned.^ 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  with  the  single  exception  of  the  church 

'  This  is  the  conventional,  if  questionable,  view.  The  scarcity  of  wood  in  Egypt  would 
seem  to  offer  a  sufficient  explanation  of  this  construction. 

2  ".\  <lecp  apsidal  haikal,  with  recesses  all  around  it  and  columns  close  to  the  wall,  may 
almost  infallibly  be  dated  to  the  age  of  Constantine."     (Butler.) 

87 


THE   EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 


111.  62.  —  Plan  of  Dair-as-Suriaui.     (From  Butler) 


88 


COPTIC   VAULTS 

at  Dair-al-Malak  there  is  known  no  instance  of  an  atrium  in  a 
Coptic  cliurch.' 

The  most  remarkable  development  of  Coptic  art  is  found 
in  the  desert  monasteries  of  the  Wady  Natrun  valley.  In  these 
solitudes  where  no  wood  could  be  obtained  the  churches  must,  per- 
force, be  built  entirely  of  stone.  Consequently,  the  roof  was  con- 
structed of  barrel  vaults  and  domes.     These  barrel  vaults  show 


sc^-.tf  r  ?  — R- 


III.  63.  —  Plan  of  Anba  Bishoi.     (From  Butler) 

the  systematic  employment  of  the  pointed  arch,  and  in  at  least 
one  instance,-  were  provided  with  ribs  regularly  profiled.  Thus, 
here  again  do  we  find  the  Early  Christians  anticipating  the 
Romanesque  of  the  south  of  France,  and  one  is  almost  tempted  to 
believe  that  the  Coptic  pointed  arch  may  have  been  adopted  by 
the  Arabs  from  the  Egyptians,  and  not  newly  discovered  by  the 

'  .\  fact  sadly  militating  against  the  prevalent  theory  which  derives  the  court  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan mosque  from  the  Coptic  atrium. 
-  Dair-al-Baramus. 

8!) 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

former  as  is  generally  held;  and  that  thence  by  the  agency  of 
the  Pilgrims  and  the  Crusades  it  passed  into  Occidental  art. 
But  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  we  are  here  deal- 
ing merely  with  an  example  of  coincidence.  Like  causes  led 
to  like  results.  A  pointed  arch  is  at  once  stronger  and  more 
beautiful  than  a  round  one  —  a  fact  which  happened  to  be  dis- 
covered independently  by  several  peoples. 

A  word  should  be  said  on  the  subject  of  Coptic  decoration 
before  leaving  this  branch  of  our  subject.  In  his  plastic  art  the 
Copt  had  early  shown  his  aversion  to  the  models  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople,  a  sentiment  taking  root  in  his  avowed  hatred 
for  his  Roman  masters.  Thus  when  he  had  to  make  sculp- 
tures to  serve  for  the  new  Christian  cult,  he  showed  a  pro- 
found dislike  of  the  Greek  models  he  must  copy,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  technique  beneath  criticism.  After  a  century  of 
fruitless  effort,  he  gave  up  the  attempt,  and  sought  in  the  ab- 
stract line  the  impression  he  desired  to  produce.  Step  by  step 
these  angular  figures  became  less  and  less  human  forms  and 
more  and  more  polygonal  designs.  Soon  the  abstract  line  ceased 
to  imitate;  the  human  face  became  only  an  ellipse,  the  nose 
was  represented  by  a  rectangle,  and  so  forth.  The  body  became 
intertwined  and  confused  with  leaves,  foliage,  polygons,  rosettes, 
and  ended  at  last  by  disappearing  entirely  in  these  ornamental 
forms.  From  this  time  on,  purely  ornamental  compositions 
became  the  favorite  theme  of  the  artist.  The  decorator,  given 
the  task  of  adorning  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  sanctuary  and  choir 
screens,  and  of  placing  everywhere  upon  them  the  sign  of  his 
faith,  had  recourse  to  groups  of  simple  geometric  figures,  squares, 
circles,  lozenges,  in  the  center  of  which  he  inscribed  the  cross  and 
other  symbols  of  primitive  Christianity.  To  these  decorations 
were  then  added  the  conventionalized  figures;  the  surfaces  were 
covered  with  foliage  and  polygons,  among  which  the  cross  is 
ever  conspicuous. 

This  polygonal  decoration,  which  soon  reached  great  geo- 
metrical complexity,  seems  to  have  exercised  a  strange  fascina- 
tion over  the  Eastern  mind.  With  the  Copts,  however,  it  never 
went  further  than  those  forms  capable  of  giving  directly  the 
sum  of  four  right  angles  —  that  is,  the  number  of  sides  of  the 

90 


ABU   SARGAH 


nra 


HARROW        STREET 


III.  64.  —  Plan  of  Abu  Sargah,  Cairo.     (From  Butler) 


91 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  STYLE 

polygon  was  always  an  even  number.  The  decoration  reached 
its  zenith  in  the  wood  screens  of  the  Dair-as-Suriani,  and  forms 
the  basis  for  all  the  wonderful  polygonal  ornament  of  the  Arabs.' 


Even  more  obscure  than  Coptic  art  in  North  Africa  is  the 
Early  Christian  school  of  architecture,  for,  in  addition  to  being 

difficult  of  access,  its  monu- 
ments are  sadly  ruined,  and  usu- 
ally have  left  us  only  fragmentary 
traces  of  their  foundations.  The 
Early  Christian  style  in  Africa 
seems,  however,  to  have  come  into 
being  at  the  flood  tide  of  the 
Constantinian  renaissance.  The  school  is  equally  remarkable 
for  the  retention  of  classic  forms  and  details,  and  for  its 
extremely  fine  masonry.  The  African  churches  are  most 
strikingly  distinguished  as  a  class  from  those  of  Italy  by  their 
double  apses  and  lateral  entrances.  (111.  65,  66.)  This  school 
came  to  a  sudden  end  with  the  Vandal  invasion  of  420. 


III.  65.  —  Plan  of  Ain  Tounga.     (From 
Saladin) 


Plan  of  Chemtou.       (From  Sa- 


The  Early  Christian  style  represents  essentially  an  epoch  of 
decay,  an  epoch  when  classical  proportions  were  debased  and  for- 
gotten, when  the  builders,  too 
ignorant  or  too  indolent  to  seek 
their  own  materials,  made  their 
structures  a  hodge-podge  of  stones 
and  columns  pilfered  from  an- 
cient constructions;  when  the 
technique  of  building  was  sinking 
to  its  lowest  depths.  And  yet, 
amidst  all  this  desolation,  there  are  certain  things  for  which 
the  Early  Christians  deserve  great  artistic  credit.  The  mosaics 
of  the  VI  century,  due,  it  is  true,  to  Byzantine  influence,  and 
perhaps  surpassed  by  the  works  of  that  school,  are  still  master- 
pieces of  their  kind,  and  worthy  in  themselves  to  rank  with  the 

>  Gayet. 
92 


ESTHETIC   QUALITIES 

best  achievements  of  ancient  art.  Of  the  Cosmati  decora- 
tions of  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries  no  words  can  express  the 
lovehness,  the  freshness,  the  luscious  color. 

Nor  does  the  ancient  basihca  itself,  despite  its  crudeness, 
despite  its  lack  of  finish,  despite  even  the  air  of  desolation  that 
to-day  oppresses  so  many  of  these  time-worn  sanctuaries,  lack 
a  very  real  charm.  The  silent,  flower-grown  atrium  with  its 
porticoes  and  fountains  must  have  been  calculated  to  produce  on 
the  sensitive  mind  a  wonderfully  restful  impression,  and  seems 
with  great  appropriateness  to  have  been  placed  between  the 
house  of  worship  and  the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  street.  The 
basilica  itself  echoes  this  spirit  of  serenity  so  characteristic 
of  the  primitive  Church.  AH  the  worldliness,  the  ostenta- 
tion, the  vulgarity  of  the  Roman  style  has  passed  away.  No 
colossal  portico  of  marble  columns  marks  the  entrance.  The 
exterior  walls  show  plainly,  frankly,  what  they  are  —  crude  con- 
structions of  brick.  No  attempt  is  made  at  exterior  adornment, 
yet  time  has  given  these  venerable  walls  a  mellowness  that  often 
makes  them  not  only  inoft'ensive,  but  actually  full  of  charm. 

Within  the  church,  the  interior,  almost  overflooded  with 
light,  is  more  richly  ornamented.  But  here,  too,  the  old  Roman 
coarseness  has  vanished.  The  mosaics  throw  a  radiance  of 
color  that  would  redeem  a  far  more  awkward  design,  and  the 
pilfered  classic  columns  lose  their  grandiose  effect  by  being  yoked 
with  unsyrametrical  fellows.  In  a  word,  the  Early  Christian 
style,  decadent  and  slovenly  and  dying  as  it  was,  still  gave  birth 
to  a  new  spirit,  unknown  to  the  facile  Roman  technicians,  and 
that  spirit  was  the  feeling  for  poetry. 

This  spirit  must  rank  as  the  highest  contribution  of  the  Early 
Christians  to  medieval  architecture.  Never  quite  lost  sight 
of  in  all  the  darkest  of  the  Dark  Ages,  it  reawoke  to  glorious 
development  in  the  XII  century.  But  not  only  for  its  sense  of 
beauty  was  the  later  age  indebted  to  the  primitive  Church.  The 
basilica,  bequeathed  to  all  future  Christians  as  the  authori- 
tative type  of  church,  was  a  building  not  only  marvelously  well 
adapted  to  its  purpose,  but  one  which  bore  within  itself  un- 
dreamed-of possibilities  of  development.  When  the  Early  Chris- 
tians added  aisles  to  the  circular  building  of  the  ancients,  they 

93 


THE   EARLY   CHRISTIAN   STYLE 

made  possible  the  triumphs  of  Byzantine  architecture;  and, 
finally,  by  placing  arches  directly  on  columns,  they  took  the  first 
step  in  the  evolution  of  the  great  vaulting  systems  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

In  the  last  few  years  certain  archaeologists  have  brought 
into  much  prominence  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Chris- 
tian monuments  of  this  country  show  widely  different  charac- 
teristics in  different  localities,  and,  moreover,  like  the  Coptic 
churches  of  Egypt,  are  extremely  difficult  to  date,  so  that,  until 
the  many  points  still  at  issue  in  regard  to  this  most  interesting 
group  of  edifices  are  cleared  up,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  know 
whether  to  class  them  as  Early  Christian,  Byzantine,  or  medi- 
eval. At  Saglassos  there  is  a  basilica  which  conforms  very 
closely  to  the  Latin  type,  and  this  fact  is  of  significance  because 
at  the  neighboring  cities  Aspendos  and  Kremna  are  found  pagan 
basilicas  which  seem  to  foreshadow  the  forms  of  the  Christian 
church  more  closely  than  any  other  pagan  basilicas  that  have 
come  down  to  us.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  churches 
of  Asia  Minor  are  of  a  radically  different  style.  Many  of 
them  are  barrel-vaulted  —  a  characteristic  recalling  the  Coptic 
churches  of  Egypt  as  well  as  the  Romanesque  structures  of 
southern  France.  The  apses  were  regularly  given  a  horse- 
shoe plan,  apparently  from  as  early  as  the  V  century  a.d.,  and 
strangely  enough  the  half-domes  of  these  apses  were  also  horse- 
shoe in  section.  The  chapels  of  the  prothesis  and  apodosis 
are  found  in  churches  situated  near  the  Syrian  border,  but  are 
not  usual  in  churches  of  the  central  and  western  provinces. 
Columns  appear  to  have  been  discarded  in  favor  of  piers  at  an 
early  date;  in  certain  edifices  such  as  Selme,  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  regular  alternate  system.  The  exterior  string- 
courses are  frequently  arched  in  the  Syrian  manner,  and  a 
zig-zag  or  che\Ton  ornament,  strangely  analogous  to  the  well- 
known  Norman  motive,  frequently  occurs  on  the  archivolts. 
Certain  Cilician  churches,  recently  described  by  INIiss  Bell,  are 
provided  with  most  remarkable  east  ends,  a  retro-choir  with 
two  apses,  communicating  directly  with  each  side  aisle,  being 
constructed  directly  behind  the  main  apse.  Although  the  east 
wall  of  the  retro-choir  is  always  rectangular,  this  construction 

94 


ASIA   MINOR 

seems  to  foreshadow  the  Western  ambulatory.  That  any 
direct  influence,  however,  can  be  traced  between  these  Eastern 
schools  —  whether  of  Northern  Africa,  of  Egypt,  of  Syria,  or 
of  Asia  Minor  —  and  the  Romanesque  architecture  of  the  West 
I  very  much  doubt.  It  is  perhaps  too  soon  to  speak  with  de- 
cision, for  the  question  is  still  before  the  archfeological  courts, 
and  as  yet  our  knowledge  of  the  monuments  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Egypt  —  the  very  premises  of  the  argument  —  is  extremely 
slight;  moreover  Strzygowski's  thesis  has  certainly  been  strength- 
ened by  Dr.  Guyer's  recent  researches  among  the  primitive 
churches  of  Switzerland.  Yet,  after  all,  his  work  leaves  the 
impression  that  the  undoubted  analogies  between  the  monu- 
ments of  the  East  and  West  are  to  be  explained  as  instances  of 
parallel  development  rather  than  as  either  having  directly  influ- 
enced the  other. 


95 


CHAPTER  III 

BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  CENTURIES 

AT  the  same  time  that  Early  Christian  architecture  was  pur- 
suing its  unprogressive  course  throughout  the  Empire 
of  the  ^Yest,  in  Constantinople  and  the  regions  adjacent  a  new 
and  far  more  vital  style  was  being  born.  It  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  describe  exactly  the  geographical  boundaries  which  separated 
this  new  Byzantine  art  from  its  western  rival,  for  only  a  small 
part  of  the  Eastern  Empire  adopted  the  style  of  the  capital. 
Certain  provinces,  such  as  Egypt  and  Syria,  continued  distinctly 
Latin  in  their  architecture,  while  others,  like  Palestine,  show  a 
mixture  of  Latin  and  Byzantine  influences.  On  the  other 
hand,  influence  from  Constantinople  flowed  freely  into  the  West, 
modifying  profoundly  the  decorative  arts  of  Rome  herself, 
while  Ravenna,  now  the  capital  city  of  Italy,  was  conquered 
by  Byzantine  art  long  before  the  armies  of  Justinian  appeared 
before  her  walls. 

Since  the  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  styles  were  thus 
constantly  shading  into  each  other,  it  is  often  impossible  to 
determine  in  which  class  to  list  buildings  which  stand  on  the 
border  line  between  the  two.  Notably  is  such  the  case  with  the 
monuments  of  Ravenna.  To  avoid  this  difficulty  certain  his- 
torians have  considered  Byzantine  art  as  merely  a  local  school 
of  the  great  Early  Christian  family,  —  a  view  that,  while  cer- 
tainly logical  and  convenient,  appears  to  slight  the  importance  of 
a  group  of  monuments  that  were  destined  to  develop  such  orig- 
inal and  distinctive  forms  and  to  influence  so  indelibly  later  art, 
that  they  seem  to  deserve  the  rank  of  an  independent  style. 

Indeed,  so  individual  is  this  Byzantine  art,  that  even  the 
slightest  trace  of  its  influence  on  another  style  can  usually  be 
detected  at  a  glance,  —  a  fact  that  has  too  often  caused  in  archi- 

96 


m  V  m  V  mv  m«  m«i  m«f  m  p  mv  iimm 


£ 


.  ,.      .fr      r,.      TTT      rff     TT-   7  r  tt  :      TTT" r  ri       rn 
.f..TrrrT,i-r:rTri-j.rrr;iri.-jj.;iijrT:.trTiir;^jTtr?Tjirir? 


III.  67.        Onln-  „i  ll:i;;i.is  Ii)aMii(i>,  CoiisUiritiiiDiilc.      (I'Voiii  Salzfiil>erfr) 


ORIGINS 

tectural  criticism  a  very  loose  use  of  the  term  "Byzantine"  to 
denote  monuments  which,  while  thoroughly  non-Byzantine  in 
general  character,  show  Eastern  influence  in  some  insignificant 
details.  Thus  until  the  middle  of  the  XIX  century,  all  pre- 
Gothic  buildings  in  the  West  were  commonly  dubbed  "Byzan- 
tine." Perhaps  no  greater  tribute  to  the  art  of  Constantinople 
could  be  paid  than  this  unconscious  acknowledgment  of  its 
individual  and  peculiar  character. 

^Yllen  Constantine  moved  his  capital  to  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus  he  exerted  every  energy  to  make  the  new  Rome  as 
splendid  in  architecture  as  the  old.  The  number  and  size  of 
the  buildings  which  according  to  contemporary  authors  he  caused 
to  be  erected  at  Constantinople,  is  well-nigh  incredible.  Exe- 
cuted with  more  than  the  usual  Roman  haste,  these  buildings 
were  probably  inferior  to  the  really  remarkable  structures 
erected  at  this  epoch  elsewhere  in  the  Empire.  At  least,  the 
fact  that  of  all  the  vast  city  of  Constantine  hardly  a  single  mon- 
ument has  survived  to  our  day,  argues  ill  for  the  character  of 
the  workmanship.  As  to  the  general  style  of  these  edifices 
we  are  left  in  no  doubt,  although  no  examples  are  extant,  — 
they  could  only  have  been  Roman.  Similarly,  the  earliest 
churches  of  Constantinople  must  unquestionably  have  been 
basilicas  of  the  usual  Latin  type. 

The  Roman  period  in  Byzantine  architecture  was  doubtless 
succeeded  by  one  of  transition,  during  which  the  individual 
character  of  the  Eastern  style  gradually  took  form.  The  mon- 
uments furnish  us  with  actual  knowledge  of  the  progress  of 
this  development  only  after  the  middle  of  the  V  century,  a  time 
when  the  change  had  already  been  almost  completed.  How- 
ever, by  a  study  of  the  historical  conditions  of  the  time,  and  by 
a  comparison  of  the  later  monuments,  it  is  possible  to  recon- 
struct in  broad  outlines  the  story  of  this  growth. 

During  the  IV  century  the  split  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Empires  became  wider  and  wider,  until,  when  they 
were  finally  separated  in  395,  they  had  in  reality  become  two 
different  nations.  While  Rome  was  declining  under  the  bar- 
barian invasions,  suffering  sack  and  pillage,  Constantinople 
lay  in  comparative  security  behind  her  impregnable  fortifica- 

07 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

tions.  The  metropolis  of  the  world  had  been  transferred  from 
the  Tiber  to  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  Byzantines,  who  did  not 
lack  their  share  of  local  pride,  were  not  the  last  to  realize  the 
fact  that  their  city  had  become  the  center  of  European  civiliza- 
tion. Consequently  we  may  fairly  assume  that  Constantinople 
would  be  peculiarly  receptive  to  any  impulses  that  should  tend 
to  free  its  art  from  dependence  on  the  Western  capital  and 
peculiarly  liable  to  be  affected  by  any  exotic  artistic  influences 
with  which  it  was  brought  into  close  contact.  Now,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  there  were  two  such  points  of  contact  directly 
at  hand  —  Greece  and  the  Orient. 

Greek  influence,  indeed,  is  apparent  at  Byzantium  in  much 
beside  architecture.  The  entire  city  was  fast  becoming  Greek, 
the  extraneous  Latin  population  was  being  absorbed  by  the 
native  Hellenes;  the  Latin  language  was  passing  out  of  use  and 
being  forgotten.  Men  not  only  spoke  Greek,  but  they  thought 
Greek;  an  extensive,  if  not  altogether  rational,  revival  of  Greek 
philosophy  took  place,  and  Plato  and  Aristotle  became  once 
more  the  subjects  of  learned  discussions.  Greek  literature 
was  read  and  appreciated  as  it  had  hardly  been  since  the  days 
of  Augustus;  the  VI  century  authors  abound  in  recondite  allu- 
sions to  Homer.  In  a  word,  the  Byzantines  felt  themselves 
Greeks  and  the  inheritors  of  Hellenic  culture  and  refinement. 
Strange,  indeed,  it  would  have  been,  had  they  not  turned  their 
eyes  from  the  glories  of  Greek  literature  to  the  glories  of  Greek 
architecture,  from  Homer  to  the  Parthenon.  And  strange  it 
would  have  been,  had  so  cultivated  a  people  not  perceived  the 
superiority  of  Greek  to  Roman  decoration,  and  attempted  to 
introduce  into  their  own  art  some  part  of  the  beauty  of  the 
former. 

Side  by  side  with  the  contact  with  Greece  there  was  even  a 
closer  contact  with  the  Orient,  for  Constantinople  was  the  gate- 
way of  Europe,  and  across  the  Bosphorus  lay  Asia  and  all  the 
glamour  of  the  Orient.  The  East,  then  as  now,  was  full  of  the 
charm  of  rich  ornament  and  of  rich  colors;  rugs  and  silks  and 
fabrics  and  hangings  and  jewels  were  ever  pouring  westward 
from  Persia  and  India  and  China.  From  this  contact  with  the 
Orient  the  Byzantines  derived  an  extraordinary  love  of  color  and 

98 


T'^     "v  -^    Y'^i 


t  ^ 


iw>j^^ 


III.  G8.  — Order  and  Spandrel  of  Ila^jia  Si.pliia,  ( 'oM-hMiliiiniili'.      ■  Kroiii  Salzi'iilier},') 


ORIENTAL   COLOR 

a  sense  of  its  values  such  as  hitherto  had  hardly  been  known  in 
Europe.  The  Greeks,  it  is  true,  had  lavishly  used  colors,  and 
often  bright  colors;  but  the  tones  employed  (judging  from  the 
faded  traces  that  have  come  down  to  us)  were  bright  and  lumi- 
nous—  not  unlike  the  tints  that  we  associate  with  the  frescoes 
of  the  early  Tuscan  school  of  Italian  painting,  and  hence  quite 
unlike  the  rich  Byzantine  tones.  Roman  colors,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  crude  and  harsh;  the  most  glaring  reds  and  yellows 
and  blacks  were  thrown  together  in  total  disregard  of  all  es- 
thetics; color  schemes  seem  to  have  been  unknown  except  in 
works  either  copied  directly  from  the  Greek  originals  or  exe- 
cuted by  a  Greek  artist,  as  certain  of  the  frescoes  of  Pompeii. 
Byzantine  coloring,  therefore,  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  both 
Greek  and  Roman.  It  is  the  richest  and  deepest  imaginable, 
delighting  in  a  truly  Oriental  gorgeousness,  where  the  golds 
and  reds  and  purples  join  in  a  riot  of  splendor,  and  yet,  strangely 
enough,  for  all  their  intensity,  never  clash.  This  color  might 
be  compared  to  that  of  Titian,  of  Rubens,  or  of  Turner; —  and 
yet  none  of  these  masters  has  produced  quite  the  same  soft  and 
luscious  tone. 

This  Oriental  love  of  sumptuous  color  was  so  hostile  to  the 
spirit  of  Greek  art  that  it  must  to  a  large  extent  have  counteracted 
the  force  of  the  Hellenic  influence  in  Byzantine  architecture. 
Moreover,  from  the  Orient  had  also  come  a  love  of  luxury 
and  magnificence  even  surpassing  that  of  imperial  Rome. 
Such  a  spirit  must  inevitably  have  contrasted  the  spacious  Ro- 
man interiors  with  the  dark,  unadorned  interiors  of  the  Greeks, 
and,  furthermore,  must  have  perceived  that  the  Roman  types 
enjoyed  the  advantages  of  being  perfectly  adapted  to  the  prac- 
tical needs  of  the  times.  Consequently,  it  is  not  surprising  to 
find  that  the  Byzantines  retained  Roman  methods  of  construc- 
tion, and  contented  themselves  with  applying  to  them  a  new 
form  of  decoration  —  a  decoration  founded  in  part,  it  is  true, 
on  Roman  tradition,  but  modified  both  by  direct  imitation  of 
Greek  models  and  by  the  exercise  of  that  good  taste  which  was 
a  natural  heritage  from  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  which  had  been 
cultivated  into  new  life  by  the  study  of  the  old  Hellenic  monu- 
ments.    To  these  Roman  and  Hellenic  elements  the  Byzantine 

99 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

builders  added  their  own  love  of  Oriental  color  and  a  conscious 
or  unconscious  imitation  of  Oriental  textile  patterns.  Such  was 
the  genesis  of  Byzantine  architecture. 

It  must  not,  of  course,  be  supposed  that  Byzantine  archi- 
tecture sprang  into  being  at  a  breath,  by  any  such  course  of  con- 
scious reasoning  as  that  indicated  above.  On  the  contrary,  its 
evolution,  like  that  of  all  arts  worthy  of  the  name,  was  worked 
out  slowly  and  logically  by  almost  imperceptible  changes.  A 
slight  improvement  introduced  by  one  architect  was  adopted 
and  still  further  developed  by  a  second.  Thus  gradually  the 
whole  character  of  the  style  was  transformed  from  Latin  to 
Byzantine. 

Nevertheless,  Byzantine  architecture  seems  to  have  devel- 
oped its  peculiar  forms  with  singular  rapidity,  for  to  judge  from 
literary  sources,  its  character  could  hardly  have  been  much 
modified  before  the  beginning  of  the  V  century.  Yet  when  in 
463,  in  the  church  of  Hagios  loannos  (St.  John  of  Studios)  at 
Constantinople,  we  at  last  catch  sight  of  what  was  actually 
taking  place,  the  evolution  of  Byzantine  ornament  is  already 
nearly  complete,  although  the  construction  still  remains  Latin. 
The  capitals  of  Hagios  loannos  (111.  67)  preserve  the  essential 
features  of  the  Roman  order;  but  in  the  crisp  carving  of  the 
acanthus-leaves  and  in  a  thousand  variations  of  detail  and  pro- 
portion, we  are  conscious  of  the  presence  of  a  new  and  orig- 
inal art.  The  step  from  this  form  to  the  fully  developed 
Byzantine  capital  (III.  68)  is  easily  comprehensible,  even 
though  we  have  no  actual  examples  of  the  intermediate  stages. 
These  later  capitals  are  all  as  evidently  derived  from  Rome 
as  those  of  Hagios  loannos.  They  are  based  on  the  form  of  the 
uncut  blocks  from  which  the  Roman  Corinthian,  Composite, 
or  Ionic  capitals  had  been  formed.  The  stones  for  the  capitals 
were  doubtless  quarried,  and  roughly  blocked  out  quite  as  they 
always  had  been ;  but  after  they  had  been  placed  in  position  the 
Byzantine  artist  set  to  work  to  finish  the  execution  in  a  manner 
peculiarly  his  own.  At  Hagios  loannos  the  artist  had  completed 
the  capitals  almost  in  the  old  fashion,  altering  but  slightly  the 
proportions,  and  giving  the  acanthus-leaves  instead  of  the  droop- 
ing Roman  form,  the  crisp,  sharp  character  of  the  Greek  type, 

100 


III.  (>!».  —  ( 'iipital  fnnu  S.  \  ilalr,  Kavt-iini 


BYZANTINE   CAPITALS 

with,  however,  a  certain  tendency  towards  stringiness  that  was 
wholly  new  and  Byzantine  (111.  67).  In  the  later  examples 
these  leaves  were  merely  treated  with  perforations  instead  of 
with  carving;  or  sometimes  they  were  twisted  in  whorls  as  if 
blown  by  a  wind  coming  from  two  directions  at  once.  The 
tendency  to  avoid  the  deep  undercutting  which  had  so  strongly 
characterized  classic  ornament  and  to  substitute  therefor  purely 
surface  carvings  became  ever  more  marked  —  possibly  because 
declining  technique  was  no  longer  equal  to  the  execution  of 
undercutting,  but  more  probably  out  of  esthetic  preference  for 
the  shallow  ornament.  As  this  tendency  grew  more  decided,  the 
finish  of  the  capitals  was  executed  less  and  less  according  to 
the  Roman  form.  When  merely  the  general  outline  had  been 
cut,  the  artist  set  to  work  to  cover  the  surfaces  with  charming 
designs  of  acanthus-leaves  and  vines.  The  result  was  such 
lovely  compositions  as  the  capitals  of  S.  Vitale  (III.  69), 
where  the  bulge  in  the  center  of  each  face  clearly  recalls  the  stone 
left  to  carve  the  fleuron  of  a  Corinthian  capital,  while  the  bulges 
at  the  corners  recall  the  volutes.  One  further  step  completed 
the  evolution  of  the  Byzantine  capital.  The  original  block 
was  left  entirely  unshaped,  the  square  abacus  merely  being 
merged  into  the  round  neck  by  subtle  curves.  A  surface  decora- 
tion was  then  added,  and  the  fully  developed  "basket"  capital 
(111.  70)  had  come  into  existence.  The  stilt-blocks,  that  so 
often  surmount  Byzantine  capitals,  are  believed  to  have  been 
derived  either  from  uncut  stones  intended  for  entablature  blocks 
or  from  blocks  inserted  in  order  to  raise  the  capitals  to  the  level 
of  the  arches  in  buildings  built  of  pilfered  materials. 

Such  are  the  main  types  of  Byzantine  capital.  Many  varia- 
tions were  wrought,  such  as  the  capitals  of  Hagia  Sophia  (111. 
68)  or  the  Ionic-like  capitals  of  Hagios  Bacchos  (St.  Sergius 
and  Bacchus).  Indeed,  the  variety  of  Byzantine  types  is  infinite, 
and  such  a  thing  as  stereotyped  formula  was  unknown.  Yet 
there  is  an  unmistakable  family  likeness  in  all  these  products 
of  the  Eastern  school. 

The  general  carved  ornament  of  the  Byzantines  is  as  dis- 
tinctive as  the  capitals.  It  is  characterized  by  the  same  crisp 
acanthus-leaves,  often  extremely  elongated,  and  by   the   same 

101 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

shallow  cutting,  the  pattern  often  being  merely  scratched  on 
the  surface  (111.  67,  68).  Old  Roman  motives — egg-and- 
darts,  heart-leaves,  modillions,  and  rinceaux — persist  in  forms 
only  slightly  modified.  A  love  for  the  abstract  line  is  often 
shown;  bands  and  rinceau  stems  tend  to  assume  great  promi- 
nence and  unroll  themselves  in  endless  circles  and  curves. 
The  guilloche  is  extremely  popular,  as  is  also  a  pattern  formed 
by  the  criss-crossing  of  parallel  bands  (111.  70).  The  Greek 
love  of  mysticism  appears  in  the  constant  use  of  monograms 
(111.  68,  70),  Greek  crosses,  and  symbolic  figures.  Perhaps  the 
finest  examples  of  this  carved  ornament  extant  are  the  spandrels 
of  Ilagia  Sophia  (111.  68). 

Even  more  successful  than  the  carved  ornament,  however, 
was  the  Byzantine  decoration  in  mosaic.  As  we  have  seen, 
much  of  what  is  best  in  Early  Christian  mosaics  was  due  to 
influence  from  Constantinople.  Eastern  mosaics,  generally 
speaking,  are  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  West  by  the 
more  general  use  of  gold  backgrounds,  and  by  the  more  sumptu- 
ous coloring.  In  the  VI  century  the  art  reached  its  zenith. 
Church  interiors  were  covered  from  top  to  bottom  with  this 
gorgeous  decoration,  and  to  the  resplendent  richness  of  the  mo- 
saics Byzantine  architecture  owed  in  large  measure  that  warmth 
of  color  which  was  its  chief  boast. 

Purely  ornamental  mosaics  in  opus  alexandrinum  also  reached 
high  development,  as  we  learn  from  a  few  scattered  fragments 
that  have  come  down  to  us.  One  of  these  in  the  church  of 
Hagios  loannos,  with  its  rolling  and  interlacing  guilloches,  curi- 
ously presages  the  work  of  the  Cosmati  at  Rome ;  —  a  style  of 
mosaic  still  more  vividly  called  to  mind  by  a  passage  in  Paulus 
Silentiarius,  describing  the  now  lost  ambo  at  Hagia  Sophia.* 

In  general,  the  church  furniture  of  Byzantine  churches, 
to  judge  from  the  slight  indications  that  we  have,  did  not  differ 
widely  from  that  employed  in  the  Early  Christian  edifices.  In 
the  marble  pierced  work  slabs  (111.  71)  used  in  the  choir  screens, 
there  was  developed,  however,  a  new  style  of  decoration  not  only 
beautiful  in  itself,  but  destined  to  lead  to  great  results  long  after 

^Tov  fi^v  iirl  Tpaxdovffi  Sia^Kfpis  old  t€  Stvat  ]  tttj  pivtaai  KijK'Koiffiv  dT^/>^toO"t,  tt^  5^  yeKiKXuv  | 
Paibv  d7roirXa7xS^''Tos  vweKTapvov<nv  eXiyfiovs.  —  Descripiio  Ambonis,  81. 

102 


ll.L.  70.  —  lia>U't  Ciipital  Iniiii 


THE   CIRCULAR   CHURCH 

in  far-away  India.  These  pierced  work  slabs  were  treated  in  a 
fashion  (juite  characteristically  Byzantine,  with  bands,  guill- 
oches,  interlaces,  acanthus-leaves,  crosses,  and  monograms. 
They  were  copied  in  the  screens  of  many  of  the  Early  Christian 
churches  of  Italy. 

While  ornament  was  making  such  rapid  advances,  the  con- 
structive side  of  Byzantine  architectui'e  remained  at  first  un- 
changed. Until  the  end  of  the  V  century  the  basilican  form  of 
church  seems  to  have  been  well-nigh  universally  adopted;  the 
architects  contented  themselves  with  merely  adorning  with 
mosaics  and  the  new-found  ornament  the  already  well-estab- 
lished type  of  ecclesiastical  building.  But  in  the  early  years  of 
the  VI  century,  the  Byzantine  builders  began  to  turn  their 
attention  towards  the  circular  church. 

The  Early  Christians,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  already 
introduced  several  improvements  into  the  design  of  circular 
buildings :  side  aisles  had  been  added ;  the  central  area  had  been 
made  octagonal  instead  of  circular,  thus  allowing  arches,  straight 
in  plan,  to  be  substituted  for  the  old  curved  architrave ;  a  square  ex- 
terior had  been  obtained  by  means  of  niches  and  walls  of  varying 
thickness ;  finally,  a  separate  apse  had  been  built  out  to  the  east- 
ward, providing  a  suitable  place  for  the  altar.  These  changes 
had  all  been  effected  in  the  church  of  Zor'ah  in  Syria  (111.  47).' 

The  circular  church  as  thus  developed  presented  several 
difficulties.  First  of  all,  it  was  ordinarily  too  small  to  accom- 
modate a  large  congregation.  Furthermore,  the  central  octa- 
gon was  not  satisfactorily  adjusted  to  the  square  outside  wall, 
and,  most  important  of  all,  there  was  difficulty  in  adjusting  a 
spherical  dome  to  the  octagonal  central  area.  This  final  prob- 
lem was  at  last  solved  only  in  the  pendentives  of  Ilagia  Sophia; 
the  other  two  were  attacked  in  the  church  of  Hagios  Bacchos 
(528  A.D.). 

As  a  glance  at  the  plan  of  this  monument  (111.  72)  will  show, 
several  expedients  were  adopted  to  increase  the  floor  space. 
The  central  octagon  itself  was  made  larger  than  ever  seems  to 

'  I  should  not  wisli  to  I*  understood  to  imply  that  Zor'ah  directly  influenced  Con- 
stantinople, for  this  monument  is  dated  51.5,  and  it  is  more  likely  that  the  influenw,  if  it  ex- 
isted, was  exerted  the  other  way  about.  This  church,  however,  probably  fairly  represents  the 
farthest  achievement  of  Early  Christian  architecture  in  this  particular  direction. 

103 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

have  been  done  before;  in  addition,  a  gallery  was  added  over 
the  side  aisle.  Thus  the  capacity  of  the  church  was  largely 
increased.  The  esthetic  quality  of  the  design  was  improved 
by  breaking  up  each  of  the  main  arches  into  three  bays  by  smaller 
columns.  These  columns  also  served  a  utilitarian  purpose,  for 
they  were  in  two  stories,  of  which  the  lower  supported  the  gal- 
lery, while  the  upper  supported  sub-arches  grouped  under  the 
great  arch  which  carried  the  dome. 

This  idea  of  subordinate  parts  was  an  innovation  of  capital 
importance.  Hitherto,  all  buildings  had  been  designed  accord- 
ing to  certain  fixed  proportions;  if  the  building  was  large,  the 
order  was  large  too,  and  so  was  all  the  detail.  Looking  at  a 
drawing  of  the  Pantheon,  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  tell 
whether  it  were  fifty  or  five  hundred  feet  in  diameter.  Sim- 
ilarly, in  the  actual  building,  while  we  know  at  once  it  is  large, 
much  of  the  eft'ect  of  its  real  size  is  lost,  simply  because  the  eye 
cannot  measure  its  true  greatness.  The  subdivision  of  the  bays 
at  Hagios  Bacchos  is  the  earliest  example  we  have  of  a  new  and 
most  important  principle  of  design.  The  smaller  columns 
immediately  give  scale;  their  actual  size  is  at  once  comprehended 
by  the  eye,  and  their  multiplication  unconsciously  leads  the  spec- 
tator to  comprehend  the  true  dimensions  of  the  building. 
This  principle  of  the  subdivision  and  grouping  of  parts  is, 
perhaps,  the  characteristic  which  most  sharply  distinguishes 
medieval  from  ancient  design. 

Although  it  is  permissible  to  see  an  esthetic  motive  in  the 
sub-arcades  introduced  in  Hagios  Bacchos,  mere  utilitarian 
considerations  probably  led  the  architect  to  bend  out  in  semi- 
circular niches  these  sub-arcades  in  the  four  great  corner  arches. 
By  this  means  he  increased  still  further  the  available  floor  space 
of  the  central  area,  and  tentatively  solved  the  problem  of  adjust- 
ing the  interior  octagon  to  the  external  square.  While  thus 
called  into  being  by  strictly  utilitarian  purposes,  such  niches 
were  found  to  be  too  full  of  esthetic  charm  to  be  neglected 
after  the  idea  had  once  been  suggested.  The  plan  of  the 
church  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna  (111.  73)  is  largely  dominated 
by  this  motive.  All  the  great  bays  here  form  niches,  and  the 
external  wall  being   octagonal  instead  of    square,   these    great 

104 


III.  7-2. —  Plan  of  Il:i>;i(.s  lia.cl.os,  (■(■iiMaiitinoplc.     (From  I'lil^'licr) 


THE    PROBLEM   OF    PENDENTIVES 

bonds,  far  from  l)cing  structural,  project  almost  to  the  external 
wall  and  completely  ruin  aisle  and  gallery.  Still  the  varied 
perspectives  and  charm  of  contrasted  surface  attained  in  the 
design  of  this  monument  go  far  to  compensate  for  its  some- 
what impracticable  arrangements. 


III.  73.  —  Kan  of  S.  Vitale  of  Ravenna.     (From  Dehio) 

The  problem  of  placing  a  spherical  dome  on  a  polygonal 
building  was  no  new  one.  In  the  West,  the  Romans  had  attacked 
it  in  one  of  the  octagonal  halls  of  the  enclosure  at  Caracalla's 
Baths,  in  the  so-called  temple  of  ^Minerva  Medica,  and  else- 
where.'    In  these  early  attempts  the  dome  was  built  always  on 

'  Pendentives  were  known  in  the  East  at  a  very  early  epoch.  In  the  Western  Tomb  at 
'Amman,  a  dome  is  placed  upon  a  square  base;  and  at  Kusr-en-Nueijis,  Jerash,  Jerusalem, 
Ismid,  and  Sart  there  are  true  pcndentive  vaults  dating  from  the  II  or  III  century  a.d.  This 
construction  was  merely  reproduced  in  the  monuments  of  the  late  V  century  at  Ravenna, 
while  the  only  true  innovation  introduced  at  Ilagia  Sophia  was  the  placing  of  a  dome  of 
smaller  diameter  iiiHm  the  [xMidentives;  in  the  earlier  examples  the  curve  of  the  pendentives 
had  l)een  continued  to  form  the  entire  vault. 

105 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

the  plan  of  the  inscribed  circle,  so  that  it  fitted  perfectly  at  the 
middle  of  each  side  of  the  area  to  be  roofed,  but  cut  across  the 
corners,  where  it  left  a  part  of  the  base  of  the  dome  unsupported. 
To  hold  up  these  unsupported  parts  resort  was  had  to  the  expe- 


IlX.  74.  —  Squinch  of  Omm-es-Zeitoun  (c.  282  a.d.)     (From  Rivoira, 
by  Special  Permission) 

dient  of  corbeling  out  the  masonry.  One  stone  was  made  to 
project  a  little  farther  than  the  others  until  the  polygon  was 
worked  into  cylindi'ical  form.  This  device  is  known  as  a 
squinch  (111.  74).  Obviously  the  smaller  the  scale  and  the 
larger  the  number  of  sides  of  the  polygon,  the  more  success- 
fully the  expedient  may  be  applied.  But  it  was  at  best  a 
makeshift,  and  its  greatest  interest  as  a  constructive  form  lies 

106 


III.  7.5.  —  Smuotlicd  Sqiiiiicli  of  Arch  at   I..atakia. 
(Froiii  Hivt>ira,  by  Special  Permission) 


111.  76.  —  Construction  of  Archeil  S(|uin(li  at  S.  Vitale 
Ravenna.     (From  Rivoira,  ()V  Special  IVrmission) 


SQUINCHES   AND    PENDENTIVES 

in  tlie  fact  that  it  furnished  the  Arabs  the  inspiration  for  their 
stalactite  ornament. 

Probably  the  first  advance  in  the  construction  of  squinches 
was  to  smooth  off  the  edges  of  the  stone  blocks  forming  the 
corbels  so  that  the  whole  received  the  appearance  of  a  triangular 
wedge  (111.  75).  The  principle  of  construction  remained  un- 
altered. The  next  step  would  be  to  double  the  number  of  the 
sides  of  the  octagon  by  arches  engaged  in  each  corner;  from 
the  sixteen-sided  figure  thus  obtained,  the  transition  to  the  dome 
could  be  effected  by  means  of  squinches  (111.  76).  As  the  build- 
ers came  to  have  more  and  more  experience  with  the  construction 
of  squinches,  they  came  to  build  them  more  and  more  in  the 
shape  of  spherical  triangles,  and  to  give  them  gradually  the 
character  of  vaults  instead  of  corbels,  until  at  last  true  pen- 
den  tives  were  evolved.  On  a  polygonal  prism  suppose  a  hemi- 
spherical dome  to  be  set,  but  the  base  of  the  dome  to  be  the 
size  of  the  circumscribed,  not  the  inscribed,  circle.  If,  then, 
this  dome  be  pressed  down,  until  the  sides  of  the  prism  cut 
through  its  shell,  and  the  parts  thus  cut  off  thrown  away, 
what  remains  will  form  a  true  pendentive  vault.  Each  side 
of  the  prism  will  cut  away  an  equal  semicircle  from  the  hemi- 
sphere. Between  these  semicircles  and  the  base  of  the  hemi- 
sphere, filling  in  the  corner  of  the  prism,  a  portion  of  the  dome 
will  remain  as  a  spherical  triangle  taking  the  place  of  the  old 
squinch.  The  appearance  of  pendentives  may  be  studied  in 
the  section  and  perspective  view  of  Hagia  Sophia'  (111.  77,  78). 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  structure  of  a  dome  is 
complete  with  every  stone  course.  Consequently,  a  penden- 
tive vault  may  be  stopped  at  any  stone  course  which  is  con- 
tinuous—  i.e.,  uninterrupted  by  intersection  with  the  prism  — 
a  condition  which  occurs  in  all  the  courses  above  the  one  in  which 

'  It  has  become  so  usual  in  these  days  to  protest  against  the  unscholarly  use  of  the  term 
"Sta.  Sophia"  to  designate  this  church,  that  I  make  no  aj^ology  for  restoring  the  original  form. 
The  time-honored  error  seems  to  have  arisen  througli  confounding  the  Greek  term,  "Ayi'a  2o<^ia" 
"  Churcli  of  the  Di\-ine  Wisdom, "  with  the  Greek  word  "  Ayi'a"  meaning  saint.  Sophia  was  then 
turned  into  a  proper  name.  Why  the  "Santa"  of  another  language  —  the  Italian  —  should 
have  been  intro<lueed  is  difficult  to  say.  Lethaby  and  Swainson  have  lately  still  further  com- 
plicated the  matter  by  trying  to  establish  the  form  Sancta  Sophia  (a  form  before  used  by  certain 
other  English  writers)  —  probably  because  the  Latin  is  tlie  only  thing  more  illogical  than  the 
established  Italian  usage. 

107 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

a  circular  plan  has  first  been  reached.  At  the  point  where  the 
pendentive  is  stopped  a  drum  may  be  added  and  this  in  turn 
surmounted  by  a  dome;  or  a  dome,  with  base  the  size  of  the 
inscribed  circle,  may  be  set  on  top  of  the  pendentives.  This 
last  course  was  adopted  in  Hagia  Sophia. 

The  pendentives  of  Hagia  Sophia  are  the  crowning  achieve- 
ment of  Byzantine  architecture.  Contemporaries  declared  the 
giant  dome  was  hung  in  the  air,  so  light  and  daring  appeared 
the  construction;  and  from  that  day  to  this  hardly  a  dome  has 
been  built  that  has  not  borrowed  the  great  invention  of  penden- 
tive supports.  Great,  however,  as  are  the  pendentives  of  Hagia 
Sophia,  it  is  doing  a  wrong  to  its  architects,  Anthemios  of  Tralles 
and  Isidoros  of  Miletus,  to  find  in  the  vaults  the  only  or  even 
the  chief  claim  of  this  monument  to  fame.  Hagia  Sophia  is 
one  of  the  great  master-works,  not  only  of  Byzantine,  but 
of  world  architecture.  Its  construction  (532-537)  marks  the 
culminating  point  in  Byzantine  art,  and  coincides  with  the 
culminating  point  in  the  political  glory  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. 

Under  the  conservative  emperors  of  the  end  of  the  V  and 
early  VI  centuries,  —  Leo  I,  Zeno,  Anastasius,  and  Justin,  — 
the  Empire  enjoying  comparative  peace  and  prosperity,  had 
been  husbanding  its  resources.  A  full  treasury,  a  good  army, 
and  a  prosperous  population  were  at  the  disposal  of  Justinian 
when  he  mounted  the  throne  (527).  Culture  had  revived;  it 
even  seemed  as  if  the  olden  splendor  of  the  ancient  Roman  Em- 
pire was  reawakening  to  new  life.  To  restore  the  past  glories 
of  the  Caesars,  Justinian  was  not  slow  to  bend  his  best  energies. 
His  wars  with  Persia  and  the  glittering  conquests  of  Africa, 
Italy,  and  Spain  brought  him  a  military  prestige  such  as  had 
been  for  long  centuries  enjoyed  by  no  Roman  ruler.  But  it  was 
by  his  buildings,  no  less  than  by  his  conquests  that  the  great 
Emperor  sought  to  immortalize  his  fame.  The  historian  Pro- 
copius  has  left  us  an  entire  work  devoted  to  an  account  of  the 
works  of  architecture  erected  by  Justinian;  —  a  work  which 
enumerates  thousands  of  churches,  monasteries,  hospitals,  pal- 
aces, bridges,  fortifications  built  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire  and 
all  of  the  greatest  magnificence.     The  list  as  we  read  it  over  is 

108 


HAGIA   SOPHIA 

fairly  appalling  in  its  length;  and  yet  the  author  insists  many 
times  that  his  enumeration  is  far  from  complete. 

It  was  to  this  insatiate  building  activity  of  the  Emperor  that 
Byzantine  architecture  owed  its  extraordinary  development;  it 
was  to  the  same  inexhaustible  zeal  that  it  owed  its  supreme  tri- 
umph and  culmination  in  Ilagia  Sophia.  The  expense  of  Jus- 
tinian's wars  and  building  operations  was  destined  before  long 
to  exhaust  the  Empire,  and  to  be  largely  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  that  economic  decay  that  was  so  soon  to  overwhelm  the 
East.  But  of  this  impending  poverty  the  great  church  shows  not 
a  trace,  and  its  sumptuous  magnificence  reflects  rather  the  prodi- 
gality which  so  quickly  used  up  the  resources  of  the  state.  Rising 
from  the  ashes  of  the  Nika  sedition  at  the  moment  of  the  greatest 
material  prosperity  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  Ilagia  Sophia  was 
pushed  to  completion  with  incredible  rapidity,  and  for  its  lavish 
adornment  the  munificent  Emperor  spared  no  expense.  Indeed, 
such  vast  sums  did  he  expend  on  the  construction  of  this  church, 
that  the  cost  of  this  one  monument  alone  seems  to  have  been 
enough  to  seriously  cripple  the  national  finances. 

A  glance  at  the  plan  (111.  79)  will  show  that  we  have  here  a 
building  of  very  different  type  from  any  we  have  yet  studied. 
Hagia  Sophia  is  without  parallel  among  great  works  of  archi- 
tecture in  that  its  form  was  not  the  result  of  a  long  process  of 
orderly  development  and  evolution,  but  was,  as  it  were,  created 
at  a  breath  by  the  genius  of  one  man. 

So  far  as  is  now  known,  the  nearest  approach  to  a  prototype 
of  Ilagia  Sophia  was  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  at  Rome.  Here 
a  great  hall  in  three  bays,  covered  with  groin  vaults,  was  supplied 
with  hea\'y  buttresses,  through  which  the  aisles  were  carried  by 
means  of  arches  (111.  22,  Fig.  2).  Anthemios  seems  to  have 
taken  a  plan  something  like  this  as  the  basis  of  his  design.  But 
for  the  groined  vault  over  the  central  bay  he  substituted  a  dome 
resting  on  four  great  arches  by  means  of  the  famous  penden- 
tives.  Then  each  of  the  end  bays  he  made  semicircular  instead 
of  square,  and  covered  them  with  half-domes.  Beyond  each 
of  these  semicircular  bays  he  opened  three  semicircular  niches, 
borrowing  the  motive  employed  in  Ilagios  Bacchos  and  S.  Vit- 
ale;  —  the  central  of  these  niches  at  the  east  end  became  the 

109 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

apse,  that  of  the  west  end  was  replaced  by  the  entrance.  Be- 
fore the  church  was  placed  a  double  narthex,  preceded  by  the 
usual  atrium.  Above  the  aisles  was  the  gallery  for  the  women. 
All  the  great  arches  were  subdivided  and  given  scale  by  a  sys- 
tem of  intermediate  arcades,  similar  to  that  we  have  remarked 
in  Haeios  Bacchos. 


III.  79.  —  Plan  of  Hagia  Sophia,  Constantinople, 


This  colossal  scheme  is  worked  out  with  the  greatest  struc- 
tural cleverness.  As  may  be  seen  in  the  plan  (111.  79),  the  pro- 
portion of  solids  to  voids  is  unusually  low.  By  comparing  the 
section  (111.  78)  and  M.  Choisy's  perspective  (111.  77)  it  will  be 
seen  that  each  dome  and  semi-dome  is  buttressed  by  heavier 
masonry  at  the  haunch  where  the  thrust  falls.     It  was  a  bold, 

110 


HAGIA   SOPHIA 

yet  successful  experiment  to  pierce  the  base  of  the  dome  with 
windows,  for  the  event  has  proved  that  the  intermediate  piers 
were  amply  sufficient  to  support  the  immense  superincumbent 
weight.  The  tendency  of  the  dome  to  push  the  great  arches 
outwards  is  met  to  the  eastward  and  westward  (111.  78)  by  the 
semi-domes  placed  against  it.  These  semi-domes  are  in  turn 
buttressed  by  the  half-domes  of  the  niches. 

All  this  careful  and  scientific  balancing  of  thrust  against 
thrust  is  a  wonderful  advance  over  anything  that  had  hitherto 
been  accomplished  in  architectural  construction,  and  we  do  not 
wonder  that  the  astonished  Byzantines  hailed  Anthemios  as  a 
greater  mathematician  than  Archimedes.  But  great  as  was  the 
structural  cleverness  of  this  design,  it  yet  contained  certain  de- 
fects. In  the  first  place,  the  four  great  buttresses  at  each  angle 
of  the  center  bay  were  not  well  placed.  In  the  groin-vaulted 
basilica  of  Constantine  the  same  buttresses  had  been  exactly 
calculated  to  meet  the  combined  thrust  of  two  adjoining  groin 
vaults.  But  when  Anthemios  substituted  the  dome  on  pen- 
dentives  for  the  groined  vault,  he  removed  the  thrust  these  but- 
tresses were  designed  to  meet.  The  thrust  from  the  pendentives 
is  straight  outward  from  the  center,  thus  cutting  across  the  angle 
of  the  buttress.  Consequently  the  great  masses  of  the  latter 
are  entirely  wasted,  for  they  reinforce  only  the  great  east  and 
west  arches,  which  do  not  require  such  heavy  abutment.  While 
the  strength  of  these  vast  buttresses  is  thus  thrown  away,  the 
central  portions  of  the  north  and  south  arches  —  the  parts  that 
need  buttressing  most  — -  are  entirely  unreinforced,  and  there 
is  nothing  save  their  enormous  thickness  to  offset  the  tendency 
of  the  dome  to  push  them  outwards. 

Owing,  probably,  to  these  deficiencies  the  equilibrium  of 
the  building  has  never  been  quite  assured,  and  the  dome  has 
fallen  at  least  three  times.  Nevertheless,  it  seems  ungenerous 
to  cavil  at  the  stability  of  a  building  which  has  stood  for 
thirteen  centuries;  and  when  its  lack  of  precedent,  the  daring 
of  its  construction,  and  the  colossal  scale  of  its  execution  are 
considered,  the  claim  of  Ilagia  Sophia  to  rank  as  one  of  the  great- 
est feats  of  human  construction  can  hardly  be  disputed. 

Esthetically   considered   the   exterior   of    this    great    church 

111 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

must  be  admitted  a  failure  —  if  it  be  just  to  set  down  as  a  fail- 
ure what  the  builders  never  attempted.  The  outside  of  Hagia 
Sophia  is  a  shapeless  mass  of  domes  and  half-domes,  to-day  still 
further  confused  by  Turkish  additions.  All  the  efforts  of  the 
architects  were  concentrated  on  the  interior;  here  the  noble 
construction  was  enhanced  by  all  the  skill  of  the  decorative 
artist. 

At  Hagia  Sophia  every  inch  of  the  wall  surface  of  the  in- 
terior was  ablaze  with  color  of  that  indescribable  richness  and 
splendor  that  is  peculiar  to  Byzantine  art.  The  domes  and 
vaults  were  glorious  with  the  most  splendid  of  Byzantine  mo- 
saics; the  walls  were  paneled  with  marbles  of  many  colors.' 
It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  this  same  marble  veneering,  so 
offensive  to  us  in  Roman  work,  although  used  with  unprece- 
dented lavishness  in  Hagia  Sophia,  is  yet  here  full  of  undeniable 
charm.  The  explanation  must  be  sought  in  two  facts:  in  the 
underlying  Hellenic  feeling  and  sense  for  beauty,  which  saved 
the  Byzantine  artists  from  the  vulgarity  of  Roman  design,  and 
in  the  accident  that  Hagia  Sophia,  like  many  other  Byzantine 
buildings,  for  all  the  excellent  technique,  was  built  largely  of 
pilfered  Roman  materials.  As  a  consequence  of  the  latter 
circumstance,  the  marble  available  for  paneling  and  other 
decoration  was  a  miscellaneous  lot,  and  no  attempt  was  made 
to  arrange  it  in  any  regular  pattern,  but  the  slabs  of  various 
colors  and  dimensions  were  crowded  in  wherever  and  however 
they  happened  to  fit.  The  panels,  although  of  good  size  in 
themselves  are  small  in  comparison  with  the  vast  scale  of  the 
church.  Since  they  are  not  arranged  in  definite  recurring  pat- 
terns, it  results  that  the  strong  color  of  each  individual  piece 
does  not  strike  the  eye,  but  becomes  fused  with  the  different 
colors  of  its  neighbors.  Thus  the  whole  combines  to  give  that 
mellow  richness  of  color  which  is  the  glory  of  Byzantine  art. 

Hagia  Sophia  is  the  culmination,  as  it  is  the  most  typical 
manifestation  of  Byzantine  architecture.  And  Hagia  Sophia 
must  rank  among  the  supreme  achievements  of  human  archi- 
tectural genius,  side  by  side  with  the  Parthenon,  the  Taj 
Mahal,    the   great    Gothic    cathedrals.     Once    inside    its    doors 

'  The  effect  of  this  interior  decoration  is  at  present  largely  marred  by  Turkish  additions. 

112 


IIAGIA   SOPHL\ 

the  eye  is  led  irresistibly  from  niche  to  half-dome,  from  half- 
dome  to  the  soaring  central  vault,  almost  as  in  a  mountain  range 
we  look  from  the  lesser  peaks,  rising  one  behind  the  other,  to 
some  commanding  Matterhorn.  The  appeal  is  as  instantaneous 
and  compelling,  as  in  the  more  sti'ictly  unified  Pantheon.  But 
in  the  Pantheon,  when  the  eye  is  once  satiated  with  the  mere 
size  of  the  dome,  there  is  nothing  left  to  give  pleasure;  and  it 
is  strange  how  quickly  we  become  accustomed  to  the  scale 
of  any  building,  however  vast,  so  that  after  remaining  in  it, 
say  for  an  hour,  we  forget  the  great  dimensions.  In  Hagia 
Sophia,  on  the  other  hand,  the  all-pervading  unity  of  the  dome 
encloses  a  host  of  subdivisions,  each  of  the  greatest  architec- 
tural charm  in  itself,  and  each  full  of  beautiful  details  worthy 
of  the  closest  study.  Writers  of  the  \T  century  hardly  knew 
which  to  admire  the  more,  the  main  design  of  Ilagia  Sophia  or 
the  exquisite  detail  with  which  it  was  adorned.  And  that 
doubt,  notwithstanding  the  Turkish  whitewash,  we  still  feel 
to-day.  If  the  Parthenon,  with  its  delicate  color,  its  exquisite 
refinement  and  perfection  symbolizes  the  spring  time  of  ancient 
art,  Hagia  Sophia,  less  dainty,  more  soiled,  yet  withal  scarcely 
less  beautiful,  in  its  riot  of  rich  colors,  symbolizes  the  autumn. 
It  was  with  a  justifiable  pride  that  Justinian  exclaimed,  when, 
on  the  memorable  twenty-sixth  of  December,  537,  he  gazed  for 
the  first  time  on  the  soaring  pendentives  of  the  great  dome:  "I 
have  surpassed  thee,  O  Solomon!"  In  truth,  he  had  surpassed 
a  greater  than  Solomon. 

This  exclamation  of  Justinian  is  significant  of  the  character 
of  Byzantine  architecture.  Hagia  Sophia  was  as  much  the  work 
of  the  vanity  of  the  emperor  as  of  the  genius  of  Anthemios. 
Byzantine  art  is  in  no  sense  popular;  it  is  not  the  spontaneous 
manifestation  of  an  art-loving  people;  it  in  no  way  speaks  from 
the  heart.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  aristocratic,  princely.  It  ex- 
presses the  vanity  of  an  autocracy  tyrannical  and  selfish,  fre- 
quently at  open  strife  with  its  subjects.  Yet,  almost  alone  of 
all  the  arts  fostered  under  such  circumstances,  it  rose  to  true 
greatness. 


113 


BYZANTINE    MONUMENTS 

BYZANTINE     MONUMENTS    OF    THE    FIFTH    AND 
SIXTH    CENTURIES 

Monuments  of  the  First  Importance 

CONSTANXmOPLE,  Turkey.  Hagia  Sophia  (111.  68.  77,  78,  79),  Church 
of  the  Divine  Wisdom,  erroneously  known  as  "Sta.  Sophia,"  was  founded  by 
Constantine  the  Great.'  This  early  church^  was  circular,^  with  a  domed  wooden 
roof.  But  in  the  reign  of  Constantine's  son  Constantius,  the  building  had  become  too 
small  for  the  needs  of  the  congregation.  Accordingly,  when  the  edifice  chanced  to  be 
injured  by  an  earthquake  during  the  reign  of  this  prince,  he  seized  the  opportunity  to 
rebuild  it  on  a  larger  scale.  This  second  church,  consecrated  in  360,''  was  twenty-one 
years  later  (381)  injured  by  tire,  the  roof  being  entirely  destroyed.^  For  two  years 
the  building  remained  unrepaired,  when  the  roof  was  rebuilt  in  a  "cylindrical"  form." 
The  misfortunes  of  the  church,  however,  were  far  from  being  ended;  the  eastern  parts  ' 
were  destroyed  by  fire  in  404  during  the  riots  which  occurred  in  connection  with  the 
exile  of  John  of  Chrysostom,'  and  it  is  probable  that  during  the  minority  of  Theo- 
dosius  II  another  fire  occurred.  At  all  events,  a  complete  rebuilding  of  the  church 
took  place  in  415.°  This  third  building  seems  to  have  stood  without  further  adven- 
ture until  the  great  Nika  sedition  of  53'-2.  I  translate  the  account  of  Procopius,  a 
contemporary  writer,  of  its  destruction  at  that  time  and  of  the  rebuilding  by  Justin- 
ian: "The  mob  and  rabble,  rebelling  against  the  Emperor  Justinian  in  Constanti- 
nople, raised  up  the  sedition  called  Nika,  as  has  been  clearly  shown  by  me  in  my 
work  on  the  wars.  And  manifesting  that  not  only  against  the  Emperor,  but  no  less 
against  God,  they  had  raised  such  impious  arms,  they  dared  to  burn  the  church  of  the 
Christians  —  the  Byzantines  call  it  Sophia,  i.e..  Wisdom,  giving  thus  to  the  church 
the  name  most  worthy  of  the  Deity  —  and  God  allowed  them  to  do  this  sacrilege, 
foreknowing  in  what  beauty  the  temple  should  rise  again.  Then,  indeed,  the  church 
burned  to  ashes  lay  all  in  ruin.  And  not  much  later.  Emperor  Justinian  wrought 
such  a  work,  that  if  the  Christians  themselves  could  have  learned,  that  should  the 
church  be  destroyed,  it  would  become  such  as  it  now  is  —  if  they  could  have  presaged 
somewhat  of  the  marvels  which  now  appear,  —  it  seems  to  me  they  would  very  quickly 
have  prayed  to  see  their  church  in  disaster,  that  it  might  change  to  the  present  form. 

'  Nicephorus  Callistus  Wl,  49;  Theophanes,  5816;  Codinus,  Excerpta,  73;  Anonjinus 
Banduri,  32. 

'  Richter  conjectures  it  was  merely  a  baptistery  to  the  adjoining  cathedral,  Hagia  Eirene. 

3  Codinus,  Excerpta,  73,  and  other  authorities.  See  Richter.  Of  this  point  there  seems 
no  ground  for  doubt.  Salzenberg,  however,  quoting  Du  Cange,  states  that  the  building  was  a 
basihca  {SpoiuKbs),  whence  the  error  has  been  adopted  by  many  other  writers. 

'  Salzenberg. 

*  Combesis,  cited  by  Richter,  44. 

°  Ibid.  Just  what  this  "cylindrical  roof"  means  is  not  clear.  Was  this  second  church  of 
Constantius  a  basilica? 

'  Marcellinus;  Chronicon  Pascale,  Ol.  298,  4,  cited  by  Richter,  45,  47. 

'  See  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  Chap.  XXXII. 

'  Salzenberg. 

114 


CONSTANTINOPLE 

For  the  Emperor,  heedless  of  expense,  sent  with  haste  for  workmen  skilled  in  build- 
ing, summoning  them  from  every  land.  And  Anthemios  of  Tralles,  by  far  the  wisest 
in  the  art  called  mathematics  not  only  of  living  men  but  of  those  who  have  lived  before, 
came  in  answer  to  the  hasty  summons  of  the  Emperor,  apportioning  the  work  to  the 
workmen  and  preparing  plans  of  the  building  about  to  be;  and  another  engineer  was 
with  him,  Isidoros  by  name  and  a  Milesian,  a  very  clever  man  in  other  things  and  con- 
spicuous for  the  aid  he  rendered  Justinian.  .  .  .  One  of  the  great  arches,  .  .  .  (the 
engineers  call  them  loroi),  —  the  one  towards  the  rising  sun,  — •  had  been  built  up  now 
on  each  side,  but  the  center  part  had  not  yet  been  completed,  but  the  arch  stood  un- 
finished. And  the  centerings  on  which  the  structure  rested,  not  bearing  the  weight 
of  the  unfinished  arch  which  lay  upon  them,  suddenly  broke,  and  cracked,  and  threat- 
ened before  long  to  fall  altogether.  And  Anthemios  and  Isidoros  and  their  men, 
fearful  because  of  what  had  given  way,  brought  the  matter  before  the  Emperor, 
mistrusting  their  art.  And  he,  led  by  whom  I  know  not,  but  I  tliink  by  God  (for  the 
Emperor  is  not  an  engineer),  bade  them  bring  the  arch  to  completion.  'For,'  he  said, 
'it  so  will  bear  its  own  weight,  and  no  longer  press  on  the  centering  below.'  Andif  this 
tale  were  without  witnesses,  I  know  well  I  should  be  deemed  a  liar  and  wholly  untrust- 
worthy; but  since  there  are  many  witnesses  that  these  things  so  happened,  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  relate  them.  The  workmen  then  did  as  the  Emperor  commanded,  and  the 
arch  was  constructed  in  all  safety,  proving  by  trial  the  justness  of  his  opinion.  This 
arch  was  then  erected  in  such  a  manner,  but  the  other  arches,  those  turned  towards  the 
south  and  north  wind,  were  built  a,s  follows.  These  arches  were  successfully  com- 
pleted, but  their  weight  fell  so  heavily  upon  the  substructions  that  the  columns  below 
[being  cru.shed]  commenced  to  crumble  off  in  small  pieces  of  shale.  And  straightway 
the  engineers,  disheartened  by  this  settling,  announced  what  had  happened  to  the  Em- 
peror. And  he  at  once  devised  this  remedy.  He  ordered  them  to  tear  down  immedi- 
ately the  upper  portion  of  the  walls  which  had  given  way,  wherever  the  walls  touched 
the  arches,  and  to  replace  these  removed  portions  only  much  later,  when  the  damp- 
ness of  the  building  .should  have  dried  off,  especially  on  the  arches.  And  the  work- 
men did  so.     And  the  settling  went  on  without  damage  in  the  future."  '     From  other 

'  'AuSpes  ay€\aiol  Trore  Kal  6  imp^eTjs  ^xXos  'loi'trT-inoi'iJ)  ^airiXe?  iv  Bi'foi'Tiy  4Trapa(rTdi>Tes  tJ)^ 
JfiVa  Ka.\ov^^iri)v  (STatjiv  ilp-yaaavTO,  ^wep  fxot  dTrapaKa\vTrTivs  dKpLfio\o^ovfjL(i'ifj  4v  roh  UK^p  Tujif 
troX^fiuy  SeSitjyriTaL  \6yois.  ^vdeiKvufxevoi  5^  uts  oiiK  iwl  tov  ^aai\4a  p.6voi\  a.\K  ov54v  tl  t]<7gov  iirl 
rhv  Bibv,  fire  awotppaSei  to  SttXo  dpTripav,  ip.irpTJa-ai  Twf  Xpicrriai'iiv  ttjc  e/CKXTjcrfav  iTu\fi.r](Tai' 
(^^otplav  KoXoutTiv  oi  Bv^dtrrtoi  rbv  v^Civ  ^TriKaiptwrara  t^  dttp  Trjv  iirtxjvv/j.lai'  direpyaffdpLevoi), 
hrexf^P^t  5^  airroi^  6  0c6s  SLawpd^affOai  t6  dai^-qixa,  Trpo€idu}S  els  Saov  rd  xdWos  tovto  t6  iepbv 
tUTa<rTi/l<r€<T6ai  ffieWev.  r)  liiv  oBx  iKKXiiala  i^rivBpaKUiiiirri  rare  ^Vfiwdaa  %kcito.  ^affiXeiJs  5^  lou- 
aTiVLavhs  roiavrrip  aTroTeTdpvevTai  ou  iroWy  varepov  HiaTe,  el  tuiv  XptaTiavujv  rts  iirijdeTO  irpbTepov 
el  /3oL'Xo/i^i'Oi5  avTois  SioXuX^rai  tt)^  iKKK-qalav  et-q  koL  Toidvie  ■yev^adai,  Sel^as  tl  avTots  twv  vOv  <f>ai- 
vopL^i/uv  eKTbiTupLa^  doKoOtriv  &v  pioi  wy  avvTOnujTaTa  eff^aaOaL  Treirovffviai'  trtplai  ttiv  iKK\rjalav 
6ed<7a<76aij  6iru}s  Sij  avroU  is  rd  irapbv  pieTa$d\otTo  <rx^M<J.  o  p-^v  o^v  ^aatXeOs  d(ftpovTnrr-q<ras 
XiyitP'dTuv  air iirrujv  is  ttjk  olKoSop.i)!'  airovS^  Uto,  xai  toi>s  Tex^lras  iK  ndaris  7^s  ijyeipev,  dnat^ 
Tos.  ' ktSifuos  Si  TpaWiafis,  iirl  (ro<pl<f  tJ  Ka\ovp.ivr)  firixai'tiiV  XoyiiiraTos  ou  tQv  (car'  aifrbv 
pbvov  (iTrdvTujVj  dXXd  Kal  rwv  avTov  TTpoyeyevTjpiviov  TroXXy,  ttj  ^affCKiiOS  virovyet  (TttouS^,  toIs  tck- 
Taivop^vois  t4  epya  pv0^i^uv,  tCiv  re  yevrjjofiivuv  irpooiaffKevd^iOv  lv5d\p.aTa,  Kal  fjLTjxaPoiroibs  irifv 
avT(ii  irepos  'lalSupos  imp.a,  MiXtJitio!  7^1^05,  epL<t>puv  re  dXXut  Kai  irpiirui'  'lova-Tiinai'i^   iiwovpyeXv 

■      115 


BYZANTINE   MONUMENTS 

authorities  we  learn  that  Justinian  began  to  build  in  February  532,  just  forty  days 
after  the  tire.'  Material  was  pilfered  for  the  building  from  all  over  the  Roman  world.^ 
Eight  columns  came  from  Valerian's  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Rome,  others  from  Ephesus, 
Cyzicus,  Troy,  Athens,  etc.  According  to  Glycas  ^  the  material  took  seven  years  to 
gather,  and  the  church  seventeen  years  to  build.  Theophanes,  a  better  authority, 
however,  states  that  the  work  was  finished  in  the  incredibly  short  space  of  five  years, 
eleven  months  and  ten  days,  and  that  the  consecration  took  place  on  the  SOth  Decem- 
ber, 537.^  The  masterwork  of  Anthemios  of  Tralles,  however,  did  not  long  stand  un- 
altered. In  558  the  structure  was  seriously  injured  by  an  earthquake.  I  translate 
the  grandiloquent  account  given  by  Paulus  Silentiarius:  "And  now  shaking  from 
its  mighty  foundations  the  god-like  rim  of  the  hemispherical  dome  fell,  and  all  the 
foundations  of  the  hall  of  mystery  were  shaken.  And  all  the  lowest  parts  of  the  foun- 
dations leapt  up  to  the  stars;  and  for  a  time  the  earth  groaned;  and  the  dust,  mixed 
with  the  air  and  accompanying  the  clouds,  made  dark  the  midday  brightness  of  the 
heavenly  aether.  .  .  .  Not  prostrate  to  its  foundations  did  the  building  fall,  destroy- 
ing for  us  art,  mother  of  the  best  children :  but  only  the  crown  of  one  arch  was  destroyed ; 
and  part  of  the  dome  was  mi.xed  with  the  dust,  and  part  of  it  was  on  the  ground,  and  part 
still  in  place,  and  it  was  wonderful  to  see  how  hanging  without  support  it  was  the  fellow 
of  the  air.  .  .  .  But  my  scepter-bearing  Emperor,  having  heard  the  unspeakable 
misfortune,  did  not  conceal  the  light  of  his  mind,  nor  shouldst  thou  deem  he  kept  silent, 
shirking  at  work  in  our  behalf;  but  he  shook  off  the  goad  of  our  short-abiding  sorrow, 

/3aa"tX6(.  .  .  .  Twv  d^iduv,  winrep  iTe/ivTi(r6Tji'  dpTiiOi  (\u}povs  S^  aiiTcts  ol  ixrixo-votrotol  ^■jriKa\ov(Ttv) 
/xia  Tis,  fl  Trpbs  avi^xovra  ^\i6v  iffTiv,  iiravetaT-qKii  ^^v  kKar^piadiv  ^Stj,  oCiTrw  5^  6\-q  rb  fxiaov 
ffvv€TCT4\€(TT0,  dXX  fixfvsv  fTi.  ol  5^  TTCfftToi,  wc  5tj  virepdev  T)  oUodo/j-ia  ^y^vero,  twv  iyK€tp.^vujv 
tjtplffiv  oxjK  iveyKbirrci  t6  pL^yeSos,  dp,7jy^Tnj  ^^airtvaiws  dTropptjyvupevoL,  ou/c  ^s  paKpdv  dia\v6Tj<rop.^- 
vois  iipKecrav.  ol  pev  o'vv  dptpi  tc  ' Xvd^piov  Kal  luidwpov  rots  cvpireTnojKbai  Trepitpo^oi  dvres  iirl  rbv 
jSatriX^a  rb  Tpdypa  ^yov,  SvtrdXTribes  iwl  ry  t^X^V  y^cvTjpevoL.  avrlKa  5^  b  ^atriXeys,  firy  p.4v 
troTe  Tjyp^vos  ovk  ol5a,  Beip  5^  olpai  (oi>  yap  iari  pTjxavLKb^)  ^s  t6  ir^pas  avToTs  TrepteXl^ai  tt)v  di/'tSa 
toiJtt;*'  iTT-qyyeWev,  avrij  yap,  etpij,  i(p'  eavTTJs  dv^xop^yr)  Twv  evepdev  ireacCjv  o{ik4tl  fieiy^et.  Kal 
el  piv  0  \byoi  dpdprvpos  ^v,  eS  olda  Sti  xiXal  re  dv  tSoJec  elvai  Kal  dirlo-Tos  SXws,  iirel  di  pdprvpes 
Trdpeitn  tCjv  TtjviKdSe  Tretrpaypivwif  ttoXXo/,  ouk  OKv-qr^a  vpTv  iirl  rd  tou  Xoyou  XtiTrbpevd  k(jTiv.  oX 
piv  Q^v  Tex»'t^'"tt'  "^d  iiriT€Taypiva  iiroiovv,  7}  5^  d^j/h  iw  dci^aXoOs  -rjujpijTo  waffa,  iiricrffypayl^ovffa 
Tj  irelpq.  TT)v  T^y  ^i'fot'as  d\rj$eLav.  touto  pkv  ovv  raiiTTj  i^ilpyaaTai,  Kara  5^  rds  AXXas  d^f5ay,  at 
re  )r/)6s  peff-qp^ptav  rcTpapp^vai  eiffl  Kal  ^oppdv  dvepov,  Toibvde  ^upijv^x^V  yev^aQai.  ol  p^v  \wpoi 
KaXoOpevoL  tou  veoi  ry  oUodopiqi  i^toyKup^Pot  •riu>pT}vTOy  ^apvvbpeva  bk  aiiTOii  iircTrov^Kct  rd  ^vepdev 
Trdrra,  Klovh  t€  ol  T^Se  &vTes  x*^^**^^^  piKpoiis  wVirep  dTro^va6evT€s  d(pUcrav.  Kal  aSdis  pkv  ddupoi 
ToU  avpimrTuiKbatv  ol  pii]xavt,Kol  ycyeinjpivoL  Tt^  [HacriXei  rd  <7(pi(7i  irapbvTa  iijr)yye\ov.  ai5^ts  5^  b 
/SatnXeus  dvreTexvricjaTo  rdbe.  tovtwv  dij  Tujv  TreTOPTjKbTCijf  rd  &Kpa  baa  tCiv  d\l/ldojv  e-jr^^pave,  5ie- 
Xe?c  p^v  iv  Tip  TrapavTtKa  iK€\evaev,  ivridivat.  5^  iroWip  vanpov,  ^iveibdv  rb  ttjs  oiKoboplas  vypbv 
d-jro\ta<f>if}tX£Lev  avroU  /zdXttrra.  Kal  ol  p^v  Kara  raOra  iwoiovv  •  ij  5^  ktI<tis  dtaycyove  rb  Xonrbv  iv 
dtr^oXei  oSiro.     ipipcTai  Si  Ti  paprvptov  b  Paoi\(vs  tou  epyov  TOibvbe.  —  Procopius,  De  Aed.  I,  1  seq. 

'Zonaras  IV,  6;  Cedremus  I,  650. 

2  Combesis;  Anonymus  Banduri;  Codinus;  Cf.  Richter  5i,  p.  24. 

'  Glycas  rV,  495. 

^This  statement  is  ob\-iously  inconsistent  with  the  date  given  by  Zonaras  and  Cedremus  for  the 
beginning  of  the  construction,  for  it  implie.s  that  work  was  commenced  on  January  16,  532,  or 
only  seven  instead  of  forty  days  after  the  fire. 

116 


CONSTANTINOPLE 

and  he  eagerly  commenced  the  labor  of  rebuilding  the  temple."  '  The  dome  in  this 
rebuilding  was  made  higher  -  by  twenty  feet  according  to  some  authorities,''  by  twenty- 
five  according  to  others.^  The  construction  was  strengthened  by  thickening  the  great 
piers  so  that  they  partially  choked  the  aisles  —  a  disposition  which  they  still  retain. 
The  church  was  consecrated  anew  in  the  year  503.''  In  a(i7,  or  only  four  years  later, 
the  dome  seems  to  have  again  fallen,  and  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  Justin  II,  this  time 
ten  feet  lower."  The  repairs  of  5G7,  however,  seem  to  have  been  the  last  substantial 
alteration  the  church  has  undergone,  and  subsequent  restorations  were  probably 
only  such  as  were  required  for  maintenance.  Thus  in  78S  the  west  arch  was  strength- 
ened/ and  in  the  first  half  of  the  X  century  one  of  the  other  great  arches  had  to  be 
reinforced.  In  987  the  dome  again  fell  in,  but  the  damage  must  have  been  compara- 
tively light,  since  it  was  repaired  by  flying  scaffolds.  In  1204  the  crusaders  pilfered 
from  the  church  many  of  its  finest  furnishings,  some  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
Venice.  The  walls  were  strengthened  and  the  bema  repaired  in  the  XIV  century.  In 
1453  the  church  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and  was  converted  into  a  mosque; 
the  church  furniture  was  entirely  removed,  the  mosaics  were  covered  with  whitewash, 
and  the  e.xterior  aspect  was  altered  by  the  addition  of  various  Turkish  accessory 
structures.  The  first  minaret  was  added  by  Mohammed  the  Conqueror;  the  second 
bv  Selim  II  (1566-74),  who  also  repaired  the  western  half-dome  damaged  by  an 
earthquake;   the  western  minarets  were  built  by  Amurath  III,  the  successor  of  Selim 

'  'H5e  /xiv  aSevapotaiv  inefifiifiama  Oe/ielXois 
a(paipT)S  TjtJLiTd^OLO  KaTrjpnre  $^itk€\os  &vtv^, 
^vffTiwdXov  5'  ivrlva^ev  io^OXia  irdfra  pieXdBpou' 
TTfivTa  b    VTr€<T KipTTiaev  ii>  darei  {iddpa  ^CjUefXwr, 
yata  5'  vireaTivax'-^^v  ^Ti  XP^^^^  ijepiats  5^ 
fiwyopL^vrj  vi<f)0\.riffi.v  b^ix^"^^^^^  Kovirj 
ovpai<iT]S  dp.dpvyp.a.  ixecnjp.f^ptvdp  effKewev  atdpTjt, 

ovS^  fj^v  (vpOarepfos  virivKXaae  fXfXP^  OepLeiXwv 

vqd^y  dpiaTwSiVOS  ie\p.^vo^  dpifjLatTt  rix^V^  ' 

dWd.  p.LT)S  d^iSos  dirujXiirdTjtTe  Kepair] 

avTo\LK^,  a<f)alpt)%  Tc  }^dxo^  kovItiulv  ip.ix^V- 

^v  d^  rb  fikv  5aT^8oto'i,  rb  6*  eiff^TL,  dd^^os  Id^trdat, 

old  Trep  dar-^piKTOv  bp.i\iev  iKKpenh  avpais. 

Avrdp  ipibs  (tktjtttovxo^  d-rrbTpoirov  &\yos  aKouffas 

oi'K  ^TTidrfv  ^Kd\v^€  vbov  (rAas,  ouS^  KarTj(f>v^ 

Tipffxhiv  TirXriKev  depy^os  dfifiaaiv  6kvov^ 

dXXd  p.t.vvvffa5irj^  dTretreftraro  K^vrpov  dvlr)^^ 

Tpbs  Si  TrbvQvs  ij'i^e  TaXivSwp.'^Topa^  otKov. 

—  Paulus  Silehtiarius,  18G-193,  198-204,  214-218. 
'Ibid. 

'Malala  XVIII.  489;  Tlu-ophancs,  6051. 
*  Zonaras  XIV,  9. 

* Theopliaiics,  60.5.5;   Chrnnicon  Pascale.  Ol.  ;!3,5,  4;  Malala  XVIII,  495. 
« ComlK'sis,  252;  Anonyiniis  Hamluri,  78;  Codiiius,  143.      It  is  possible  these  accounts 
refer  to  the  disaster  of  558  under  a  wrong  date. 

'  Constantine  Porpliyrogrriitiis,  54;  Thcopliancs  V,  79;  etc. 

117 


BYZANTINE   MONUMENTS 

II.  In  1847  Abdal  ^ledschid  determined  upon  a  restoration  to  give  the  building  again 
as  nearly  as  possible  its  original  form.  The  Italian  architect  Soffati  deserves  immor- 
tal fame  for  the  rare  judgment  he  displayed  in  carrying  out  this  work.  After  four 
centuries  the  plaster  was  stripped  off,  and  the  mosaics  shown  again  in  their  splendor, 
the  faces  only,  forbidden  by  the  Koran,  being  recovered  with  painted  canvas.  The 
church  thus  remains  to-day,  considering  its  age  and  the  vicissitudes  of  its  history,  in 
wonderfully  good  preservation. 

Ilagios  Bacchos  ("St.  Sergius  and  Bacchus,"  "Kutschuk  Aja  Sophia").  Pro- 
copius  gives  the  following  somewhat  puzzling  account  of  the  construction  of  this  church: 
—  "And  another  of  his  [Justinian's]  shrines  was  dedicated  to  the  renowned  saints  Ser- 
gius and  Bacchus,  and  at  the  side  of  this  there  was  a  second  shrine.  And  the  two 
churches  did  not  face  each  other,  but  they  stood  side  by  side,  adjoining  and  being 
evenly  matched  and  having  a  common  approach  and  being  placed  in  enclosures  pre- 
ci.sely  similar  both  in  everjthing  else  and  in  their  borders.  And  neither  church  ap- 
peared to  be  greater  nor  less  than  the  other  in  beauty  or  size  or  anjihing  else.  For 
each  e<:(ually  reflects  the  sun  in  the  gleam  of  its  stones,  and  equally  is  each  everjTvhere 
resplendent  with  abundance  of  gold,  and  is  verdant  with  votive  offerings.  In  one 
thing  only  do  the  two  differ.  For  in  one  of  them  the  plan  has  been  laid  out  in  a  reg- 
ular circle;  but  in  the  other  the  columns  stand  bulging  out  from  this  in  semicircles.' 
And  the  two  churches  share  a  single  portico  before  the  doors,  called  a  narthex  —  [i.e., 
a  reed]  —  on  account  of  its  length.  And  the  gate  of  the  atrium  is  common  to  them 
both,  and  the  atrium  itself  and  the  great  portals  of  the  narthex  and  the  entrance  to 
the  palace.  And  thus  both  these  temples  combine  to  be  clearly  an  ornament  to  the 
entire  city  and  no  less  to  the  palace. "  '  These  two  churches  both  formed  part  of  the 
Hormisdas,  a  private  palace  of  Justinian.^     Cedremos  *  states  that  the  church  was 

'  The  interpretation  of  this  sentence  is  doubtful.  The  second  clause  is  usually  taken  as 
referring  tea  circular  church  and  tjjuikukXv  is  translated  as  'circle'  —  I  believe  an  unjustifiable 
li!)erty.  I  have  consequently  little  doubt  that  I  am  right  in  taking  this  word  a.s  referring  to  the 
semicircular  niches  of  columns  at  the  corners  of  Hagios  Bacchos  (111.  72),  and  am  only  surprised 
iliat  no  one  has  proposed  this  translation  l>efore.  The  first  clause  is  more  difficult.  The  text 
itself  would  seem  to  imply  a  basilican  plan;  the  context,  however,  has  induced  me  to  lake  the 
passage  as  referring  to  a  circular  edifice.  It  is  unlikely  that  Procopius  would  have  insisted  so 
strongly  on  tlie  similarity  of  the  two  structures,  had  they  differed  as  radically  as  a  basilican  and  a 
circular  church. 

-  Ou  5ri  Kal  rdfi^yo^  fiXXo  a7^ots  ^WKpafeai  ^epylu>  re  Kal  Bd/cxv  iSeifjuiTa,  Kai  firetra  Kal  T^fievot 
6.\\o  iK  7rXa7/ou  TovTif  ira.pa.Keitj.(vov.  d.fji(pcj  5^  tovt(/}  toi  v€tji  ovK  dPTiirpoaujiroi,  dXX'  iK  7rXa7fas 
d\\r]\oLv  €(TTS.(TLP,(Tvp7]p.jx^poL  TE  Kttt  dXXijXois  ^^d/iiXXot  fii^cs,  Kal  Tas  elirdSovs  ^-jriKOivovpi^voi,  Kal  tcra 
dXX^Xots  TO.  T€  dXXa  Tavra  Kal  ra  Kpdffireda  trept^e^XripJvoif  Kal  oliS^repos  oijre  KaWovi  w^pi  oUre 
fji4y€dov^  oijT€  dWov  oifdevbs  ttXcov^ktwv  ij  ^Xatrtroii/Liccos  SiiKvvTai.  Ofioius  fi^v  yap  iKarepoi  ttj  aty\r] 
Tujp  Xidujy  virepaa-TpdtTTet  rbv  T^Xtoi',  opjoiios  5k  xP^'^^^  irfptoutrlif.  irayrax^^t  KaraKop-ris  iari  Kal 
KaraKOfj.^  ToU  dvadr)natxiv.  ivl  fi^vrof.  BiaWdaaovat  ixhvio.  to  p.kv  yap  pltJkos  avroiv  r^  fi^v  Kar 
evdu  5Lair€Tr6vTjTatf  r^  5^  ol  Kioves  iv  rjuLKUKXip  4k  tou  iirnrXeTiTTov  cffrdCLV,  tan  5k  avTois  p.ia  ixkv  ij 
iirl  Twf  Trpodvpojv  (Trod  kirl  roO  vdpdTjKos  rtji  Tr€pipTf)K7]s  clvai  Cjvop.a(yp.4vT}.  kirl  KOti^s  5k  TrpotrOXaia 
TrdvTa,  it}  re  auXT?  Kai  p.ktTav\oi  0vpat  Kai  t6  irpoff-riKetv  rots  )3a(riXeiots.  oirrui  5^  &p.(pu  dyaard  ra  Upd  rdSe 
^Vji^aivet  cfvai  iijare  5ia(t>avu>s  xijs  re  ir6Xcws  6\-i]s  Kal  ovx  rfKitTTa  rujv  ^afftXeiwv  kyKaX\ujTriafj.a 
Tvyxafii  Syra.  —  Procopius,  De  Aed.  I,  4. 

^  Anonymus  Banduri  I,  45.  ^  I,  642. 

118 


CONSTANTINOPLE 

built  in  528,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  question  this  statement.  Although  the  second 
church  whicli  Procopius  describes  as  adjoining  has  disappeared,  we  are  left  in  no  doubt 
as  to  the  identity  of  our  monument,  for  an  inscription  on  the  frieze  recalls  the  dedica- 
tion by  Justinian  and  Theodora.  The  jilan  (111.  7'i)  at  present  is  not  exactly  true  in 
line  —  possibly  this  results  from  later  alterations.  The  general  scheme  is  symmet- 
rical, and  consists  of  a  central  octagon  surrounded  by  a  square  external  wall.  The 
four  angles  of  the  octagon  are  bulged  outwards  in  semicircles  (111.  72),  so  that  the  nave 
is  of  the  sh;ipe  of  a  square  with  rounded  corners.  An  apse  is  built  out  to  the  east  and 
the  western  narthex  still  survives.  The  dome  —  most  strangely  serrated  —  rests  on 
proto-pendentives. 

Hagios  loantios  (St.  John  of  Studios,  now  Imrachor  Dschamissi).  Two  brief 
notices  constitute  all  our  documentary  evidences  for  the  date  of  this  church.  The 
first,  referring  to  the  sixth  year  of  Leo  the  Great  or  463,  states  that  "Studios  built 
the  church  of  the  Baptist  and  put  therein  the  monks  of  the  Alcoimetoi."  '  The  sec- 
ond, merely  notes  that  in  the  year  627  "Bonus  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Hagios 
loannos.'  The  only  other  historical  text  bearing  on  this  church  is  a  brief  notice  in 
Suidas  mentioning  a  restoration  after  the  Latin  conquest  of  1204.  When  Constanti- 
nople fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  the  famous  Turkish  architect  Sinan  converted 
Hivgios  loannos  into  a  mosque.  The  venerable  basilica  suffered  so  heavily  in  these 
alterations,  that  practically  the  only  surviving  remains  of  the  V  century  building  are  the 
lower  colonnades  with  their  stone  architraves.  The  existing  upper  colonnades  are  of 
wood  and  modern.  The  apse  has  been  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building —  its  vault 
is  now  lost,  and  the  walls  stand  only  to  one  third  their  original  height.  This  apse  was 
originally  three-sided  externally,  and  was  very  low,  rising  only  to  the  height  of  the  gal- 
leries.^ The  nave  is  eight  bays  long.  At  present  there  are  galleries  but  no  clearstory, 
but  this  does  not  represent  the  original  dispositions.  The  atrium  and  the  narthex 
(which  was  probably  in  two  stories)  have  disappeared  leaving  only  a  few  faint  traces. 
Altogether  the  interest  of  the  building  centers  well-nigh  exclusively  in  the  nave  cap- 
itals (111.  67),  the  best,  and  almost  the  sole,  examples  we  possess  of  the  transition  from 
Roman  to  Byzantine  decoration. 

Hagia  Eirene,  or  Church  of  the  Holy  Peace,  wrongly  known  as  "Sta.  Irene"  was 
founded  by  Constantine  *  on  the  site  of  a  pagan  temple  ^  and  of  a  still  earlier  church.' 
In  the  time  of  Paulus,  third  patriarch  under  Constantine,  Hagia  Eirene  became  the  seat 
of  the  patriarch  and  the  cathedral  church  of  the  Eastern  capital.^  Rebuilt  by  Con- 
stantius  '  it  was  doubtless  destroyed  by  the  great  fire  of  the  Nika  sedition  in  532,  the 
same  which  destroyed  the  neighboring  church  of  Hagia  Sophia,  for  there  is  docu- 
mentary evidence  that  Hagia  Eirene  was  rebuilt  by  Justinian  shortly  after  this.* 
Procopius  states  that  as  thus  rebuilt  it  was  secoiid  to  none  of  all  the  churches  of 
Constantinople,  save  only  to  Hagia  Sophia,  which  now  became  the  cathedral.  The 
church  suffered  in  the  fire  of  56-t  '"  and  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 

'  Theophanes,  6955;  Codinus,  Excerpfa,  102.  °  Ibid.;  Photius,  Life  of  Paulus,  U17. 
2  Chronicon  Pascale,  Ol.  351,  i.  '  Ibid.,  1419. 

'  Salzenberg's  Plates.  '  Socrates  II,  16. 

*  Nicephonis  Callistus  VII,  49.  '  Procopius,  De  ^Edificiis  I,  2. 

^  Ibid.;  Anoiiyinus  Banduri,  31.  '"Theophanes,  6053. 

119 


BYZANTINE   MONUMENTS 

of  the  early  part  of  the  VIII  century.  The  present  structure  probabl}-  dates  almost 
entirely  from  this  time,  but  has  never  been  examined  with  sufficient  care  to  deter- 
mine whether  any  parts  of  the  building  of  Justinian  still  survive,  and  how  much, 
if  any,  of  the  original  dispositions  are  preserved  in  the  present  plan.  The  edifice  to- 
day consists  of  a  nave  of  two  great  bays,  each  covered  with  a  dome.  One  of  these 
domes  is  raised  on  a  lofty  drum.  The  nave  is  surrounded  by  aisles,  and  is  furnished 
with  the  customary  apse  and  narthe.x.     (Salzenberg.) 

Hagios  Theodoras  was  built,  according  to  Procopius,  by  Justinian  in  the  reign 
of  his  uncle  Justin  I.  The  plan  is  .said  to  have  been  similar  to  that  of  the  church  at 
Myra.  Some  traces  of  Hagios  Theodoros  are  said  to  survive,  but  have  never  been 
adequately  published.     (Lewis.) 

Church  of  the  Chora,  the  present  Mosque  Kahireh  or  Kahriyeh,  was  founded, 
perhaps,  as  early  as  the  III  century,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Justinian  (527-565).  It  was 
later  remodeled  in  whole  or  in  part  by  Theodoros  Metochites.  A  few  fragments  of 
this  building  of  the  VIII  century  still  survive.     (Texier  and  Pullan.) 

MOXUMENTS    OF   THE    SeCOND    Cl.\SS 

RAVENNA,  Emilia,  Italy.  S.  Vitale  (111.  69,  70,  71,  73,  76).  This  great 
monument  of  Byzantine  art  was  erected  by  Julianus  Argentarius  by  order  of  the  arch- 
bishop Ecclesius  (521-534)  as  we  learn  from  an  inscription  still  preserved  in  the 
church:  "At  the  command  of  Bishop  Ecclesius,  a  most  blessed  man,  Julianus  Argen- 
tarius built  from  the  foundations,  decorated,  and  consecrated  the  basilica  of  the  blessed 
martjT  Vitale,  the  most  reverend  Bishop  Alaximianus  dedicating  the  same  on  the 
nineteenth  day  of  April,  the  sixth  year  after  the  consulate  of  Basihus  Junior.'  That 
is,  the  consecration  took  place  in  5-17,  work  doubtless  having  been  delayed  by 
the  Byzantine  invasion  of  Italy  and  the  siege  and  capture  of  Ravenna  by  Belisarius 
in  540.  An  epigram  which,  according  to  Girolamo  Fabbri,'  could  formerly  be  read 
above  the  bronze  door  of  the  chapel  Sancta  Sanctorum  confirms  this  inscription.  I 
translate  the  lines  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  church:  "The  lofty  temple  rises  with 
venerated  dome,  the  temple  consecrated  to  God  in  the  name  of  Vitale.  Ecclesius  first  en- 
trusted the  building  of  this  house  to  Julianus,  who  in  wonderful  wise  accomplished  the 
work  confided  to  him."^    Another  inscription  in  the  chapel  of  Isaaccio  Esarca  confirms 

>  B.  Martyri.s  Vitalis  Basilicani  niaiidante  Ecclesio  Viro  Beatissimo  Episcopo  a  fundamentis 
Julianus  Argentarius  aedificant,  ornavit,  atque  dedicavit,  consecrante  vero  Reverendissimo  Max- 
imiano  Episcopo  sulj  die  XIII  [Kal.  Maii]  sexies  P.  C.  Basilii  Junoris. 
2  Memorie  Sacre,  Parte  I,  p.  361. 
^  The  entire  epigram  is  as  follows : 

Ardua  consurgunt  venerando  culmine  templa 

Nomine  Vitalis  sanctificata  Deo, 
Gervasiusque  tenet  simiil  banc  Protasius  arcem, 
Quos  genus  atque  fides  templaque  consociant. 
His  Genitor  natis  fugiens  contagia  niundi 

Exemplum  Fidei  martyrii  fuit. 
Tradidit  banc  primus  Juliano  Erclesius  arcera, 
Qui  sibi  commissum  mire  peregit  opus. 
120 


RAVENNA 

these  other  sources.  "Juh'anus  Arpjentarius,  the  Servant  of  Christ,  in  sight  of  all 
built  this  basilica  from  its  founclations."  '  Furthermore,  in  the  mosaics  of  the  gallery 
St.  Ecclesius  is  represented  with  the  model  of  the  church  in  his  hand,  and  St.  Max- 
imianus  stands  next  to  him  in  the  act  of  consecrating  it.  The  four  famous  mosaics 
on  the  sides  of  the  apse  probably  indicate  that  Justinian  and  Theodora  (who  are  there 
represented)  were  liberal  contributors  to  the  church.  Monograms  of  St.  Ecclesius 
and  of  Julianus  are  still  to  be  seen  carved  on  the  stilt-blocks  of  the  capitals;  mono- 
grams of  Narses  are  also  said  to  have  been  deciphered  amid  the  decorations,  although 
the  church  was  finished  and  consecrated  before  that  general  came  to  Italy.  In  1782 
the  Renaissance  mutilations  which  now  disfigure  the  church  were  carried  out  by 
Borozzi.  In  the  main,  however,  the  VI  century  building  is  still  admirably  preserved. 
Although  later  in  date  than  Hagia  Sophia,  this  monument  exhibits  an  earlier  phase 
of  Byzantine  art,  —  a  fact  probably  to  be  explained  by  its  distance  from  the  capital. 
Thus  the  dome  is  supported  on  arched  squinches,  not  on  pendentives.  The  plan 
consists  of  a  simple  octagonal  central  area,  surrounded  by  an  aisle  and  gallery,  the 
apse  built  out  to  the  east  end,  and  a  narthex  added  to  the  northwest.  But  between 
each  pillar  of  the  central  octagon  there  open  two-storied  niches,  each  divided  by  col- 
umns into  three  lesser  bays.  These  niches  choke  somewhat  the  circulation  of  the  aisle 
and  of  the  gallery,  which  is,  indeed,  the  chief  criticism  of  this  plan.  The  system  of 
construction  is  worked  out  with  great  cleverness,  if  also  perhaps  with  over-caution.  The 
dome  is  constructed  of  earthern  pots  -  and  therefore  has  a  very  light  thrust.  This 
thrust,  by  means  of  the  window  openings,  is  concentrated  on  the  eight  central  piers 
which  in  turn  are  reinforced  by  buttresses  deeper  than  the  width  of  the  aisle.  The 
aisle  and  gallery  pass  through  these  buttresses  by  means  of  arches.  Between  the  piers 
the  dome  is  buttressed  by  the  half -domes  of  the  niches.     (Ricci;  Dehio.) 

iS.  Apollinare  in  Classe  (111.  42)  was  built  at  the  command  of  the  bishop  Ursicinus 
(533-53H)  by  the  same  architect  —  Julianus  Argentarius  —  who  constructed  S.  Vit- 
ale,  and  was  consecrated  in  549  by  the  bishop  Maximianus  as  is  known  from  an  in- 
scription still  preserved  in  the  church:  "Julianus  Argentarius  at  the  command  of 
Bishop  Ursicinus,  a  saintly'  man,  built  from  the  foundations,  decorated,  and  conse- 
crated [this  basilica]  of  St.  Apollinare  the  priest.  St.  Maximianus  the  bishop  assisted 
at  the  dedication,  on  the  22d  day  of  April,  the  12th  indiction,  the  eighth  year  after  the 
consulate  of  Basilius."^  Subsequent  to  this  dedication,  a  restoration  by  Otto  III 
(983-1002)  is  commemorated  by  an  inscription.  It  is  evident,  however,  from  the 
monument  itself,  notwithstanding  its  good  preservation,  that  at  some  period  it 
has  long  stood  unroofed  and  open  to  the  weather.     The  exterior  of  this  church  in 

Hoc  quoque  perpetua  manda\it  lege  tenendum 

His  nulli  liceat  condere  membra  locis. 
Scd  quod  Pontificum  constant  monumenta  priorum 
Fas  ibi  .sit  tantuni  ponere,  se<l  similes. 
'  lulianus  Argent.  Ser\-us  lesi.  Proecibu.  Est.  Iia.si.  a  Funda.  Perfec. 
•  Uarozzi. 

^  Ueati  .\poIlinaris  Sacerdotis  maiulante  Viro  Beati-ssinio  Ursicino  Episcopo  a  fundamentis 
Julianus  .Vriientarius  a-difiravit,  ornavit,  ati)ue  dedicavit,  consecrante  vero  B.  Maximiano  Epis- 
copo die  Vnil  jMajarum  Ind.  XII  octies  P.  C.  Basilii. 

121 


BYZANTINE   MONUMENTS 

its  present  conditions  is  very  simple.  Of  the  atrium  which  originally  preceded  it  — 
as  is  known  from  a  passage  of  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  —  there  remain  only  faint 
traces  of  the  foundations,  but  fragments  of  the  ancient  narthex  are  still  to  be  found 
confused  with  the  walls  now  forming  the  fa9ade  of  the  church.  This  fa9ade  was 
formerly  flanked  by  two  square  structures,  of  which  the  northern  was  destroyed  not 
long  ago,  while  the  southern  still  exists.  Three  arches  built  into  the  wall  of  the  latter 
seem  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  these  anomalous  structures  were  originally  supported 
on  colonnades.  The  rest  of  the  exterior  is  less  puzzling.  The  clearstory  walls  are 
ornamented  with  a  series  of  blind  arches  in  brickwork,  in  each  of  which,  it  is  probable, 
was  originally  pierced  a  window.  The  apse  (which  is  externally  polygonal)  is  flanked 
by  two  square  chapels  with  little  eastern  apses.  All  the  apses  are  expressed  on  the 
exterior,  yet  there  are  cells  in  two  stories  built  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  between  the 
main  apse  and  each  chapel.  In  the  interior,  the  dispositions  are  those  of  a  normal 
three-aisled  basilica.  The  roof,  decorated  as  a  starry  heaven  by  Crisafia  (who  was 
sent  from  Rome  by  Leo  III  in  815  for  this  purpose),'  has  long  since  disappeared,  as 
have  the  mosaics  which  once  adorned  the  triforium,  and  the  precious  marbles  of  the 
wainscotting,  which  were  carried  off  by  Malatesta  in  the  XV  century  to  build  the 
temple  of  S.  Francesco  at  Rimini.  Gone  too  is  the  ancient  pavement  in  opus  alex- 
andrium.  And  yet  the  old  basilica  still  retains  an  extraordinary  number  of  interest- 
ing accessories.  The  priceless  mosaic  of  the  apse  is  the  original  of  the  VI  century. 
The  episcopal  throne  is  the  very  one  given  by  Damianus  (688-705)  as  is  witnessed 
by  the  inscription  that  it  bears.  Above  the  altar  of  S.  Felicola  is  a  marble  ciborium 
with  columns  spiral-fluted;  this  ciborium,  according  to  the  inscription,  dates  from 
the  early  part  of  the  IX  century.  The  little  altar  in  the  middle  of  the  church  is  be- 
lieved to  be  that  erected  by  Maximianus  Orsus  in  the  IX  century.  When  the  orig- 
inal silver  ciborium  of  the  main  altar  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  846,  Archbishop 
Domenicus  (889-898)  replaced  it  by  a  new  ciborium  with  four  columns  of  black  and 
white  marble.  These  were  retained  when  the  ciborium  was  made  over  in  1723.  In 
1783,  however,  they  were  carried  off  to  the  church  of  S.  Romualdo,  but  were  later 
restored  to  S.  ApoUinare,  and  placed  by  the  side  entrance,  where  they  may  yet  be 
studied.     (Ricci.) 

SALONICA,  Thessalonica,  Turkey.  Hagios  Dcmetrios.  There  is  very  little 
documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  important  monument,  the  only  text  known 
being  certain  fragments  of  an  edict  of  Justinian  II  (685-695)  discovered  by  Papa- 
georgios.  Since  the  church  is  mentioned  in  this  edict,  it  must  be  at  least  as  old  as  the 
VII  century,  and  in  fact  it  is  now  usually  assigned  to  a  much  earlier  period  —  the 
middle  of  the  V  century.  It  is  a  structure  of  the  basilican  type,  with  five  aisles,  gal- 
leries, and  an  internal  transept,  but  the  plan  is  peculiar  in  that  the  aisle  is  returned 
across  the  west  end.  The  columns  support  arches.  The  capitals,  for  the  most  part 
Composite,  although  the  basket  and  other  types  occur,  bear  stilt-blocks,  and  are 
fine  examples  of  the  last  stages  of  the  transition  to  the  Byzantine  style.  The  archi- 
volts  of  the  arches  are  inlaid  instead  of  being  carved.  The  apse  has  five  windows 
separated  externally  by  half  columns  bearing  an  engaged  arcade. 

■  Agnello,  Lib.  Pont.  II,  p.  UG. 
122 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  THIRD   CLASS 

Hacjia  fiophia.  This  church  has  usually  been  assitjned  to  a  period  of  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  subsequent  to  the  erection  of  the  great  Hagia  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 
M.  Petros  Papageorgios,  however,  has  deciphered  a  mosaic  inscription  which  he  thinks 
definitely  fixes  the  date  of  the  construction  of  the  edifice  as  495.  The  vital  numerals  at 
the  end  of  the  inscription  were  defaced,  but  there  is  no  doubt  the  last  fragment  was 
part  of  an  2,  and,  since  there  was  room  for  only  one  more  letter,  2  A  or  6004  (490  a.d.) 
is  the  only  year  that  will  fit  the  fourth  indiction,  mentioned  in  the  inscription.  I  under- 
stand that  a  monograph  is  being  written  by  the  architect  BubrofT  to  prove  that  the 
architecture  of  the  church  is  of  the  style  of  the  V  century.  The  building  itself  con- 
sists of  a  central  dome  supported  on  four  enormous  piers.  The  screen  walls  between 
these  piers  are  set  far  back  to  the  outer  edges  of  the  piers  so  as  to  make  the  plan  of 
the  central  area  cruciform.  The  aisle  nuis  around  the  north,  west,  and  south  sides, 
and  the  exterior  walls  are  square  in  plan.  There  are  three  apses  to  the  eastward, 
the  central  one  pierced  by  three  windows,  the  others  each  by  one  window.  (Rivoira; 
Lethaby  and  Swainson.) 

EsH  Djuma,  the  present  mosque,  is  a  converted  Christian  basilica.  There  is  no 
documentary  evidence  for  the  date,  but  the  transitional  style  of  the  carving  and  deco- 
ration leaves  no  doubt  that  the  building  was  erected  in  the  V  century.  Rivoira, 
perhaps  somewhat  rashly,  assigns  it  to  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  that  century. 
The  church  was  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  narthex  and  gallery,  but  no  transepts. 
The  capitals  surmounted  by  high  stilt-blocks  are  Composite,  but  Byzantine  perforations 
have  already  supplanted  the  Latin  undercutting.  The  columns  bear  arches  without 
archivolts.  There  are  three  windows  in  the  apse,  separated  by  engaged  columns  bear- 
ing an  arcade.     (Rivoira.) 

PAREXZO,  Istria,  Austria.  Cathedral  is,  according  to  an  inscription,  the  work 
of  the  first  bishop  of  Parenzo,  Eufrasius,  and  consequently  must  date  from  between 
the  years  535  and  543.  Although  the  church  has  been  restored  several  times  in  medi- 
eval and  modern  times,  it  still  retains  in  excellent  preservation  the  original  disposi- 
tions of  the  VI  century.  The  plan  is  that  of  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  a  single  apse 
pierced  by  four  windows  and  polygonal  externally,  though  the  aisles  end  internally 
in  circular  niches.  The  nave  is  ten  bays  long.  The  capitals  surmounted  by  stilt- 
blocks  are  of  a  pure  and  especially  charming  Byzantine  tvpe.  The  intrados  of  the 
arches  is  ornamented  with  a  stucco  decoration,  dating  from  the  VI  century.  Mono- 
grams of  Euphrasius  are  carved  on  the  stilt-blocks  and  elsewhere  throughout  the 
church.  The  atrium  is  still  in  admirable  preservation.  The  adjoining  octagonal 
baptistery,  whose  apse  projects  and  whose  walls  are  decorated  with  four  circular  and 
two  rectangular  niches,  is  roofed  in  wood,  and  is  contemporary  with  the  basil- 
ica. The  ciborium  of  the  church  dates  from  1277  and  the  campanile  is  of  the  XV 
century. 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Cl.\ss 

GR.VDO,  Istria,  Austria.  Dom.  A  mosaic  inscription  records  that  the  church 
was  rebuilt  by  the  patriarch  Elias  (571-58C).  The  plan  is  basilican,  with  three  aisles, 
and  an  aj)se  polygonal  externally,  but  there  are  no  transepts.     The  columns  separat- 


BYZANTINE    IMONUMENTS 

ing  the  aisles  carry  arches.  The  original  pavement  survives  and  is  most  interesting; 
it  consists  of  a  mosaic  of  brightly  colored  marbles  in  varied  designs,  mingled  with 
inscriptions.  An  arcaded  porch  extends  across  the  facade,  but  one  of  the  five 
openings  has  been  filled  up  by  the  later  campanile.  The  church  contains  an  ambo 
of  unknown  but  early  date.     (Dehio;  Holzinger;  Jackson.) 

GERIZIM,  Palestine,  SjTia.  Hagia  Maria  is  said  by  Procopius  '  to  have  been 
erected  by  the  Emperor  Zeno,  not  earlier  than  474,  in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He 
tells  us  further  that  Justinian  after  529  built  the  external  wall  of  the  court,  thus  trans- 
forming the  church  into  a  fortress.  Considerable  remains  of  this  church  have  lately 
been  described.  It  was  a  building  octagonal  in  plan  with  an  apse  on  the  east  side. 
The  main  entrance  was  to  the  north.  On  five  or  possibly  on  six  of  the  sides  there  were 
small  chapels.  The  only  capital  uncovered  was  of  a  debased  Corinthian  order. 
(Stewart's  Procopius.) 

MT.  SINAI,  Palestine,  S\Tia.  Hagia  Maria  was  built  by  Justinian,  "not  on 
the  summit  of  the  mountain,  but  a  long  way  below  it,  for  it  is  not  possible  for  a  man 
to  pass  the  night  on  the  peak,  because  at  night  continuous  thunderings  and  other  yet 
more  terrible  divine  manifestations  take  place  which  overpower  men's  strength  and 
reason.""  This  church  still  exists,  and  retains,  despite  many  medieval  and  modern 
alterations,  a  considerable  part  of  the  VI  century  mosaics.  It  is  octagonal  in  plan, 
with  an  aisle  and  an  apse.  Unfortunately,  visitors  to  this  monastery  have  been  so 
taken  up  with  the  search  for  manuscripts,  that  they  have  given  but  scanty  descrip- 
tions of  the  interesting  church. 

BETHLEHEM,  Palestine,  Syria.  Church  of  the  Nativity.  This  church,  whose 
nave  was  built  by  Constantine  (see  Early  Christian  monuments,  p.  202),  is  generally 
believed  to  owe  its  present  apse  and  transepts  to  Justinian  on  the  strength  of  the 
following  passage  from  Eutychius:  "For  the  Emperor  [Justinian]  ordered  the  legate 
to  demolish  the  church  at  Bethlehem  (which  had  hitherto  been  small),  and  to  build 
another  spacious,  great,  and  beautiful,  so  that  even  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  might 
not  be  more  beautiful.  But  the  legate,  when  he  came  to  Jerusalem,  founded  a  hospital 
for  pilgrims,  and  restored  the  churches  that  the  Samaritans  had  burned,  and  built  as 
many  monasteries  as  possible;  but  at  Bethlehem,  he  merely  tore  down  the  church,  and 
built  it  again  in  the  same  manner  as  it  had  been  before.  When  after  having  done 
these  things  he  returned  to  the  Emperor;  'tell  me,'  said  the  Emperor,  'how  thou  hast 
built  the  church  at  Bethlehem  ? '  When  the  legate  described  what  he  had  done,  the 
Emperor  in  no  wise  approved  his  description,  nor  was  he  at  all  pleased  with  the  legate 
himself,  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  was  very  angry  with  him.  'The  money  I  gave  thee' 
he  said,  'hast  thou  kept  for  th3'.self,  and  thou  hast  built  a  building  of  evil  appearance, 
and  thou  hast  made  a  church  dark  and  in  no  way  as  I  commanded,  nor  hast  thou 
followed  my  behest.'  And  he  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death."'  Against  this  it 
should  be  stated  that  Procopius,  a  far  more  reliable  author,  in  a  work  specially 

'  De  /Edificiis  V,  6. 
^  Procopius  V,  8,  Stewart's  translation. 

3 1  translate  Pocock's  Latin  translation  (Oxford,  1658)  Vol.  II,  pp.  159,  588,  as  I  have  been 
unable  to  obtain  a  copy  of  the  original  text. 

124 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  THIRD   CLASS 

devoted  to  the  buildings  of  Justinian  categorically  mentions  several  minor  repairs  to 
the  city  walls  and  the  church  of  the  Abbot  loanues  at  Bethlehem,  but  is  entirely  silent 
on  the  church  of  the  Nativity.' 

DOC'LEA,  Montenegro,  Turkey.  Baxilicn  is  a  Byzantine  structure,  to  which 
it  is  impossible  to  assign  a  date  on  the  basis  of  the  inadequate  publication  by  Munro. 
There  are  three  aisles,  separated  by  two  ranges  of  columns  of  odd  sizes  and  for  the 
most  part  pilfered.  A  very  few  of  the  capitals  seem  to  be  original,  and  are  strongly 
Byzantine  in  character.  A  narthex  and  several  unexplained  rooms  adjoined  the 
church.  The  floor  of  the  apse  is  raised  8"  and  a  platform  19'  X  15'  extends  in  front 
of  the  bema.  The  apse  itself  next  to  Sta.  Fosca  at  Torcello  is  the  best  extant  example 
of  the  arrangement  of  furniture  in  early  Christian  churches.  The  seats  for  the  clergy 
running  around  the  walls  are  perfectly  preserved,  and  the  foundations  of  the  bishop's 
throne  are  still  in  place.  The  atrium  is  placed  on  the  south,  instead  of  on  the  west, 
side  of  the  church  ^  an  arrangement  unprecedented  outside  of  Syria.  This  important 
monument  has  only  been  partly  excavated,  but  the  walls  still  stand  to  the  height  of 
from  3'  to  5'.     (Munro.) 

Small  Church.  The  existing  remains  are  little  more  than  the  foundations,  but  the 
plan  can  still  be  traced.  This  was  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross  (10.5  X  7.35  metres 
internally)  with  a  small  apse  added  at  the  end  of  one  of  the  arms.  A  larger  apse 
was  later  built  on  unsymmetrically.  A  porch  was  placed  at  the  west  end.  The 
church  is  believed  to  date  from  between  518  and  639.     (Munro.) 

AYASALOUK,  fEphesus],  SnijTna,  Turkey.  Hagios  loannos.  I  translate  the 
account  of  this  church  in  Procopius.  "It  is  placed  upon  a  hill  some  distance  before 
the  city  of  the  Ephesians,  and  on  this  hill  it  is  not  possible  to  grow  fruit  (should  any 
one  try),  for  the  hill  is  wholly  barren  and  sterile.  There  the  inhabitants  of  a  former 
time  had  made  a  shrine  to  the  Apostle  John,  surnamed  Theologos.  .  .  .  And  this 
building,  small  and  fallen  into  disrepair  by  lapse  of  time,  the  Emperor  Justinian  tore 
down  to  its  foundations,  and  rebuilt  it  in  such  size  and  beauty,  that,  to  speak  concisely, 
it  was  a  most  worthy  building  and  a  companion  in  everj'thing  to  that  temple  which 
he  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Apostles  in  the  imperial  city,  which  has  been  described  by 
me  above."'  —  "The  immense  blocks  of  brick  masonry  lying  here  and  there,  and 
coming  from  the  fallen  vaults;  the  bases  of  four  strong  piers  still  in  situ;  the  fine 
western  sustaining  walls;  the  capitals  with  the  Greek  cross;  —  all  these  form  so  many 
proofs  that  it  was  indeed  here  that  Justinian,  about  540,  erected  the  celebrated  church, 
which  by  its  splendor  and  magnificence  equaled  that  which  he  had  dedicated  to  the 

'  Procopius,  De  .Edificiis  V,  9. 

-  Xwp6v  TLva  Trph  t^s  'E0e(ri'wj'  TriXews  iv  6p6l(^  Kelfxevov  ^vv^^aivev  c/i^ot,  ov  yrj\otpov  ovo^  bvvarbv 
atpflvai  Kaptrodsy  et  ns  irnpipTO,  aWa  (TKX-qpdv  re  Kal  rpaxvv  6Xw5.  4vTav6a  veuiv  oi  i-Trixujpioi  iv 
Tots  fifw  xp6»'0ts  \ii3a.vvQ  T(^  d7roa'T6\(fj  dvidrjKav  6€o\6y{p  r-qv  iwlKX-qaLv,  6eo\6yoi  5^  a-rrdaroXoi  ovto^ 
uv6pLa<TTai,  ^wel  rd  ye  dfifpl  rcj}  deuj  &p.€Lvov  avT(^  i}  Kara  dvOpibirov  dfdiriyqTac  (f>(i(Tiv.  toOtov  oi) 
rbv  i/((bv  'loiiffTiftavos  /3a(nXci'S  ^pax^v  Tt  6vTa  Kai  KaTaircrofTiK&Ta  ti^  fjLrjKet  rod  xp^^ov  Kaff€\u)v  (s 
rb  (OatpoSf  ^s  T0(r6i'd€  fie$-ripp6<TaTo  fiey^Sovs  Kal  KdXXouy,  uare  St;,  ^uveXdvra  elireiVf  ^^(pep^cTaTos 
Kal  TravrdiratrLV  ivdp4.\\oi  rip  Upip  iffriv,  6irtp  4v  7r6Xct  t^  ^atjtXibi  TOis  dtroaTdXois  dv^drjKe  Traffic, 
uairep  not  iv  tois  ep.irpoaffei'  ScS^Xurai  X4701S.  —  Procopius,  De  Aed.  V,  1. 

125 


BYZANTINE   MONUMENTS 

Holy  Apostles  at  Constantinople.  .  .  .  This  church  replaced  a  former  smaller  one; 
it  contained  the  tomb  of  the  well-beloved  '  apostle.""     (Weber,  13.) 

BAGNACAVALLO,  Ravenna,  Italy.  Pieve  di  Pietro  in  Sylvis,  a  monument 
of  the  Byzantine  school,  is  assigned  to  564  by  Rivoira.  The  interior  consists  of  three 
aisles  separated  by  two  ranges  of  si.x  piers  of  "T  "-shaped  section.  The  pilaster  en- 
gaged on  the  face  of  these  piers  —  probably  to  give  greater  stability  —  stops  before 
reaching  the  level  of  the  roofs  of  the  side  aisles.  The  plan  of  the  structure  is 
irregular,  one  side  aisle  being  much  wider  than  the  other.  The  apse  is  polygonal 
externally,  and  is  adorned  with  pilaster  strips  and  arched  corbel-tables;  the  fa9ade  is 
also  decorated  with  pilaster  strips.  The  windows  of  this  church  are  double  splayed 
—  according  to  Rivoira,  the  earliest  known  example  of  this  feature. 

POMPOSA,  Ravenna,  Italy.  Sta.  Maria  is  usually  supposed  to  be  about 
contemporary  with  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  of  Ravenna,  but  among  the  capitals  of 
the  arcade  are  two  so  crudely  executed  that  it  is  easy  to  believe  that  the  original 
basilica  was  restored  in  the  VIII  century.  A  further  restoration  was  carried  out  in 
the  time  of  Abate  Guido  (1008-46).  The  church  internally  is  divided  into  three 
aisles  nine  bays  long.  The  archivolts  are  in  stucco.  Of  the  three  apses,  the  central 
one  is  polygonal  externally,  and  is  adorned  with  pilaster  strips;  the  facade  is  divided 
by  the  same  ornament  into  three  parts,  which,  however,  do  not  seem  to  correspond 
with  the  interior  divisions.  The  portico  was  added  in  1026,  and  the  campanile  in 
1063.     (Rivoira;  Venturi,  152.) 

SALONE,  Dalmatia,  Austria.  Kirche.  The  city  of  Salone  was  destroyed  in 
639.  The  substructions  of  the  basilica  seem  clearly  to  be  anterior  to  this  date.  The 
plan  was  of  the  usual  t_\-pe,  the  main  body  of  the  edifice  being  preceded  by  an  atrium 
and  narthex.  The  apse  opened  on  the  transept,  and  a  choir  screen  separated  nave 
and  sanctuary.  A  second  side  aisle  to  the  north  was  entirely  bordered  with  chapels 
in  the  form  of  absidioles.     A  baptistery,  paved  in  mosaic,  adjoined  the  church. 

Other  Monuments 

MEMBIDJ,  [Hierapolis],  Aleppo,  Asia  Minor.  Church,  now  in  ruins.  There 
is  no  trace  of  any  apse,  and  the  aisle  does  not  seem  to  have  had  a  second  story  or 
gallery.  Unfortunately  this  interesting  monument  has  not  been  adequately  described. 
(Holtzinger.) 

KOJA  KALESSI,  Isauria,  Turkey.  Church  is  assigned  to  the  V  century  ap- 
parently without  satisfactory  grounds.  The  plan  is  a  combination  of  the  basilican 
and  circular  types.  A  square  domed  area  is  lengthened  westward  by  two  basilica- 
like bays,  and  eastward  by  an  apse.  The  aisles  terminate  in  rectangular  chapels 
flanking  the  apse,  which  is  masked  externally.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  western 
narthex  and  triforium  galleries  over  the  aisles.     (Lethaby  and  Swainson.) 

NICAEA,  Bithnyia,  Asia  Minor.  Church.  "A  very  small  church  still  stands 
within  the  present  town  which  from  its  mosaic  floor  and  ceiling  may  probably  be 

'  This  is  certainly  a  mistake.     The  John  of  Ephesus  was  not  the  apostle  John,  who  probably 
never  came  to  Ephesus.     The  two,  however,  become  confounded  by  tradition  at  a  very  early  epoch. 
^  I  translate  this  passage  from  Weber. 

126 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

of  the  date  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  or  rather  of  the  Byzantine  age."  May  the  church 
described  by  Fellows  '  in  these  words  be  the  same  that  Procopius  tells  us  was  here 
founded  by  Justinian  ? 

FORT  YONSHA,  Constantinople,  Turkey.  II agios  Panteleemon,  "which  hav- 
ing been  originally  carelessly  built  and  having  been  much  ruined  by  lapse  of  time,  was 
taken  down  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  who  built  the  church  which  now  stands  there."  ^ 
Such  is  the  notice  in  Procopius.  Some  ruins  of  this  church  are  said  to  still  exist,  but 
have  never  been  described. 

JERUSALEM,  Palestine,  S^Tia.  El  Aksa.  In  the  doors  and  some  other  parts 
of  this  mosque  !M.  de  Vogiie  believes  he  sees  remains  of  the  Church  of  the  Virgin, 
built  by  Justinian  and  described  by  Procopius.  P"rom  the  account  of  the  latter  we 
learn  that  Justinian  built  this  church  on  a  hill  —  the  highest,  indeed,  of  all  the  hills 
of  Jerusalem  and  one  whose  summit  was  too  small  to  accommodate  the  immense 
structure  planned  by  the  Emperor,  so  that  ground  for  the  foundations  had  to  be  filled- 
in  artificially.  The  church  had  a  wooden  roof.  Columns  were  employed  in  its  con- 
struction, and  these  stood,  some  above,  some  below,  and  some  around  the  porticoes 
which  encircled  the  entire  church,  except  on  the  side  turned  towards  the  east.  There 
was  an  atrium,  a  narthex,  and  apparently  several  additional  vestibules.^ 

DERBE,  Asia  Minor.  Church,  whose  superstructure  is  now  entirely  destroyed. 
To  judge  from  the  fragmentary  ruins  that  survive,  the  central  space  seems  to  have 
been  covered  by  a  dome  supported  on  eight  piers.  The  outer  wall  of  the  aisle 
was  polygonal,  and  an  apse  projected  to  the  eastward.  The  details  of  the  monument 
are  in  the  style  of  the  time  of  Justinian.     (Holtzingcr.) 

DAPIINI,  Attica,  Greece.  Monastery.  The  present  well-known  structure 
dates  from  the  XI  and  XIII  centuries,  but  fragments  of  an  earlier  edifice  have  been 
found,  dating  probably  from  the  V  and  VI  centuries.     (Roulin.) 

D'ALA  SHEHR,  Asia  Minor.  Church  is  said  to  unite  the  dome  with  the  basil- 
ican  plan.     (Choisy.) 

SART,  [Sardis],  Brusa,  Asia  !Minor.  Hagios  loannos  is  said  by  Choisy  to  show 
the  beginnings  of  the  transition  to  the  Byzantine  style. 

Hagios  Giorgios  is  said  to  unite  the  dome  and  the  basilican  plan.     (Choisy.) 

■  P.  87. 

'  De  iEdificiis  V,  1,  Stewart's  Translation,  p.  118. 

'  Procopius,  De  /Edificiis  V,  5. 


127 


CHAPTER  IV 

CAROLINGIAN    ARCHITECTURE 

HAGIA  SOPHIA  marks  the  ending  of  ancient  art.  The 
play  is  done,  and  the  theater  seems  to  remain  dark  and 
empty  for  a  long  period  of  five  centuries.  Not  so,  however,  in 
reality  —  for  in  the  Dark  Ages  there  is  indeed  much,  if  falter- 
ing, accomplishment  in  architecture,  and  where  all  at  first 
appears  chaotic  and  formless,  there  is  none  the  less  steady 
progress  towards  a  definite  result. 

It  is  the  common  usage  among  historians  of  architecture  to 
dub  with  the  name  Romanesque  all  monuments  of  Western 
Europe  erected  between  the  years  550  and  1"200,  or  thereabouts, 
and  to  define  this  supposed  style  as  consisting  of  buildings 
which  had  ceased  to  be  classic  and  had  not  yet  become  Gothic' 
This  definition,  although  it  would  seem  to  include  the  Early 
Christian  and  Byzantine  architectures  —  styles  not  usually 
classed  as  Romanesque  —  might  still  do  very  well  if  we  only 
knew  exactly  what  was  meant  by  the  terms  "classic"  and 
"Gothic,"  but  unfortunately  the  latter  is  even  more  vague  and 
elusive  than  the  word  "Romanesque"  itself.  The  matter  is 
not  simplified  by  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  find  a  single 
.feature  common  to  all  the  members  of  the  so-called  "Roman- 
esque" style.  The  round  arch,  which  used  to  be  quoted  in 
the  handbooks  as  its  distinguishing  characteristic,  is  in  reality 
not  such  at  all;  for  Romanesque  shares  this  feature  with  all 
modern  and  most  ancient  architectures,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  many  buildings,  especially  in  southern  France,  which 
are  indubitably  Romanesque  use  the  pointed  arch.  Thus 
it  is  impossible  to  employ  the  term  in  a  precise  or  scientific 
manner.  For  the  rest,  the  etymology  of  the  word,  suggesting 
derivation  from  the  Roman  architecture,  is  apt  enough.  Gen- 
eral, even  vague,  terms  are  at  times  extremely  convenient;   and  I 

'  It  was,  I  believe,  M.  Quicherat  who  first  proposed  this  definition. 
128 


THE   CAROLINGIAN   EPOCH 

have  no  ambition  to  quarrel  with  the  accepted  use  of  this  word, 
or  in  any  way  to  start  a  controversy  similar  to  that  which  has 
reduced  the  perfectly  good  term  "Gothic"  from  a  position  of 
comfortable  meaninglessness  to  a  point  where  no  one  any  longer 
dares  to  use  it.  All  I  wish  to  emphasize  is  the  fact  that  the  word 
"Romanesque"  is  vague,  and  ask  indulgence  if  for  the  sake 
of  distinguishing  explicitly  the  various  periods  which  go  to  make 
up  the  so-called  Romanesque  style,  I  employ  a  somewhat  un- 
familiar terminology. 

The  ages  which  stretch  from  the  middle  or  end  of  the  VI 
century  to  about  the  year  1000  have  always  been  recognized 
by  archaeologists  —  in  so  far  as  they  have  been  recognized  at 
all  —  as  possessing  an  architectural  style  totally  distinct  from 
those  which  grew  up  in  Europe  during  the  XI  century.  French 
and  German  authors  with  more  or  less  explicitness  have  been 
of  recent  years  calling  monuments  of  this  era  Carolingian,  from 
the  dynasty  that  was  supreme  in  the  West  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  period.  This  term,  for  lack  of  a  better,  I  have 
adopted.  Its  great  defect,  as  should  be  clearly  recognized  at 
the  outset,  is  its  lack  of  comprehension.  The  Carolingians  flour- 
ished only  from  the  close  of  the  VII  to  the  end  of  the  IX  cen- 
turies, and  for  only  part  of  that  time  did  they  rule  over  the  whole 
of  Western  Europe;  and  yet  under  the  Carolingian  period  in 
architecture  we  include  buildings  erected  from  the  last  of  the 
VI  to  the  beginning  of  the  XI  century,  and  over  lands  compris-  *" 
ing  the  present  Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  Holland,  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  parts  of  Austria. 

Of  all  periods  of  architectural  history,  this  Carolingian  era 
has  been  the  most  unduly  neglected  by  archteologists  and  his- 
torians. Ignored  by  English  writers  absolutely,  and  glossed 
over  by  the  French,  its  importance  has  been  grasped,  and  then 
very  imperfectly,  only  by  the  Italians  and  Germans.  More- 
over, the  few  archfeologists  who  have  busied  themselves  with 
this  field  have  been  interested  exclusively  in  the  monuments 
of  their  own  particular  locality.  Hence  it  has  resulted  that  no 
satisfactory  account  of  this  period  has  yet  been  written. 

Carolingian  architecture  in  itself,  it  is  perfectly  true,  offers 
no  such  esthetic  delights  as  classical  or  Gothic  art.     It  can  boast 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

no  masterpieces  to  rival  Amiens  or  Hagia  Sophia,  in  fact,  but 
few  monuments  not  actually  mean  and  squalid.  It  is,  however, 
far  from  being  altogether  dry  and  dull  in  itself,  and  it  offers  a 
vital  interest  in  being  the  precursor  of  the  noble  architecture 
of  the  late  Middle  Ages.  It  is  coming  to  be  a  more  and  more 
generally  recognized  principle  of  the  study  of  art  that  the  growth 
must  be  mastered  before  the  bloom  can  be  understood.  No 
one  would  pretend  to  appreciate  the  Parthenon  marbles  in 
all  their  inner  significance  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
archaic  sculptui-e.  The  study  of  Italian  Renaissance  painting 
always  begins  with  the  period  of  Cimabue  or  earlier.  So  there 
seems  no  reason  for  denying  the  Gothic  cathedral  —  perhaps 
the  loftiest  expression  human  art  has  ever  reached  —  that 
understanding  and  preparation  found  so  necessary  to  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  other  arts.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  Car- 
olingian  period  offers  one  of  the  most  important  links  in  that 
wonderful  chain  of  evolution  that  led  from  the  Pantheon  to 
Amiens.  It  is  an  era  of  great,  of  almost  revolutionary  changes, 
carried  out,  however,  on  so  small  a  scale  and  so  quietly  as  to  be 
barely  perceptible. 

The  study  of  this  period  requires  considerable  patient  appli- 
cation of  the  microscope,  for  the  monuments  are  not  numerous, 
and  are  almost  always  baffling.  Recent  investigations,  how- 
ever, have  revealed  a  considerable  number  hitherto  unknown 
or  little  understood,  so  that  the  time-honored  tradition  that  the 
Dark  Ages  have  not  left  us  sufficient  data  for  a  study  of  their 
architecture,  is  no  longer  true.  A  glance  at  the  list  of  monu- 
ments of  the  period  on  page  302  will  show  that  there  is  much 
material  for  study.  Some  of  these  buildings  are,  it  is  true,  of 
uncertain  date;  many  others  are  in  poor  repair  or  have  suffered 
from  later  restorations;  and  certain  crucial  periods  confront  us 
with  a  total  lack  of  examples.  On  the  other  hand,  our  literary 
sources  are  unusually  rich,  and,  on  the  whole,  it  seems  hardly 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  this  period  offers  us  quite  as  much 
data  for  study  as  does,  say,  the  Greek. 

Probably  the  real  reason  that  the  Carolingian  era  has  re- 
ceived so  little  attention  from  archseologists  is  the  fact  of  its 
apparent  confusion.     For  once  in  architectural  history  all  laws 

]30 


DECLINE  OF  CIVILIZATION 

of  local  relationship  in  style  seem  to  have  been  broken.  Occa- 
sionally three  or  four  buildings  in  neighboring  localities  show 
a  strong  family  resemblance.'  But  again  two  churches  erected 
almost  side  by  side  and  of  about  the  same  age  will  present 
scarcely  any  point  of  contact,^  while  the  strangest  analogies 
will  crop  out  between  buildings  as  widely  separated  as  possible 
in  point  of  time  and  geographical  location.^  Furthermore, 
what  progress  was  made  was  not  made  consistently.  Although 
many  of  the  improvements  usually  credited  to  the  later  styles 
were  in  reality  first  invented  in  this  epoch,  such  advances  were, 
as  a  rule,  not  followed  up,  but  remained  isolated  examples  until 
they  were  adopted  by  a  later  age.  So  the  first  impression  in 
glancing  over  the  period  is  one  of  complexity  and  confusion, 
and  this  confusion,  so  far  from  disappearing  with  further  study, 
must  be  emphasized  as  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  era. 
To  unravel  all  this  complex  tangle  would  be  an  undertaking 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  impossible.  Some  of  the 
main  threads,  however,  lie  near  the  surface,  and  by  following 
these  out  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  form  an  idea  of  the  character 
of  the   entire   period. 

Before  dealing  with  the  architecture  proper,  however,  it 
will  be  well  to  call  to  mind  certain  historical  events  and  con- 
ditions of  the  period.  In  no  other  epoch  were  social  and  economic 
causes  more  powerful  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  architec- 
tural art;  in  no  other  epoch  is  it  possible  to  read  so  clearly  the 
civilization  of  the  time  reflected  in  the  monuments. 

The  death  of  Justinian  in  565  left  Italy  in  the  hands  of  the 
Byzantines,  but  the  rest  of  AVestern  Europe  was  already  ruled 
by  the  barbarians.  And  wherever  the  barbarians  ruled,  there 
all  building,  indeed  almost  all  civilization,  had  stopped.  Up 
to  this  moment  (565)  the  Eastern  Empire  had  continued  to  be 
a  center  of  light  and  culture  to  the  Christian  world.  But  even 
during  the  splendor  of  Justinian's  reign  forces  had  been  gather- 
ing that  on  his  death  plunged  the  Byzantine  Empire  in  an 
abyss  well-nigh  as  profound  as  that  which  had  engulfed  the  West. 

'  E.  g.,  the  group  of  churches  at  Frankfurt,  IIeiilen]er<;,  Sch'gcustadt,  and  Michelstadt- 
Steinbach. 

'  E.  g.,  St.  Maria  auf  dem  Berge  at  Wiirzburg  and  any  of  the  above. 
'  St.  Jean  of  Poitiers;  Lorscli;  St.  Generoux. 
131 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

Chief  of  these  forces  was  the  economic  exhaustion,  brought 
about  by  Justinian's  reckless  expenditui-es  and  the  relentless 
taxation  by  which  he  drained  the  life-blood  of  the  state.  He 
had  conquered  Africa  and  Spain;  he  had  gained  Italy  after  a 
twenty  years'  struggle;  he  had  repulsed  the  Persians  after  an 
even  more  severe  contest;  withal,  he  had  built  sumptuously  as 
has  no  other  prince  before  or  since.  But  in  doing  all  this  he 
had  spent  the  force  of  his  state.  No  sooner  was  Justinian's 
strong  hand  relaxed  than  from  sheer  exhaustion  the  Eastern 
Empire  sank,  in  point  of  political  and  military  power,  to  the  low- 
est depths.  Slavs,  Visigoths,  Persians,  Lombards,  preyed  with 
impunity  upon  the  helpless  frontiers.  In  Italy,  that  province  of 
the  Empire  which  now  specially  claims  our  interest,  this  com- 
plete exhaustion  following  the  terrible  wars  of  conquest  was 
succeeded  by  new  misfortunes.  In  542  a  great  plague  swept 
over  Europe  and  the  East.  It  is  estimated  that  one-third  of 
the  population  perished  in  this  calamity.  Another  pestilence 
followed  in  566  which  raged  with  particular  violence  in  Italy. 
In  569  there  was  a  famine;  and  the  year  before  (568),  the  Lom- 
bards, the  most  barbarous  of  all  the  barbarian  invaders,  had 
swept  down  upon  the  desolate  peninsula.  In  the  terrible  times 
that  followed,  when  the  Byzantines  were  driven  from  all  Italy 
except  Ravenna,  when  the  West  fell  into  complete  barbarism, 
when  wars  raged  from  end  to  end  of  Europe,  when  commerce 
and  all  the  arts  of  peace  practically  ceased,  when  roads  fell  out 
of  repair  and  intercommunication  became  difficult,  —  in  this 
time  of  upheaval  and  disorder  the  surprise  is,  not  that  building 
practically  ceased,  but  that  such  times  should  have  left  us  any 
monuments  at  all,  however  small  and  mean,  and  showing  how- 
ever sad  a  fall  from  the  glories  of  the  Byzantine  art  which  had 
been  in  its  zenith  only  a  few  years  before. 

A  considerable  group  of  these  monuments  of  the  declining 
VI  century  is  extant  along  the  northern  and  western  shores  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea.'  In  point  of  style  they  carry  on  the  tradition 
of  the  early  VI  century  with  hardly  a  change,  save  in  the  falling- 

'  These  monuments  were  accordingly  so  situated  as  to  be  especially  exposed  to  the  By- 
zantine influences  radiating  from  Ravenna.  It  is  probable  that  the  style  in  the  west  and  south 
of  Italy  would  have  shown  these  influences  to  a  less  extent. 

132 


\       < 


Ii.i..  Kl.  —  Rtar  Elevation  St.  Jean,  Poitiers.     (From  Arch,  de  la  Com.  des 
Moil.  Hist.) 


HISTORICAL   CONDITIONS 

off  of  technique.  They  form,  together  with  the  basilicas  of 
Ravenna,  a  class  which  we  hartUy  know  whether  to  call  Early 
Christian,  Byzantine,  or  Carolingian,  —  in  fact,  they  are  all 
three,  and  mark  the  point  of  convergence  of  these  styles. 

AMiile  Italy  was  thus  plunged  in  barbarism,  matters  had 
gone  from  bad  to  worse  north  of  the  Alps.  The  VI  and  VII 
centuries  in  Gaul  are  a  time  of  endless  fratricidal  civil  wars,  of 
continual  strife  between  the  rival  Merovingian  kingdoms  of  Neus- 
tria  and  Austrasia.  Of  all  the  rulers,  Brunhildis  ("|'614)  alone  ;i^ 
was  noted  as  a  builder  by  the  contemporary  writers.  After 
her  death  the  royal  power  steadily  declined,  until  towards  the 
close  of  the  VII  century  the  Carolingian  INIayors  of  the  Palace 
grasped  the  reins  of  power,  and  undertook  the  task  of  bringing 
order  out  of  confusion.  It  was,  however,  late  in  the  VIII  cen- 
tury before  architecture  began  to  revive  in  the  land  of  the  Franks. 

Of  all  this  period  in  Gaul  we  have  only  one  important  and 
authentic  monument  —  the  baptistery  of  St.  Jean  of  Poitiers  (111. 
80,  81), — a  building  which  proves  how  completely  Byzantine 
influence  had  permeated  all  the  West.'  Beside  these  Eastern 
elements  and  the  Latin  tradition  that  underlies  all  West- 
ern architecture,  at  St.  Jean  of  Poitiers  there  is  unmistak- 
ably present  a  new  decorative  element  —  an  element  which, 
notwithstanding  the  heresy,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  call  Germanic. 
Of  this  new  element  there  will  be  much  to  say  hereafter,  and  it 
will  be  seen  increasing  in  prominence  as  time  goes  on. 

Meanwhile,  in  Italy,  especially  during  the  VII  century,  the 
forces  of  decline  and  barbarism  had  been  gathering  strength. 
The  important  monument  usually  ascribed  to  this  period  — 
the  chapel  of  Sta.  ^laria  in  Valle  at  Cividale  —  is  in  my  judg- 
ment of  too  questionable  authenticity  to  be  used  as  evidence  for 
the  general  course  of  the  style.  Other  monuments  seem  to  be 
characterized  by  a  continued  survival  of  the  Latin  or  basilican 

'  In  connection  with  the  unmistakably  Byzantine  character  of  the  earliest  Christian  monu- 
ments in  Gaul,  it  is  interesting  to  recall  that  Christianity  itself  came  into  Gaul  from  the  East 
rather  than  from  Rome.  Colonies  of  Greeks  had  been  established  in  Provence  from  a  very  early 
peritxi,  and  it  is  precisely  in  these  regions  that  are  preserved  the  earliest  Gallic  Christian  inscrip- 
tions that  have  come  down  to  us.  All  Christian  inscriptions  of  Gaul  long  continued  to  be  writ- 
ten in  Greek.  For  a  capital  discussion  of  this  entire  question  see  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France, 
Tome  I',  p.  3. 

133 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

plan.  Ornamental  sculpture,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  but 
faint  traces  of  Latin  tradition,  its  character  being  strongly 
Byzantine.  But  the  Byzantine  motives  are  often  modified  and 
chano-ed,  such  variations  probably  having  been  brought  about 
largely  through  the  crudity  of  technique.  In  Italy  it  is  difficult 
to  detect  the  presence  of  distinctly  Germanic  motives  before 
the  VIII  century. 

The  VII  century  is  notable  in  Italian  architectural  history 
for  the  rise  of  the  Comacini  —  a  band  of  masons  who  seem  to 
have  moved  about  from  place  to  place  erecting  buildings.  The 
first  mention  of  the  name  occurs  in  a  document  of  the  middle  of 
the  V  century.  Although  little  is  known  of  this  company  or  guild 
save  the  mere  fact  of  its  existence,  it  has  received  an  extraor- 
dinary amount  of  attention  from  scholars,  and  has  furnished 
the  subject  for  a  vast  amount  of  conjecture.  Freemasons  have 
seen  in  the  Comacini  the  origin  of  their  order;  Italian  writers 
have  advanced  the  most  extravagant  claims  for  the  extent  of 
their  influence,  and  have  attempted  to  prove  that  their  name  is 
derived  from  the  city  of  Como,  which,  it  is  argued,  must  conse- 
quently have  been  the  architectural  center  of  Europe.  How- 
ever all  this  may  be,  the  very  fact  of  the  existence  of  such  a 
body  of  masons  is  perhaps  significant. 

In  the  VIII  century  there  commenced  in  Italy  a  revival  of 
art,  and  this  revival  later  spread  over  all  Western  Europe  and 
reached  its  culmination  in  the  so-called  Carol ingian  Renaissance. 
The  art  of  Italy  during  this  period  is  still  strongly  Byzantine, 
though  the  Eastern  forms  are  considerably,  if  sporadically, 
modified.'  The  new,  or  Germanic,  element  of  decoration  makes 
its  appearance  in  crockets,  rosettes,  and  the  rude  figures  of  an- 
imals introduced  no  longer  in  a  symbolic  sense,  but  for  the  sheer 

'  Cattaneo  traces  throughout  the  Dark  Ages  direct  continuous  influence  from  Constanti- 
nople in  Italian  art.  In  this  I  cannot  agree.  There  is  nothing  in  all  this  decoration  which 
could  not  easily  have  been  derived  from  the  Byzantine  buildings  already  existing  in  Italy,  at  Ra- 
venna, and  elsewhere.  At  this  period  travel  and  intercommunication  were  difficult,  and  it  is 
unlikely  that  architectural  ideas  should  have  been  carried  so  great  a  distance.  Finally,  had  the 
Byzantine  ideas  been  imported  from  Constantinople,  it  is  unaccountable  that  we  should  find  in 
Italy  no  trace  of  the  pendentive  vault  —  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  architecture  of  Byzantium 
after  the  building  of  Hagia  Sophia.  When  in  later  times,  at  S.  Marco  in  Venice  or  in  the  domed 
churches  of  the  Charente,  Western  architecture  was  directly  influenced  by  Constantinople,  the 
pendentive  vault  was  the  first  characteristic  adopted.     . 

134 


CHARLEMAGNE 

love  of  grotesque  and  humorous  forms.  Roman  influence 
makes  itself  felt  in  many  capitals,  crudely  imitated  from  the 
antique,  and  in  the  continued  preference  for  the  basilican  plan. 
(111.  8^2,  83,  and  84.) 

During  all  this  period  the  Carolingian  house  had  been  stead- 
ily I'ising  in  power.  When  in  771  Charlemagne  became  sole 
king,  he  immediately  commenced  those  wars  of  conquest  which 
ended  by  uniting  under  his  empire  all  western  Europe  except 


III.  83.  —  Details  of  Confessio  of  S.  Salvatore,  Brescia.     (From  Dartein) 


Spain.  In  774  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  ended  with  the 
deposition  of  Desiderius.  All  Italy  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  Prankish  king.  Twenty-six  years  later,  in  the  ever-mem- 
orable year  800,  Charlemagne  was  crowned  Emperor  of  the 
West  by  the  pope  at  Rome,  and  the  fatal  Holy  Roman  Empire 
was  launched  on  its  career  of  devastation. 

Charlemagne  was  more  than  a  conqueror;  he  was  an  en- 
lightened statesman,  under  whose  strong  hand  the  forces  of  dis- 
order  and  confusion  which  had  swayed  the  previous  centuries 
were  momentarily  checked.  Law  and  justice  began  to  make 
themselves  felt,  economic  prosperity  and  the  arts  of  peace  re- 
vived.    Charlemagne  was  also  a  friend  of  learning.     He  sum- 

135 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

moned  to  his  court  from  all  over  his  kingdom  and  beyond  the 
most  profound  scholars  that  the  world  of  that  time  had  to  offer; 
he  founded  something  like  a  public  school  system;  and  he  en- 
couraged literature  and  the  arts.  The  construction  of  no  less 
than  three  great  palaces  attests  the  energy  with  which  he  set 
about  rescuing  architecture  from  the  decline  into  which  it  had 
fallen.  Part  of  one  of  these  palaces,  with  the  famous  chapel 
belonging  to  it,  is  still  extant  in  excellent  preservation  at  Aachen 
(Aix-la-Chapelle),  and  stands  to  this  day  a  witness  to  the  ability 
of  the  Emperor  and  of  his  architects. 

Under  such  encouragement,  a  great  revival  in  both  litera- 
ture and  architecture  took  plac'e.  It  is,  however,  important 
to  note  the  purely  artificial  character  of  this  Renaissance.  The 
builders  to  whom  Charlemagne  entrusted  the  execution  of  his 
buildings  were  savant  monks,  steeped  in  classical  learning, 
who  sought  far  off  and  with  great  labor  the  inspiration  and 
even  the  materials  for  their  edifices.  The  results  which  they 
obtained  were  precisely  similar  to  those  which  the  same  learned 
men  obtained  in  the  field  of  literature.  As  their  masterpieces 
of  poetry  were  entirely  artificial  and  merely  a  patchwork  of 
plagiarized  ideas  and  lines,  so  this  court  architecture  of  Charle- 
magne is  forced  and  exotic. 

And  yet  when  the  ages  which  preceded  and  those  which 
followed  are  considered,  the  chapel  at  Aachen  presents  much 
more  than  respectable  mediocrity.  Although  the  plan  (111. 
85)  is  but  a  slight  modification  of  that  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna 
(111.  73),  the  modifications  that  are  introduced  are  innovations 
and  improvements  destined  to  influence  profoundly  later  art. 
The  superstructure  (111.  86)  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of 
pilfered  materials,  and  not  a  particle  of  original  carving  is  to  be 
found  in  the  entire  building.  Yet  this  material  is  combined  in 
proportions  which,  if  not  delicate,  still  do  not  lack  a  sort  of  crude 
impressiveness,  and  the  technique  of  the  masonry  is  surpris- 
ingly good. 

The  chapel  at  Aachen  represented  the  supreme  architectural 
effort  of  the  Carolingian  age.  The  chroniclers  tell  us  that  Charle- 
magne  summoned  workmen  from  all  the  countries  "this  side 
of  the  sea"  to  aid  in  the  work.     It  has  long  been  a  tradition 

136 


AACHEN 


among  historians  that  this  statement  refers  to  Italy  especially, 
as  up  to  this  time  the  peninsula  is  usually  assumed  to  have  been 
the  seat  of  architectural  culture  in  the  West.  However,  con- 
sidering  the   fact   that   Charlemagne's   model   was   the   ancient 


III.  85.  —  Plan  of  Doni  at  Aachen.     (From  Dehio) 


church  of  S.  ^'itale  and  not  contemporary  Italian  monuments, 
it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  he  did  not  summon  masons 
from  wherever  he  could  find  them,  and  not  necessarily  from 
Italy  exclusively. 

At  all  events,  from  this  time  on,  the  dependence  of  north- 
ern nations  on  Italy  in  matters  architectural  ceases.  Inter- 
change of  influence  undoubtedly  often  took  place,  but  northern 

137 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

architecture  was  no  longer  a  mere  echo  of  Itahan  ideas.  In 
Lombardy,  almost  simultaneously,  there  began  to  be  notice- 
able a  drift  toward  the  formation  of  a  national  style.  The  steps 
taken  were  hesitating,  and  there  were  many  backslidings.  Yet 
by  the  middle  of  the  IX  century  there  was  progress,  slight  but 
definite,  towards  this  goal.' 

In  the  North  the  aimless  drifting  so  characteristic  of  Caro- 
lingian  architecture  continued  somewhat  longer.  Probably  the 
achievement  at  Aachen  actually  worked  against  the  formation 
of  a  national  style.  This  exotic  monument  was  vastly  admired 
by  succeeding  ages,  as  indeed  it  deserved  to  be.  Hence  it  came 
to  be  extensively  imitated;  there  grew  up  in  the  North  a  whole 
school  of  edifices  reproducing  more  or  less  exactly  the  character- 
istics of  this  prototype.  This  school  continued  to  exercise 
great  influence  as  late  as  the  XI  century.  Some  of  the  churches 
it  produced  are  such  fi'ee  copies  of  their  original  that  we  should 
hardly  suspect  their  derivation,  were  it  not  explicitly  stated  by 
contemporary  authors;  others  are  almost  slavish  imitations;  but 
all  are  characterized  by  that  same  extraneous,  unprogressive 
quality  that  marks  the  chapel  at  Aachen. 

The  architectural  activity  of  the  time  of  Charlemagne  was 
not  confined  to  Aachen  and  the  churches  imitated  from  it.  A 
group  of  very  important  basilicas  —  two  of  which  ^  were  founded 
by  Charlemagne's  secretary,  Einhard  —  grew  up  in  the  Rhine 
valley,  and  of  these  several  are  yet  in  part  extant.  These  mon- 
uments, all  built  on  a  peculiar  type  of  plan  which  invariably 
included  three  aisles,  three  semicircular  apses,  and  projecting 
transepts,  are  called  the  "T-formed"  basilicas  by  the  German 
archjEologists,  and  offer  the  most  connected  group  of  monuments 
that  we  have  thus  far  met  in  the  Carolingian  period,  although 
they  cannot  be  regarded  as  forming  a  national  or  progressive  style. 

'  The  whole  subject  of  Ifah'an  influences  on  the  North  and  Northern  influence  on  Italy  is 
much  controverted.  \  passajje  from  Raoul  Glaber  is  often  quoted,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  St. 
William,  after  ha\-ing  \'isited  Italy,  went  on  to  France  with  a  band  of  Italian  artists  (the  greater 
part  Benedictine  monks),  and  that  there  he  built  niai^nificent  churches.  (See  Cattaneo,  p.  224). 
This  appears  to  have  been  about  the  end  of  the  X  centiiry.  On  the  other  hand,  Fortunato  (803- 
82G)  tells  us  that  workmen  were  sent  from  France  to  restore  the  baptisterj-  at  Grado.  (Cattaneo, 
p.  239).  It  is  probable,  however,  that  such  migrations  of  workmen  in  either  direction  were  un- 
usual. 

-  Hochst-am-Main  and  Seligenstadt. 

138 


III.  8(i.  —  Sectii.ti  ..r  l)<,\n  at  Aadieri 


FEUDALISM 

On  the  death  of  Charlemagne  (814)  his  empire  passed 
entire  into  the  hands  of  his  son,  Louis  the  Pious,  but  its  decHne 
had  ah-eady  begun.  By  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  (843)  it  was 
spht  into  three  parts,  two  of  which  afterwards  formed  the  basis 
for  the  later  nations,  France  and  Germany.  For  a  moment 
the  Empire  was  again  reunited  under  Charles  the  Fat,  but  he 
was  entirely  without  power  or  capacity,  and  after  a  few  years 
was  deposed  (887).  Thus  the  territorial  unity  of  the  Empire  was 
finally  destroyed.  In  the  very  next  year  (888)  the  last 
legitimate  Carolineian  ceased  to  rule. 

These  years  of  disintegration  were  sad  ones  for  European 
civilization.  Culture  never  again  sank  quite  so  low  as  it  had 
in  the  VH  century,  but  the  relapse  from  the  age  of  Charlemagne 
was  very  marked.  While  Saracens,  Hungarians,  and,  worst  of 
all,  the  Northmen  attacked  the  frontiers  of  the  comparatively 
civilized  center  of  western  Europe,  the  strength  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  was  frittered  away  in  constant  civil  wars  and  new 
divisions  of  territory  among  its  incompetent  rulers. 

Still  another  cause  of  the  decline  of  culture  was  the  growth 
of  feudalism.  Certain  comparatively  insignificant  practices  of 
private  and  illegal  origin  had  arisen  in  the  later  Roman  Empire, 
and  these,  continued  in  the  early  Frankish  kingdom,  had  been 
developed  under  the  pressure  of  public  need  into  a  great  political 
organization  extending  over  the  whole  ^Yest  and  virtually  sup- 
planting the  national  government.^  This  feudal  sytsem  was, 
perhaps,  first  firmly  established  at  the  battle  of  Testry  (687) 
where  Pippin  of  Herestal  gained  a  victory  no  less  for  the  feudal 
lords  than  for  Austrasia.  During  the  VHI  and  IX  centuries, 
the  system  developed  more  and  more  power,  owing  to  the  polit- 
ical disorders  of  the  time  and  the  inability  of  the  central  govern- 
ment —  even  of  so  strong  a  government  as  Charlemagne's  — 
to  do  the  necessary  work  without  some  such  help.  The  final 
step  was  taken  about  877,  when  fiefs  became  generally  heredi- 
tary. Henceforth,  until  at  least  the  XIII  century,  the  aspect 
of  Europe  was  thoroughly  feudal,  and  even  in  those  parts  where 

'  George  Burton  Adams,  Cinlization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  New  York,  Scribner's, 
1901.  8vo.  p.  216.  Chap.  IX  contains  perhaps  the  best  brief  account  in  English  of  the  feudal 
system. 

l.'J9 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

allodial  lands  largely  predominated,  as,  for  example,  in  central 
France,  the  state  was  as  weak  as  elsewhere,  and  the  real  govern- 
ment as  completely  local. 

Feudalism  tended  to  break  up  Europe  into  a  number  of 
small  and  distinct  states.  In  theory,  since  the  lord  who  granted 
land  to  his  vassals  on  condition  of  military  service  himself  stood 
in  the  state  of  vassalage  to  the  Crown,  the  system  was  highly 
centralized;  but  in  practice  this  simple  relationship  was  much 
complicated  by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  so  that  the  general 
tendency  was  to  exalt  the  barons  at  the  expense  of  the  king,  and 
thus  divide  the  land  into  thousands  of  warring  principalities. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  X  century,  when  the  process  of  disin- 
tegration had  reached  its  height,  practical  anarchy  and  the  rule 
of  the  strongest  prevailed  in  the  ^Yest.  The  history  of  the  fol- 
lowing three  centuries  is  simply  the  story  of  the  breaking  down 
of  these  elements  by  the  Crown  and  of  the  consequent  rise  of 
the  modern  nationalities. 

The  struggle  was  a  long  one,  and  it  was  only  at  the  very  end 
of  the  X  century  that  sufficient  progress  was  made  to  be  reflected 
in  the  works  of  architecture.  In  Germany,  the  process  of  con- 
solidation had  been  begun  by  Henry  the  Fowler  as  early  as  919; 
by  the  end  of  the  century  it  had  reached  very  nearly  its  bloom. 
This  incipient  development  of  nationality  found  expression 
in  architecture  in  the  foundation  of  a  distinctly  German  style 
before  the  year  1000.  The  western  apse  and  transept,  the 
crypt,  the  lengthened  choir,  the  circular  towers  —  all  these 
characteristic  features  of  the  later  Rhenish  Romanesque  —  are 
found  in  churches  of  the  X  century.  Beginning  timidly  in  the 
early  part  of  that  century,  the  movement  towards  the  forma- 
tion of  a  progressive  style  gathered  force  as  the  year  1000 
approached.  Monuments  of  this  class,  although  of  the  high- 
est interest,  clearly  belong  to  a  chapter  of  architectural  history 
which  lies  outside  the  limits  of  the  present  volume. 

In  France,  nationality  developed  later  than  in  Germany.  It 
is  first  visible  politically  in  the  election  of  Hugh  Capet  as  King 
of  France  (987);  but  a  united  kingdom  was  still  centuries  dis- 
tant, and  national  feeling  must  be  sought,  not  in  France  as  a 
whole,  but  in  the  several  provinces,  which  soon  came  to  be  like  so 

140 


NATIONAL  SCHOOLS   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

many  separate  nations.  But  even  this  local  sense  of  nationality 
came  into  being  late,  and  in  reflection  of  this  fact,  until  after 
the  year  1000,  the  architecture  of  France  remained  truly  Caro- 
lingian  —  formless,  chaotic,  unprogressive. 

The  early  development  of  a  local  style  of  architecture  in 
Lombardy  at  first  glance  seems  somewhat  surprising,  for  there 
is  here  politically  no  trace  of  the  growth  of  nationality.  Yet 
the  formation  of  this  school  began  as  early  as  the  IX  century, 
thus  anticipating  even  Germany.  By  the  year  1000  it  had 
evolved  types  more  characteristic  and  distinctive  than  its  Rhen- 
ish rival.  Probably  the  fact  that  the  feudal  system  was  never 
established  in  Italy  and  the  consequent  rise  of  the  cities  brought 
about  this  early  development.  The  city  became  in  Italy  the 
natural  unit  of  administration.  It  fell  under  the  control  of  a 
count  and  this  person  was  also  often  a  bishop.  These  cities, 
especially  when  situated  near  each  other,  banded  together  in 
times  of  danger  against  a  common  enemy;  and  the  local  patriot- 
ism which  later  formed  the  glory  of  Italian  communes  was  doubt- 
less operative  even  before  the  XI  century. 

Such,  then,  are  the  main  external  currents  of  Carolingian 
architectural  history.  The  \T  and  VII  centuries  were  a  time 
of  decay  and  barbarism,  in  which,  however,  was  begun  the  fusion 
of  the  three  separate  elements  contributed  by  the  Romans,  the 
Byzantines,  and  the  Barbarians,  although  this  fusion  was  not 
altogether  completed  until  much  later.  This  period  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  with  its  brilliant,  if  artificial. 
Renaissance.  Finally,  there  came  another  period  of  decline,  at 
the  end  of  which  emerged  the  beginnings  of  distinct  national 
styles  in  Germany  and  Italy. 

AVhile  architecture  was  undergoing  such  vicissitudes  in 
response  to  the  evolution  of  European  civilization,  the  Church 
hierarchy  was  developing  into  a  form  and  power  that  were  fated 
to  affect  no  less  profoundly  than  that  civilization  itself  the 
destinies  of  the  art.  Or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  exact  to  say 
that,  while  the  larger  economic  currents  determined  that  archi- 
tecture should  develop,  it  was  the  growth  of  the  Church  that 
determined  in  just  what  direction  that  development  should 
take  place.     We  have  already   remarked    that    medieval    archi- 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

^lecture  was  predominantly  ecclesiastical.  In  the  Church  was 
concentrated  all  the  learning  and  culture,  as  well  as  much  of 
the  wealth,  of  the  entire  Middle  Ages ;  to  supply  the  Church  with 
suitable  monumental  expression  became  almost  the  sole  prob- 
lem that  architecture  had  to  face.  Hence  whatever  altered 
the  character  of  the  church  edifice  altered  the  entire  character 
of  the  art. 

The  organization  which  the  Church  had  come  to  assume  in 
the  Carolingian  era  was  highly  complex.  The  fundamental 
unit  of  the  hierarchy  was  the  bishop.  This  officer,  it  is  probable, 
was  originally  the  leading  man  of  the  congregation,  but  as  the 
ritual  developed  he  had  become  what  is  our  idea  of  a  priest. 
Later,  when  the  original  parish  founded  [other  missionary 
churches,  the  bishop  of  the  mother  church  came  to  have  a  sort 
of  authority  over  these  younger  congregations.  This  process 
was  continued  and  extended  until  at  last  all  Christendom  had 
been  blocked  out  into  dioceses  or  sees,  over  all  the  churches  in 
each  of  which  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  had  jurisdiction.  The 
bishop  had  his  residence  usually  in  the  principal  city  of  his 
diocese;*  his  church,  here  situated,  was  known  as  the  cathedral^ 
church. 

While  the  bishops  had  thus  been  extending  their  power 
over  that  of  the  lesser  clergy,  the  bishop  of  Rome  —  who 
came  gradually  to  be  known  as  the  Pope  —  was  extending  his 
power  not  only  over  all  the  other  bishops,  but  at  last  over  all  the 
kings  and  emperors  of  Europe.  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604) 
was  the  first  to  raise  the  papacy  to  a  commanding  position. 
Even  at  this  time  the  "patrimony  of  St.  Peter"  —  the  worldly 
goods  and  chattels  of  the  papacy  —  had  become  considerable, 
and  as  time  went  on  this  wealth  continued  to  increase.  The 
temporal  power  of  the  popes  —  the  States  of  the  Church  — 
came  into  being  in  the  VIII  century  by  the  famous  donation  of 
Pippin.  The  strength  of  the  papacy,  greatly  augmented  by  the 
Frankist  alliance,  was  still  further  increased  by  the  weakness 
of  the  immediate  successors  of  Charlemagne.     Under  Nicholas 

'  In  England  the  residence  of  the  bishop  was  often  not  fixed  until  as  late  as  the  XI  cen- 
tury. 

'  In  Latin  the  word  cathedra,  chair,  was  used  to  denote  the  bishop's  throne.  Hence  the 
cathedral  church  was  the  church  in  which  this  throne  was  placed. 

142 


THE  SECULAR   CLERGY 

I  (858-867)  and  John  VIII  (872-882)  it  attained  great  power. 
In  the  X  century,  however,  set  in  a  period  of  dechne  and  cor- 
ruption, when  the  local  factions  of  Rome  made  and  unmade 
popes  at  their  will.  The  great  Church  organization  seemed 
ready  to  fall  to  pieces.  So  great  had  been  the  power  built  up 
by  the  earlier  popes,  however,  that  it  safely  carried  the  papacy 
through  even  this  depth  of  degradation  until,  at  the  very  end 
of  our  period,  the  German  kings  began  to  reform  and  rebuild 
the  power  destined  at  last  to  overwhelm  them. 

Meanwhile  the  office  of  bishop  had  been  undergoing 
modification.  The  feudal  system  was  so  deeply  rooted  in  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  times  that  the  Church  organization 
could  hardly  fail  to  be  effected  by  it.  Hence,  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  we  find  bishops  actually  invested  with 
the  functions  of  count,  and,  as  the  feudal  system  developed,  such 
cases  became  so  frequent  as  to  be,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  the 
rule.'  Thus  the  bishop  became  a  vassal  of  the  ruler  of  the  coun- 
try and  a  lord  over  the  vassals  who  inhabited  his  land ;  he  became 
a  baron  even  more  than  a  churchman.  He  led  his  vassals  to 
war,  and  was  apt  to  be  much  more  concerned  with  the  temporal 
politics  of  his  county  than  with  the  welfare  of  his  see. 

The  number  of  clergy  in  the  cathedral  churches  had  long 
been  considerable,  and  as  time  went  on  these  lesser  clergy  banded 
together  into  a  party  distinct  from,  and  often  hostile  to,  the 
bishop.  This  party  was  known  as  the  chapter.  It  also  was  a 
feudal  personage,  and  possessed  lands  and  vassals.  Though 
ordinarily  the  chapter  and  the  bishop  enjoyed  separate  endow- 
ments (which  were  commonly  rich  ones),  still  conflicts  over 
some  question  of  privilege  or  revenue  were  frequent.  The 
organization  of  the  chapter  in  later  years  came  to  take  on  a 
semi-monastic  character.  This  "regularization"  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  by  Chrodegang.  bishop  of  Metz,  and  later  to 
have  been  extended  throughout  the  Empire  by  an  edict  of  Louis 
the  Pious  (817).  By  this  edict  the  canons  (as  the  members  of 
the  chapter  were  called)   were  organized   into  a  sort  of  order 

'  In  much  of  what  follows  I  am  indebtetl  to  Epliraim  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe  (814- 
1300),  Boston,  Giiin  &  Co.,  IflOI.  I'ivo.  Chapter  XVI  of  this  book  contains  an  account 
of  the  medieval  church  that  for  clearness  and  conciseness  could  hardly  be  surpassed. 

143 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

with  a  rule  resembling  that  of  St.  Benedict  as  closely  as  was 
possible  without  too  great  interference  with  their  secular  func- 
tions. 

These  "canons  regular"  came  to  be  distinctly  a  great  feudal 
power  in  the  state.  More  and  more  the  chapters  freed  themselves 
from  the  control  of  the  bishop,  and  even  came  to  seek  alliance 
with  powers  hostile  to  him.  To  such  lengths  did  this  es- 
trangement extend,  that  in  France  the  chapters  were  at  times 
entirely  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  able  on  their 
own  authority  to  call  councils  trying  clerical  cases,  and  even 
exercise  the  right  of  excommunication.' 

The  canons  were  of  several  grades,  following  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  parish  clergy,  although  the  mere  fact  of  membership 
in  the  chapter  ordinarily  overshadowed  their  parochial  rank. 
The  unit  of  the  parish  clergy  was  the  priest.  At  least  one 
priest  was  placed  in  charge  of  each  parish,  and,  of  course,  there 
were  many  parishes  (each  usually  with  a  single  church)  in  every 
diocese.  These  priests  were  appointed  by  the  lord,  whether 
lay  or  clerical,  to  whom  the  land  on  which  the  church  stood  hap- 
pened to  belong,  although  once  appointed  they  were  under  the 
control  of  the  bishop.  In  the  XI  century,  as  a  consequence  of 
the  Cluniac  reform,  the  parish  churches  were  often  put  in  the 
charge  of  monasteries,  which  appointed  as  priest  one  of  their 
own  members.  This,  again,  was  to  the  decided  detriment 
of  the  bishop's  power. 

The  arch-presbyter  and  the  arch-deacon  stood  between 
the  bishop  and  the  parish  priest.  The  former  was  scarcely 
more  than  the  head  parish  priest;  the  latter  was  a  sort  of  gen- 
eral overseer  who  occasionally  was  able  to  acquire  sufficient 
power  to  threaten  even  the  authority  of  the  bishop.  He  was 
commonly  the  most  important  member  of  the  cathedral  chapter. 

As  these  officers  stood  somewhat  indeterminately  between 
bishop  and  priest,  the  archbishops  stood  between  pope  and 
bishop.  The  earliest  archbishoprics  —  those  of  Mainz,  Koln, 
Trier,  and  Salzburg  —  were  established  by  Charlemagne.  In 
later  times  many  more  were  added.  Much  dignity  but  little 
real  additional  power  seems  to  have  accrued  to  the  holder  of 

■  Emerton,   op.  cit.,  p.  550. 

144 


THE   MONASTIC   SYSTEM 

the  metropolitan  sees,  as  the  archepiscopal  dioceses  were  called. 
Efforts  were  made,  it  is  true,  to  extend  the  powers  of  the  arch- 
bishops over  the  neighboring  bishoprics;  but  in  this  direction 
the  bishops  seem  to  have  maintained  their  authority  against 
encroachments.  Where  an  archbishopric  did  attain  great  influ- 
ence, it  seems  to  have  been  rather  from  political  considerations 
than  from  anything  in  the  nature  of  the  office  itself,  —  as,  for 
example,  Canterbury  in  England,  Reims  in  France,  and  Mainz, 
Trier,   and   Koln  in   Germany.' 

Such,  in  outline,  was  the  secular  hierarchy  of  the  Church. 
From  a  political  point  of  view  the  organization  was  superb, 
though  in  the  continual  strife  of  its  warring  members,  its  wealth, 
its  corruption,  its  simony,  and  its  immorality,  it  contained  ele- 
ments of  weakness.  As  the  X  century  drew  to  a  close,  these 
elements  obtained  the  mastery,  destroying  at  once  both  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  prestige  of  the  clergy.  The  dignity  of 
the  Christian  religion  was  restored  only  by  the  drastic  meas- 
ures of  the  Cluniac  reform  of  the  XI  century. 

Side  by  side  with  the  secular  clergy  had  grown  up  the  reg- 
ular clergy  —  i.e.,  the  monastic  orders.  Of  undoubted  Oriental 
origin,  monasticism  did  not  reach  the  West  until  the  beginning 
of  the  V  century,  when  it  appeared  sporadically  in  Provence 
and  the  far-ofl'  regions  of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  In  the  VI  cen- 
tury St.  Benedict  made  the  institution  popular  throughout  the 
West.  In  the  famous  monastery  of  Monte  Casino  he  gathered 
about  him  a  body  of  disciples  upon  whom  he  imposed  the  Bene- 
dictine rule  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  Within  the 
next  hundred  years  the  Benedictine  order  had  taken  root  through- 
out Western  Europe,  including  nunneries  as  well  as  monasteries 
among  its  establishments.  The  monks  speedily  attained  great 
prestige,  especially  in  the  eyes  of  laymen,  for  corrupt  as  monas- 
ticism often  ])ecame,  it  seems  seldom  to  have  fallen  to  such 
depths  as  did  the  secular  clergy.  Furthermore,  the  spectacular 
renunciations  of  the  monk  made  a  great  appeal  to  the  multi- 
tude. The  power  of  the  bishops  was  seriously  impaired  by  the 
new  institution,  and  finally  the  episcopacy  found  in  the  mon- 
asteries its  most  formidable  enemies.     But  the  discovery  was 

'  Emerion,  np.  rit.,  p.  .554. 
145 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

made  too  late.  The  monasteries  were  already  too  firmly  estab- 
lished in  lands  and  wealth,  too  heavily  barricaded  behind  papal 
exemptions  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  too  staunchly  allied 
with  the  great  episcopal  enemies,  pope  and  king,  to  be  dis- 
lodged. 

Almost  from  the  first,  the  monasteries  became  extremely 
wealthy.  The  constant  recipients  of  bequests  and  gifts,  what 
once  was  grasped  by  the  "dead  hand"  was  never  released. 
The  industry  of  the  monks  turned  lands  often  at  first  uncleared 
and  desert  into  fertile  tracts.  Special  privileges  and  exemptions 
often  freed  the  monasteries  from  all  burdens  and  restraints 
imposed  by  bishop  or  king,  and  made  them,  in  fact,  almost  like 
independent  little  states.  They  were  feudal  personages  and 
rented  their  land  to  vassals  the  same  as  any  other  lord.  As 
early  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne  it  was  not  unusual  for  an  abbot 
to  have  from  twenty  to  forty  thousand  vassals  living  on  the  lands 
of  his  monastery,  and  so  numerous  did  the  monastic  establish- 
ments become,  that  it  is  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  total 
land  of  all  Europe  was  in  their  hands. 

This  power  of  the  monasteries  was  a  menace  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  bishop.  The  two  became  natural  enemies  and  it  is 
only  in  exceptional  cases  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  that, 
whenever  any  dispute  arose,  these  two  powers  were  not  to  be 
found  arrayed  on  opposite  sides.  The  bishops  naturally  allied 
themselves  with  the  feudal  lords;  the  monasteries  usually  sup- 
ported the  papacy. 

The  great  worldly  power  of  the  monastery  necessitated  a 
somewhat  complicated  internal  organization.  At  its  head  stood 
the  abbot,  elected  by  the  monks,  but  confirmed  both  by  the  sec- 
ular head  of  the  territory  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  This 
lucrative  office  was  naturally  in  great  demand,  and  before  the 
Cluniac  reform  was  not  infrequently  obtained  by  a  layman  — 
some  great  feudal  lord  who  found  here  a  great  source  of  rev- 
enue. Immediately  under  the  abbot  was  the  prior  —  a  sort 
of  vice-abbot.  When,  as  often  happened,  the  main  monastery 
founded  a  branch  order  somewhere  on  its  territory,  this  branch 
was  commonly  put  in  charge  of  the  prior,  and  was  called  a  priory. 
Besides  this,  there  were,  on  the  broad  lands  of  the  monastery, 

146 


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RELICS 

it  was  better  for  the  cause  of  true  religion  that  the  altar  should 
be  somewhat  more  removed  from  the  gaze  of  the  profane.  The 
basilica  type  was  also  ill  adapted  for  the  ritual  in  that  a  certain 
awkwardness  was  experienced,  especially  in  churches  without 
transepts,  when  the  great  procession  of  the  mass  turned  from 
the  side  aisles  into  the  apse,  and  vice  versa. 

One  other  religious  development  influenced  the  type  of  church 
building,  and  that  was  the  rapid  accumulation  of  relics  during 
the  ^liddle  Ages.  The  Early  Christians  had  been  accustomed 
to  build  their  basilicas  over  the  tomb  of  some  martyr,  and  this 
tomb  was  preserved  in  the  confessio.  The  tendency  to  worship 
saints  and  their  relics  thus  begun,  increased  enormously  during 
the  Dark  Ages  until  it  became  little  less  than  a  mania.  Relics 
were  gathered  everywhere  and  often  at  the  greatest  expense. 
They  became  a  commercial  commodity  of  great  value  —  the 
most  prized  plunder  of  a  captured  city,  the  most  carefully  guarded 
of  all  treasures.  Now  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  produc- 
tion of  relics  was  amazingly  prolific.  Not  only  was  there  an 
extraordinarily  large  number  of  genuine  saints  whose  remains 
were  carefully  preserved  after  death,  but  the  supply  seems  to 
have  been  largely  augmented  by  the  profitable  practice  of  man- 
ufacturing fraudulent  relics.  Thus  it  came  about  that  all  the 
principal  churches  of  Europe  became  veritable  museums  where 
were  gathered  vast  collections  of  the  miscellaneous  members, 
more  or  less  genuine,  of  defunct  worthies.  The  housino'  of  all 
these  relics  became  a  serious  problem.  The  old  confessio  was 
totally  inadequate  for  the  purpose;  besides,  the  growing  rever- 
ence for  the  relics  demanded  a  separate  altar  for  each  saint  of 
whom  the  church  possessed  considerable  parts.'  The  question 
of  where  to  find  space  for  these  altars  became  puzzling.  In  the 
old  Christian  basilica  there  was  none  available.  In  monasteries, 
such  as  S.  Gallo,  where  there  was  no  congregation  to  reckon 
with,  the  nave  was  utilized  for  this  purpose;  but  in  cathedrals 
or  large  parish  churches  the  problem  was  difficult. 

The  Early  Christian  basilica  had  been  excellently  adapted 

'  Parallel  to  tho  f^owth  of  the  passion  for  relics,  the  worship  of  saints  had  been  rapidly 
inoroasinjj.  Extra  altars  were  required  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  this  cult  of  the  saints  as  well  as  to 
serve  as  receptacles  for  their  relics. 

149 


C\llOLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

for  the  simple  service  of  the  primitive  Christians.  Only  in 
respect  to  the  wooden  roof,  subject  to  destruction  by  fire,  did 
the  basilica  fairly  lie  open  to  objection  from  a  practical  stand- 
point. But  the  Church  had  developed  so  that  its  gorgeous  cere- 
monies had  outgrown  the  simple  basilica  form.  The  new  needs 
required  the  old  basilica  type  to  be  altered  so  as  to  afford  re- 
stricted light,  a  larger  choir,  easier  passage  to  the  side  aisles 
from  the  apse  —  together  with  a  fireproof  roof. 

A  glance  at  the  monuments  listed  on  page  170  will  make  it 
evident  that  Carolingian  architecture  made  only  sporadic  and 
'5^nconsistent  efforts  to  meet  these  difficulties.  Circular  churches 
enjoyed  an  unparalleled  popularity  in  this  period,  and  the  cir- 
cular church  as  designed  in  the  West  was  far  less  suited  to  tlie 
needs  of  the  ritual  than  the  basilica.  The  development  of  the 
round  church  into  a  truly  suitable  and  monumental  form,  such 
as  the  Byzantine  architects  had  attained  at  Hagia  Sophia,  was 
unknown  to  Carolingian  art,  only  the  faulty  steps  made  in  that 
direction  at  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna,  being  available  as  models  for 
the  Occidental  builders.  Even  these  advances,  however,  the 
architects  of  Aachen  failed  to  adopt.  At  their  hands  the 
round  church  fell  back  into  the  old  Early  Christian  form,  a 
form  totally  unsuited  to  the  church  service. 

Nevertheless,  at  Aachen  two  structural  innovations  were 
introduced,  one  of  which  was  of  great  importance.  As  may  be 
seen  by  a  glance  at  the  section  (III.  8G),  the  triforium  gallery 
is  covered  with  barrel-vaults,  transverse  in  the  sense  of  the  gal- 
lery, and  thus  forming  ingenious  and  effective  buttresses  to  the 
thrust  of  the  dome.  The  second  innovation  —  and  this  is  the 
one  to  which  I  especially  desire  to  call  attention  —  is  the  vault-  H- 
inor  of  the  aisles.  The  vaulting  of  circular  aisles  is  a  matter  of 
difficulty.  The  Early  Christians  had  usually  gotten  around 
the  problem,  as  at  Sta.  Costanza  (111.  44),  by  building  a  barrel 
vault  springing  from  above  the  crown  of  the  arches  of  the  main 
arcade.  This  expedient  was  only  partly  successful.  It  made 
an  unnaturally  lofty  as  well  as  a  very  dark  vault  over  the  aisle, 
and  it  necessitated  an  awkward  blank  space  on  the  nave  wall 
between  the  crowns  of  the  arches  of  the  main  arcades  and  the 
gallery  or  clearstory.     At  Aachen  the  problem  was  solved  in  the 

150 


CIRCULAR   EDIFICES 

very  clever  way  shown  in  the  pUin  (111.  85).  The  nave  was 
made  octagonal,  the  exterior  wall  sixteen-sided,  a  device  by 
means  of  which  the  aisle  was  divided  into  alternately  square 
and  triangular  compartments  easily  covered  with  groined 
vaults. 

Aachen  was  extensively  copied  throughout  the  North,  though 
the  copies  were  often  very  free.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
variations  is  the  type  of  church  represented  by  Germigny-les- 
Pres  (111.  88,  89).     Here  the  octagonal  nave  of  Aachen  has  be- 


Iix.   88.  —  Plan   of   Church   at   Germigny-les-Pres.      (From 
Arch,  de  la  Com.  des  Mon.  Hist.) 

come  a  square  surmounted  by  a  construction  that  suggests  a 
central  tower  rather  than  a  dome.  The  aisle  also  has  been 
made  square,  and  three  (possibly  four)  apses  have  been  added. 
It  is  curious  that  a  plan  almost  exactly  similar  is  found  way 
off  in  Italy,  in  the  church  of  S.  Satiro,  JNIilan. 

Another  type  of  circular  church  derived  according  to  con- 
temporary authors  from  Aachen,  is  found  in  such  buildings  as 
the  Alte  Thurm  of  Mettlach  (111.  91)  or  Heilige  Maria  auf  dem 
Berge  of  AViirzburg.  Monuments  of  this  class  date  almost 
exclusively  from  the  X  century.  The  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic is  the  fact  that  the  side  aisle  is  suppressed,  the  building 
thus  reverting  to  the  form   of  the  original   Roman  type  from 

1.51 


CAROLINGL\N  ARCHITECTURE 

which  all  Christian  circular  churches  had  probably  been  ulti- 
mately derived. 

Such  are  the  three  types  of  Carolingian  circular  edifices  of 
which  we  have  authentic  examples.  Although  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  round  churches  were  erected  in  Italy  in  the  VII  and 
VIII  centuries,  the  extant  monuments  of  this  type  are  found 
for  the  most  part  in  the  North,  and  all  seem  later  in  date  than 
the  chapel  at  Aachen.  The  far-reaching  influence  of  this  monu- 
ment is  not  open  to  question.  The  school  it  formed,  however, 
was  of  an  artificial  and  exotic  character,  making  little  effort  to 
meet  the  practical  requirements  of  the  Church.  The  structural 
innovations  introduced  at  Aachen,  important  though  they  were, 
lay  in  precisely  those  directions  where  we  should  not  expect  them. 

Most  of  the  circular  edifices  in  the  North,  especially  those 
erected  towards  the  close  of  the  Carolingian  epoch,  were  churches 
and  not  baptisteries.  In  the  Early  Christian  period,  the  bap- 
tistery had  always  been  a  separate  building,  and  was  regularly 
of  the  round  type.  Baptism  was  in  those  times  administered 
by  immersion,  and  the  rite  might  be  performed  only  by  a  bishop. 
After  the  VI  century,  the  baptism  of  infants  and  baptism  by 
infusion  came  to  prevail.  The  rite  might  be  administered  by  a 
simple  priest  with  water  blessed  by  the  bishop  in  his  cathedral. 
By  the  end  of  the  X  century  the  practice  had  become  the  rule 
north  of  the  Alps.  Originally,  only  cathedrals  had  a  baptistery; 
now  every  parish  church  had  a  baptismal  fount.'  Hence  in 
the  North  the  custom  of  building  a  separate  edifice  for  the  bap- 
tistery came  to  an  end,  and  one  of  the  main  uses  for  the  circu- 
lar church  passed  away.  In  Italy,  however,  the  baptistery  still 
continued  in  use. 

The  basilican  plan  was  in  every  way  better  adapted  to  the 
practical  needs  of  the  Carolingian  church,  although,  strangely 
enough,  the  extant  basilican  buildinfjs  of  the  era  are  usu- 
ally  even  less  monumental  and  less  pretending  than  the  domed 
edifices.  The  Carolingian  basilica,  generally  speaking,  was  a 
small  barn-like  structure,  quite  unadorned  and  inexpressibly 
bare  and  dreary.  And  yet  in  the  design  of  these  basilicas  im- 
portant advances  were  made. 

>  Enlart,  191. 
15^ 


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li.i..   S!».        Si-c-lii)ii  III'  (■(■rriiiu'iiy-k-s-rres 


ABSIDIOLES 

Of  these  innovations  probably  the  first  was  the  addition  of 
chapels  to  supply  extra  storage  room  for  relics.  We  have  al- 
ready seen  that  in  the  East  it  had  become  customary  to  termi- 
nate the  side  aisles  of  the  basilica  in  the  chapels  of  the  prothesis 
and  apodosis  flanking  the  main  apse.  These  chapels  in  Syria 
and  Egypt  later  became  square,  but  the  original  form  was  semi- 
circular. The  plans  of  such  Eastern  churches  doubtless  sug- 
gested to  the  Western  builders  the  idea  of  adding  to  the  basilica 
chapels  similiar  to  those  of  the  prothesis  and  apodosis,  which 
might  serve  to  contain  altars  with  relics  of  the  saints.  These 
were  introduced  into  most  (though  not  all)  Western  basilicas 
at  a  very  early  time  in  our  period,  and  continued  in  general  use 
throughout  the  Carolingian  era".      (111.  94.) 

The  disposition  of  these  apsidal  chapels  was  modified  in 
the  so-called  "T-formed"  basilicas,  so  many  of  which  were 
built  along  the  upper  Rhine  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Ba- 
silicas of  this  type  were  characterized  by  widely  spreading 
transepts.  Accordingly,  in  order  to  obtain  a  more  symmetrical 
plan,  the  secondary  apses  were  separated  from  the  main  apse 
and  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  transept,  rather  than  on  the 
axis  of  the  side  aisle.  (111.  95.)  In  this  position  they  came  to 
be  regarded  as  forming  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  transept,  and, 
in  fact,  the  tradition  that  transepts  should  be  supplied  with  such 
absidioles  became  so  firmly  rooted  in  tradition  that  from  this 
time  until  the  end  of  the  Gothic  period  few  churches  were  erected 
without  some  trace  of  this  feature.  The  single  aisles  placed 
on  the  east  side  of  the  transepts  of  English  Gothic  cathedrals 

•  Tliere  are  several  texts  bearing  on  this  question  of  the  triple  apse.  I  quote  three  of  the 
most  illuminative :  Quippe  altare  domnicura  (ut  nunc  est)  quatuor  ex  partibus  tabulis  argentiis 
inclusit,  nee  minus  altare  ad  crucem  atque  S.  Johannis  B.  sanctse  quoque  Marise  virginis,  prse- 
terea  altare  S.  Petri  in  ecclesia  triplice  mirifice  perornavit.  —  Chron.  Laurisham.  a.  805.  Dis- 
posuit  fabricavitque  triplicem  in  una  conclusione  basilicam,  cuius  membrum  medium  in  honore 
S.  Marise  virginis  cultu  eminentiore  construxit,  ex  uno  latere  domini  Johannis,  ex  alio  S.  Mar- 
tini subiecit.  —  Vita  S.  Cesarii.  The  final  passage  is  taken  from  the  description  of  the  basilica 
at  Nantes  by  Venantius  Fortunatus  (Carm.  Ill,  7) :  — 

Vertice  sublimi  patet  auloe  forma  triformis. 

Dextra  pars  tenipli  nieritis  pra-fulget  Hclari 
Corpore  Martino  consociante  gradum. 
******** 
Altera  Fcrreoli  pars  est.  —  Cit.  Schlosscr,  48. 
15.S 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

are  to  be  explained  as  a  reminiscence  of  this  tradition.  An 
amusing  instance  of  how  necessary  transeptal  absidioles  came 
to  be  considered  is  afforded  by  the  X  century  church  of  St. 
Generoux  (111.  90).  Here  the  older  form  of  triple  apse  is 
retained;  but  as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  ruined  south  tran- 
sept, transeptal  absidioles  were  also  included  in  the  plan,  so 
that  the  same  feature  was,  in  effect,  twice  repeated. 


III.  90.  —  Plan  of  St.  Generoux. 
des  Mon.  Hist.) 


(From  Arch,  do  la  Com. 


The  triple  apse  and  transeptal  absidioles  offered  one  solu- 
tion to  the  problem  of  how  to  make  room  for  relics  and  altars. 
A  second  alternative  solution  found  by  the  Carolingians  con- 
sisted of  adding  to  the  west  end  of  the  church  a  second  apse 
opposite  the  main  eastern  apse.  This,  it  will  be  remembered, 
had  already  been  tried  by  the  Early  Christians  of  Africa,  doubt- 
less for  a  similar  reason.  One  of  the  earliest  and  most  famous 
instances  of  the  double  apse  was  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Gallo, 
dating  from  before   820.     (111.    87.)     In  certain   instances  this 

154 


\ 


CRYPTS 

western  apse  occurs  in  connection  with  the  triple  eastern  apse. 
Its  use  is  largely  confined  to  Germany,  where,  indeed,  it  became 
one  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  rising  national  style.' 

A  third  expedient  for  gaining  space  to  house  relics  was  the 
indefinite  enlargement  of  the  old  Early  Christian  confessio  or 
crvpt,  which  was  made  to  extend  under  the  whole  eastern  part 
of  the  church.  As  in  Early  Christian  churches,  the  crypt  often 
continued  to  assume  the  form  of  a  regular  little  basilica,  with 
nave,  side  aisles,  and  apses.     In  the  IX  century  in  Germany, 


III.  91.  —  Plan  of  Mcttlacli.     (From  Dehio) 

but  especially  in  Italy,  it  became  usual  to  raise  the  choir  some- 
what above  the  rest  of  the  church,  in  order  to  make  more  room  for 
the  crypt.  As  this  arrangement  was  found  to  be  of  additional 
advantage,  in  that  it  strongly  marked  the  division  of  choir  and 
sanctuary,  it  was  finally  carried  to  such  lengths  in  Lombardy 
that  the  choir  was  raised  as  much  as  ten  or  twelve  feet  above 
the  nave.  Indeed,  these  raised  choirs  with  the  crypt  below, 
became  one  of  the  marked  characteristics  of  the  churches  of 
that  province  (111.  92),  and  passed  thence  into  the  Lombard 
style  of  the  XI  century. 

'  This  is  the  usual,  and,  it  seems  to  me,  the  more  probable  explanation  of  the  T/estem  apse. 
No  less  an  authority  than  Cattaneo,  however,  asserts  an  entirely  different  origin  and  use.  "Servi- 
vano  contomporaniente  ai  due  distinti  cori  dell'  aUato  e  del  priore  che  avvicendavano  il  canto  dei 
salmi."  Might  not  this  custom  have  arisen  in  cnn.ieqtience  of  the  introduction  of  the  western 
apse  ?    And  how  about  cathedral  or  parish  churches  ? 

155 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

A  fourth  and  last  device  invented  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding additional  space  for  relics  deserves  especial  mention, 
being  as  it  is,  one  of  the  most  important  and  fruitful  architec- 
tural motives  ever  created.  The  side  aisle  was  continued  around 
the  apse  to  form  what  is  known  as  an  ambulatory.  Something 
similar  to  this  had  already  been  done  in  the  Early  Christian 
period  in  the  basilica  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano  at  Rome,  and 
at  S.  Gallo  another  early  example  seems  to  have  existed.  (111. 
87.)  But  since  the  exact  original  dispositions  in  both  of  these 
instances  are  not  altogether  clear,  it  is  left  open  to  question 
whether  they  were  really  true  ambulatories.  At  the  end  of  the 
Carolingian  period,  however,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  feature 
had  assumed  definite  form,  for  it  occurs  in  two  extant  monuments 
of  Italy',  while  the  foundations  of  the  X  century  church  of 
St.  Martin  at  Tours  (111.  93)  prove  that  a  fully  developed  am- 
bulatory was  provided  in  this  basilica.  This  idea  of  prolong- 
ing the  aisles  around  the  apse  seems  so  simple  and  natural  that 
it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  seek  for  prototypes  or  precedents.^ 
Along  the  wall  of  the  extra  space  gained  by  the  addition  of  the 
ambulatory  were  placed  the  altars  with  relics.  Then  niches 
came  to  be  built  in  this  outside  wall  to  contain  these  altars;  the 
niches  were  enlarged  until  they  formed  radiating  chapels,  in 
the  Carolingian  period  always  semicircular  in  plan  (111.  93). 
This  eastward  termination  of  a  church  with  ambulatory  and 
radiating  chapels  is  known  as  a  chevet,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  and  beautiful  features  of  French  Gothic 
cathedrals.  It  was  not  for  Carolingian  architecture  to  carry 
this  lovely  motive  to  its  bloom;  it  merely  suggested  the  possi- 
bilities that  a  later  age  seized  upon,  and  developed  to  their  full 
value.  We  have  only  two  examples  of  the  completely  formed 
chevet  with,  radiating  chapels  earlier  than  the  year  1000.  Both 
of  these  date  from  the  X  century,  and  both  of  them  are  situated 
in  France,  with  whose  style  this  motive  was  in  after  years  so 
intimately  associated.     The  one  is  the  now  buried  foundations 

'  At  IvTea  and  in  the  church  of  Sto.  Stefano,  Verona,  where  the  ambulatory  is  vaulted  with 
the  alternate  rectangular  and  triangular  groin  vaults  of  Aachen. 

2  Dehio  would  derive  the  motive  from  half  a  circular  building  with  aisles  and  niches.  He 
points  out  that  St.  Martin  of  Tours  —  where  he  sees  the  origin  of  the  ambulatory  —  is  a  build- 
ing of  tomb-like  significance. 

156 


LENGTHENED   CHOIRS 

of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  already  mentioned;  the  other,  evidently 
thence  derived,  the  church  of  La  Couture  at  Le  Mans. 

A  further  great  advance  of  Carolingian  architecture  was  the 
enlargement  of  the  apse.  The  need  of  this  was  so  crying,  and 
the  step  to  its  accomplishment  so  obvious,  we  can  only  wonder 
it  was  taken  so  late  and  so  hesitatingly  as  it  was.  We  have 
seen  that  in  the  early  Christian  basilicas  of  Rome  the  overcrowd- 
ing of  the  clergy  in  the  apse  had  been  relieved  by  screening  off 
from  the  nave  the  schola  cantorum  for  the  use  of  the  minor  clergy. 
Now,  in  the  IX  century,  when  Carolingian  architecture  devel- 
oped in  Lombardy  the  features  of  the  crypt  and  raised  choir, 
the  nave  and  sanctuary  became  separated  by  a  sharp  barrier, 
and  the  schola  cantorum  was  consequently  left  stranded,  as  it 
were,  way  down  in  the  nave  and  far  separated  from  the  apse 
and  the  main  body  of  the  clergy.  It  therefore  became  neces- 
sary to  make  the  raised  choir  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate 
all  the  priests.  This  was  done  by  inserting  a  square  compart- 
ment in  front  of  the  semicircle  of  the  apse.  (111.  90,  94.)  The 
beginning  thus  having  been  made,  the  principle  was  capable 
of  indefinite  enlargement.'  Henceforth  the  choir  could  be 
expanded  to  a  size  sufficient  to  accommodate  any  number  of 
clergy.  This  idea,  originating  in  Lombardy  -  and  much  em- 
ployed there  after  the  IX  century,  found  its  way  later  into  Ger- 
many and  France.  In  the  Italian  examples,  when  the  motive 
is  employed  with  the  triple  apse,  the  dividing  walls  between  the 
three  apses  are  prolonged  to  the  end  of  the  choir; '  in  France,  — 
at  least  at  St.  Generoux  (111.  90)  —  the  three  apses  open  into 
each  other  by  arcades.  This  last  was  the  form  in  which  the 
motive,  combined  with  that  of  the  chevet,  was  to  influence  pro- 
foundly Gothic  art.     The  prolonged  choir  and  the  ambulatory 

'  In  the  Byzantine  and  Early  Christian  monuments  in  the  East  and  at  Ravenna  the  apse 
had  been  often  prolonged. 

=  S.  Anibrogio  of  Milan  is  perhaps  the  earliest  example,  but  the  lengthened  choir 
also  occurred  at  S.  Gallo  (111.  87). 

'  Cattaneo  offers  an  explanation  of  this  fact,  full  of<lelicious  humor.  "Si  fatto,"  he  says, 
"prolungamento  comincio  a  coniparire  nei  secoli  vicini  al  niille,  specialmente  in  quelle  chiese 
die  seriivano  ai  nionaci,  i  quali,  essendo  usafi  di  passare  buona  parte  del  di  e  della  notte  entre 
la  chiesa  salmodiando,  aviauno  sentito  linalmente  il  bisogno  di  un  recinto  piii  riparato  dall'  aria 
e  meno  aceessibile  agli  sguardi  curiosi  del  popolo,  che  non  fossero  gli  aperti  cancelli  delle  vecchie 
basiliche.  E  quest'  invenzione,  forse  dei  claustrali,  fu  poi  trovata  tanto  opportuna,  che  dopo  il 
mille  s'allargo  anche  alle  chiese  ove  ofliciava  il  clero  secolare." 

157 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

never   seem    to    have  been  employed   together    in    Carolingian 
times. 

In  one  other  direction  did  CaroHngian  architecture  autici- 


III.  94.  —  Plan  of  S.  Ambrogio,  IVIilan.     (By  F.  J.  Walls) 

pate  important  later  developments.  In  speaking  of  Syrian 
architecture,  we  have  already  mentioned  the  difficulty  of  treat- 
ing the  west  fa9ade  of  a  basilica,  and  have  pointed  out  how 

158 


WESTERN   TOWERS 

that  problem  had  been  solved  in  certain  Syrian  churches  like 
Kalb  Lauzeh  (111.  57),  by  flanking  the  central  gable  with  two 
towers.  Now  in  Carolingian  times  the  atrium,  which,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  had  masked  the  awkwardness  of  the  facade  in  the 
Early  Christian  basilicas,  had  passed  out  of  use,  and  the  archi- 
tects found  themselves  face  to  face  with  this  problem.  They 
solved  it  precisely  as  the  Syrians  had  done,  by  erecting  two 
square  towers  to  flank  the  western  gable.  This  idea  was  ap- 
plied for  the  first  time'  (as  far  as  is  known)  in  certain  of  the  "T- 
formed"  basilicas-  of  the  Rhine  valley — the  Salvatorskirche 
at  Frankfurt  (111.  95)  and  possibly  the  basilica  at  Lorsch.     There 


III.  95.  —  Plan  of  the  Sal- 
vatorskirche, Frankfurt. 
(From  Wolff) 

is  nothing  to  show  Syrian  influence  in  these  cases.  This  mo- 
tive, which  became  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  distinctive 
features  of  the  Norman  and  Gothic  styles,  was  undoubtedly 
merely  re-invented  by  the  Western  builders. 

This  idea  of  adding  towers  to  churches  was  much  developed. 
The  later  Carolingian  buildings  of  Germany  were  sometimes 
provided  with  as  many  as  four  towers,  all  attached  to  the  build- 
ing, and  no  longer  standing  apart  from  it,'  in  the  fashion  of  an 

'The  VIII  century  church  of  St.  Denis  also  had  twin  western  towers.      See  Vol  II,  p  194. 

-  The  desifjn  of  all  Carolinfjian  facades  was  doubtless  influenced  by  the  fact  that  tlie  use  of 
galleries  was  very  general  during  the  Carolingian  peri<xl. 

'  At  S.  Gallo,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  plan  (111.  87),  there  were  two  detached  circular  bell- 
towers. 

159 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

Italian  campanile.  The  buildings  of  this  school  were  regularly 
supplied  with  a  western  apse,  a  feature  which  deprived  the  west- 
ern towers  of  much  of  their  significance.  Possibly  for  this 
reason  the  towers  were  usually  made  round  instead  of  square, 
or  this  peculiarity  may  have  been  a  survival  of  the  original  form 
of  bell  tower,  which,  it  has  been  seen,  was  probably  round.  At 
all  events,  in  Germany,  even  in  the  Carolingian  period,  the  round 
attached  towers  tended  to  degenerate  into  turrets  of  an  almost 
purely  decorative  significance.  In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  square  detached  campaniles  continued  as  ever  to  be  the 
rule.  They  were,  however,  occasionally  attached  to  the  build- 
ing. Just  over  the  border  line  of  the  year  1000  we  shall  find 
them  frequently  doubled  and  flanking  the  eastern  apse  in  Lom- 
bardy ; '  and  one  of  the  towers  which  flank  the  f a9ade  of  S.  Am- 
brogio,  Milan,  is  much  earlier  than  that  year. 

A  certain  number  of  minor  changes  of  construction  wrought 
by  the  Carolingian  builders  deserve,  at  least,  passing  mention. 
Of  these,  splayed  windows  are  the  most  important.  We  have 
spoken  above  of  the  necessity  of  restricting  light  in  churches. 
The  poor  technique  of  the  Carolingian  builders  brought  about 
this  restriction  without  intending  it.  The  clumsy  walls  of  rubble 
came  to  have  immense  thickness,  and  the  construction  was  so 
loose  that  a  large  arch  presented  serious  diflBculties  to  unskilled 
builders.  Hence  the  size  of  the  windows  came  to  be  reduced 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  light  became  too  dim.  To  avoid  this 
difficulty  recourse  was  had  to  double  splaying;  that  is,  making 
the  size  of  the  window  smaller  in  the  center  of  the  wall  than  at 
the  two  outside  edges.  In  a  wall  of  considerable  thickness  this 
procedure  largely  increased  the  amount  of  light  admitted,  by  a 
principle  which  will  be  understood  by  a  glance  at  the  diagram 
(III.  96,  Fig.  1).  Here  the  hea\y  lines  represent  a  splayed  win- 
dow in  plan,  the  dotted  lines  one  with  jambs  of  rectangular 

'  E.  g.  in  the  cathedral  at  I\Tea.  and  at  S.  Abondio  at  Como.  Strangely  enough, 
this  feature  reappears  in  the  North,  in  the  church  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres,  Paris.  That 
bell  towers  were  attached  to  churches  before  the  IX  century  we  learn  from  a  text  referring  to 
the  church  of  St.  Denis,  built  about  775,  —  "  Basilicae  fabrica  completa,  impositaque  turri,  in 
qua  signa,  ut  moris  est,  penderent  .  .  ."  —  "the  building  of  the  basilica  was  finished  and 
the  tower  placed  upon  it,  and  in  this,  as  is  the  custom,  they  hung  bells."  —  Mirac.  S.  Dionysii 
c.  15,  cit.  Schlosser. 

160 


SPLAYED   OPENINCiS 

section.  The  light  is  imagined  as  coming  at  an  angle;  the  heavy 
shading  represents  the  shadow  cast  by  the  splayed  window,  the 
light  shading  plus  the  heavy,  that  cast  by  the  window  with  rec- 
tangular jambs;  that  is,  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  light 
admitted  is  just  equal  to  the  light  shading. 


III.  96.  —  Diagram.     Piers,  Ornaments,  and  Windows 

Windows  were  also  often  single  splayed  in  Carolingian  times, 
—  that  is,  only  one,  instead  of  both  edges  were  cut  off.  The  size 
of  windows  shows  much  variation,  as  does  also  the  thickness  of 
the  wall  and  the  quality  of  masonry.  In  fact  here,  as  every- 
where in  the  period,  we  meet  with  that  baffling  divergence 
of  character  which  makes  any  general  statement  dangerous. 

If  Carolingian  construction  shows  a  lack  of  definite  tenden- 

161 


CAllOLLNGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

cies,  the  ornament  at  first  glance  seems  well-nigh  chaotic.  The 
one  thing  that  stands  out  clearly  amidst  all  the  disorder  is  the 
fact  of  Byzantine  influence.  The  groundwork  of  Carolingian, 
and  indeed  of  all  medieval,  ornament  is  unmistakably  Byzan- 
tine. To  this  basic  force  were  added  two  other  elements  — 
the  Germanic  and  the  Latin.  These  three  always  tend  to 
separate,  not  according  to  any  distinctions  of  local  schools, 
or  of  chronology,  but  in  a  fashion  quite  arbitrary.  Only  in 
the  IX  century  do  they  show  any  tendency  to  blend  into  a  com- 
mon unit,  and  even  then  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Byzantine 
ornament  underwent  decided  changes  at  the  unskilled  hands  of 
the  Carolingian  builders.  It  became  crude,  almost  childish 
by  unskilful  execution;  its  motives  were  modified  and  made 
to  take  on  a  wild,  uncouth,  barbaric  character,  as  is  shown 
by  the  reproductions  (111.  82,  83,  84)  of  some  of  the  few 
authentic  examples  of  original  Carolingian  carving  that  have 
come  down  to  us.  The  Byzantine  feeling  in  it  all  is  un- 
mistakable; indeed,  many  of  the  old  Byzantine  motives  are  yet 
clearly  recognizable,  such  as  the  rinceau,  in  its  Eastern  form, 
and  the  interlace.  Byzantine,  above  all,  is  the  stringy  charac- 
ter —  that  love  of  the  wandering,  indefinite,  and  often  awkward, 
line,  just  as  a  line,  and  the  corresponding  tendency  to  turn  every- 
thing —  leaves,  stems,  bands,  ribbons,  even  veins  —  into  mere 
lines. 

Two  distinctly  Byzantine  motives  that  came  to  acquire  great 
prominence  in  the  exterior  adornment  of  buildings  of  the  late 
Carolingian  and  subsequent  periods,  were  the  pilaster  strip  and 
arched  corbel-table  (111.  92,  97),  ornaments  used  ordinarily  in 
conjunction  with  each  other.  These  motives  are  not  found 
in  the  Byzantine  buildings  of  Constantinople,  but  were  peculiar 
to  that  group  of  Ravennese  churches  of  which  we  have  so  often 
spoken.  Originating  probably  in  decoration  by  means  of  blind 
arcades  (111.  42),  these  motives  were  fully  developed  at  Ravenna 
in  the  VI  century.  From  the  VII  until  the  IX  they  seem  not 
to  have  been  used.  After  that  date,  however,  they  were  re- 
vived in  Italy,  being  copied,  doubtless,  direct  from  Ravenna, 
and  soon  became  the  universal  and  characteristic  decoration  of 
all   Lombard    churches.     Unlike    other   Byzantine    decorations, 

162 


i  I 


>  1  ■  f=f 


m\ 


III.  i)7.  —Section  of  S.  (■.•Iso.  Milan 


h'^'^    '^S 


GER]\IANIC   ORNAMENT 

these  remained  for  a  time  primarily  (though  not  exclusively) 
Italian.  It  was  only  in  a  later  age  that  they  crossed  the  Alps, 
to  become  the  common  heritage  of  European  architecture  of 
the  XI  and  XII  centuries. 

Of  the  Germanic  or  new  elements  in  Carolingian  decoration, 
the  most  important  was  the  system  of  triangular  decoration. 
This  element  shows  itself  in  many  different  forms  at  various 
times  and  places  —  at  the  Baptistery  of  St.  Jean,  Poitiers  (111. 
81),  at  St.  Front,  Perigueux,  at  Lorsch  (111.  98),  at  St.  Gene- 
roux  (111.  99),  and  at  the  Basse  Qiuvre  of  Beauvais  (111.  96,  Fig. 
2),  etc.  A  series  of  equilateral  triangles,  forming  zigzag  lines, 
constitutes  its  basis.  These  triangles  are  sometimes  part  of  the 
masonry,  being  stones  of  different  colors  inlaid  (111.  98) ;  some- 
times they  are  triangular  arches  resting  on  pilasters  and  engaged 
in  the  wall  (111.  98) ;  or,  again,  combined  with  Byzantine  influ- 
ence, they  form  a  sort  of  triangular  interlacing  ornament.'  This 
motive  seems  to  be  distinctly  non-Italian,  but  occurs  sporad- 
ically throughout  the  North. 

Another  ornament  which  must  be  credited  to  Germanic 
origins  is  the  crocket  (111.  82).  It  never  became  very  common, 
and  was  always  confined  to  Italy.  It  is,  however,  so  similar 
to  the  Gothic  crocket,  that  the  temptation  to  trace  a  connec- 
tion between  the  two  is  strong. 

Towards  the  very  end  of  the  period,  there  appeared  in  France 
still  another  distinctly  new  motive,  or  rather  a  combination  of 
two  motives.  The  billet  moulding,  —  which  may  be  best 
understood  from  the  illustration  (111.  99)  —  began  its  long  and 
eventful  career.  In  certain  instances,  string-courses,  ornamented 
with  this  moulding,  were  arched  up  over  windows  or  other  open- 
ings (III.  99).  This  usage,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  formerly 
been  employed  in  Syria,  and  carried  almost  to  extravagance. 
Thus  we  have  another  instance  of  Syrian  anticipation  of  Western 
discoveries.  Europeans  never  carried  the  motive  to  such  lengths 
as  had  the  Syrians;  as  a  mere  arched  string-course,  however, 
we  shall  find  it  of  great  importance  in  Norman  decoration. 

Still  one  other  innovation  remains  to  be  noted.  That  is 
the  custom  of  constructing  windows  of  coupled  arches  separated 

•  As  in  the  arcliivolt  of  the  window  in  the  facade  of  the  Basse  ffiuvTe  (111.  96,  Fig.  2). 

103 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

by  a  column.  This  idea  is  specially  characteristic  of  Italian 
campaniles,  where  it  doubtless  originated.  It  is  a  motive  of 
great  charm  and  one  of  the  few  really  artistic  things  accomplished 
by  Carolingian  architecture.' 

The  great  Latin  contribution  to  Carolingian  architecture 
was  the  basilican  plan.  In  pure  ornament  Rome  contributed 
little,  save  indirectly  by  way  of  Byzantium.  Only  in  capitals 
was  the  classical  tradition  preserved,  though  in  certain  of  these, 
as  in  the  Ionic  and  Composite  orders  at  Lorsch  (111.  98),  the  Ro- 
man forms  were  reproduced  with  surprising  exactness.  In  other 
ornament,  classical  tradition  sometimes  lay  in  the  background, 
where  it  can  be  vaguely  felt,  although  it  is  impossible  to  detect 
any  specifically  Latin  form.  Sucli  domination  of  the  classic 
feeling  as  we  find  after  the  year  1000  in  the  schools  of  Provence 
or  Pisa  was,  however,  totally  unknown  to  the  Carolingian  era, 
and,  unless  we  suppose  that  all  the  classical  Carolingian  monu- 
ments have  perished  without  leaving  a  trace  of  their  existence, 
these  classical  Romanesque  schools  must  be  explained  by  sup- 
posing a  revival  of  study  of  the  antique  monuments  in  the  XI 
century. 

The  Carolingian  period  marked  the  decline  and  death  of 
the  art  of  mosaic,  that  decoration  on  which  the  Early  Christian 
and  Byzantine  buildings  had  depended  so  largely  for  their  effect. 
Charlemagne,  it  is  true,  decorated  the  dome  of  Aachen  with  a 
great  mosaic  picture,  and  about  the  same  time  others  were  made 
for  the  church  of  Germigny-les-Pres.  But  the  art  was  already 
in  its  decline,  and  after  the  IX  century  mosaics  ceased  to  be 
executed. 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  more  prominent  characteristics 
of  Carolingian  architecture  —  that  strange,  disordered,  contra- 
dictory art,  whose  bleak  winter  of  five  centuries  binds  together 
the  autumn  of  ancient  art,  and  the  sunny  springtime  of  Gothic. 

'  Coupled  arches  had  already  been  in  use  in  Byzantine  architecture,  as  in  the  triforium  of 
S.  Vitale,  where  even  tripled  arches  occur.  Indeed,  the  motive  may  almost  be  dated  back  to 
the  Pantheon,  where  the  ruches  are  separated  from  the  rotunda  by  columns  bearing  an  archi- 
trave. The  triforium  of  S.  Vitale  was  reproduced  at  Aachen,  whence  the  motive  spread  to 
Germigny-les-Pres,  Montier-en-Der,  and,  in  fact,  to  all  northern  Europe.  The  Gothic  trifo- 
rium is  thence  logically  derived.  The  Carolingians,  I  believe,  were  the  first  to  apply  the  idea  to 
windows. 

164 


ACHIEVEMENTS   OF  CAROLINGIAN  ART 

Orderly  and  consistent  progress  during  tliis  period  did  not  ex- 
ist; but  when  architecture  emerged  from  the  CaroHngian  period 
in  the  XI  century,  it  was  in  a  form  and  character  totally  differ- 
ent from  that  in  which  it  had  entered  it  in  the  VI  century.  How 
radical  this  transformation  had  been  will  be  evident  on  comparing 
the  nave  of  Montier-en-Der  (111.  100)  —  the  type  of  the  most 
highly  developed  CaroHngian  church  —  with  any  of  the  Early 
Christian  or  Byzantine  basilicas.  The  change  effected  had 
been  partly  constructive,  partly  destructive.  That  the  con- 
structive work,  although  sporadic  and  contradictory,  was  never- 
theless vital  and  availing,  has  already  been  shown;  but  the  great 
mission  of  CaroHngian  architecture  was  not  creation  but  de- 
struction. 

Five  centuries  of  barbarism  are  the  only  conceivable  force 
that  could  have  had  the  power  to  free  Western  architecture 
from  the  trammels  of  Roman  formula  —  that  colossus  that  had 
bestridden  the  civilized  world  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  North 
Sea,  and  had  fastened  its  iron  heel  upon  all  the  West.  How 
impossible  it  is  for  a  civilized  people  to  free  itself  from  the  Ro- 
man architectural  influence,  is  proved  by  the  persistence  with 
which  even  the  dead  bones  of  Roman  ornament,  dug  up  in  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance,  have  ever  since  been  the  skeleton  at 
the  feast  of  Western  art.  It  was  only  by  means  of  the  forget- 
fulness  of  the  Dark  Ages  that  the  art  of  the  succeeding  centu- 
ries was  free  to  cut  itself  loose  from  the  classical  canons,  and 
develop  into  new  and  untrammeled  forms.  This  was  the  first 
great  work  of  the  CaroHngian  era. 

The  second  great  work  was  the  using  up  of  all  the  available 
classic  materials.  Much  as  we  regret  the  destruction  of  ancient 
monuments,  so  long  as  this  had  to  be  done,  the  sooner  it  was 
over  with,  the  better.  As  long  as  buildings  continued  to  be 
built  of  second-hand  pilfered  materials,  the  best  kind  of  progress 
in  technique  and  construction,  as  welt  as  complete  emancipa- 
tion from  classical  forms,  was  impossible.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  CaroHngian  period  the  exhaustion  of  ancient  materials 
had  everywhere  become  fairly  complete.  This  exhaustion  was 
felt  later,  naturally  enough,  in  localities  where  classical  remains 
were  specially  abundant.     But  when  it  came  —  and  sooner  or 

105 


CAROLINGIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

later  it  always  had  to  come  —  it  forced  a  great  change  in  the 
basilican  j^lan.  For  columns,  which  the  Carolingian  builders 
had  not  the  skill  to  cut,  piers  '  had  to  be  substituted.  In  Syria 
piers  had  been  employed  as  early  as  the  IV  century;  in  other 
localities  columns  continued  in  use  up  to  the  end  of  the  Caro- 
lingian era.  But  after  the  X  century  the  supply  of  classical 
materials  had  been  used  up  everywhere  in  the  North;  we  shall 
deal  no  more  with  the  columnar  basilica.  And  the  pier  is  the 
starting  point  of  Gothic  architecture. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  Carolingian  epoch  draws  to  a  close  in 
different  countries  at  different  times.  The  magical  year  1000, 
as  is  now  known,  had  little  terror  for  the  medieval  mind.  So 
far  from  there  being  universal  stagnation  before  this  date,  and 
universal  activity  afterwards,  as  historians  of  the  old  school 
used  to  picture,  there  was  much  activity  before  and  much  stag- 
nation after.  From  the  middle  of  the  X  to  the  middle  of  the  XI 
century,  there  is  a  steady  crescendo  in  the  course  of  architectural 
advance,  a  crescendo  interrupted  by  no  special  spurt  to  mark 
relief  that  the  world  had  safely  passed  the  millennium.  Indeed, 
the  fear  of  impending  calamity  seems  to  have  influenced  the 
medieval  mind  about  the  year  1000  scarcely  more  than  at  any 
other  time. 

But,  nevertheless,  by  a  singular  coincidence,  the  change  from 
Carolingian  inactivity  to  XI  century  progress  —  i.e.,  the  forma- 
tion of  the  national  styles  —  did  take  place  throughout  Europe 
at  about  this  epoch.  Like  all  historical  changes,  this  was  grad- 
ual, unconscious;  it  is  impossible  to  find  the  hair  line  which 
divides  the  old  from  the  new.  Moreover,  this  change  took  place 
at  different  times  in  different  localities,  earlier  in  Lombardy 
and  Germany,  later  in  the  He  de  France  and  Normandy.  And 
yet,  if  we  are  to  select  an  arbitrary  date  for  the  end  of  the  Caro- 

'  A  pier  differs  from  a  column  in  that  it  consists  of  masonry  built  into  the  form  of  a  support- 
ing member,  while  a  column  is  either  a  monolith  or  consists  of  superimposed  drums.  Thus  a 
pier  always  contains  vertical  joints;  a  column  either  no  joints  at  all  or  only  horizonfal  joints.  Col- 
umns are  ordinarily  circular  in  section;  piers,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  often  square,  rec- 
tangular, or  of  some  complicated  form.  For  a  jjiven  area  of  section  a  column  is  probably  stronger 
than  a  pier;  but  the  size  of  a  pier  can  be  increased  so  that  it  may  be  made  large  enough  to  sup- 
port any  load.  For  this  reason,  in  the  circular  Byzantine  churches  it  had  been  the  custom 
to  support  the  dome  on  piers,  while  for  the  intermediate,  hghter  supports,  columns  were 
used. 

166 


I3B 


,.jM!jV>'j',  t ''» I  f'.V  ir±i 


•"  -  ■■;^^ 'vi^^ 


llA..  !)!).  —  Detail  of  Exterior  Clearstory  of  St.  Geiieroux.     (P'roiii  Arch.  Je  la  Com.  iles  Moii.  Hist.) 


RISE   OF  LOMBARD   ARCHITECTURE 

lino;ian  period,  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  take  the  year 
lOUO. 

If  this  date  be  agreed  upon  as  marking  the  end  of  the  Caro- 
hngian  style,  it  must  be  clearly  recognized  that  we  include  in 
that  style  a  considerable  number  of  monuments  in  Germany 
and  Lombardy  that  belong  rather  with  the  succeeding  age. 
Those  in  Germany  need  trouble  us  little  in  the  present  connec- 
tion. Of  those  in  Lombardy,  I  shall  end  this  chapter  with  a 
brief  description. 

This  Lombard  style,  the  earliest  of  the  national  movements 
in  architecture,  first  came  to  assume  form,  in  a  very  hesitating 
manner,  as  early  as  the  IX  century.  It  adopted  as  its  own  cer- 
tain Carolingian  features  that  we  have  already  studied.  The 
pilaster  strip  and  the  arched  corbel-table,  used  as  exterior  orna- 
ment, especially  on  the  apse,  became  its  earliest,  as  they  were  ever 
to  remain  its  most  distinctive,  decorations.  The  characteristic 
structural  features  adopted  were  the  crypt  and  the  raised  choir. 

In  the  X  century  began  a  most  important  progress.  We 
have  seen  that  by  this  time  columns  had  almost  entirely  given 
way  to  piers.  Before  this,  piers  had  been  almost  without  excep- 
tion either  square  or  rectangular  in  section  (111.  101,  Fig.  2);  at 
most,  the  edges  had  been  slightly  chamfered  off  '■  with  a  purely 
decorative  purpose.  Now%  in  the  church  of  S.  Eustorgio,  Milan 
—  a  monument  whose  precise  date  is  unfortunately  unknown, 
but  which  was  undoubtedly  constructed  in  the  last  years  of  the 
IX  or  early  X  century  -  —  we  find  a  series  of  transverse  arches 
thrown  across  the  side  aisles  (111.  101,  Fig.  3).  There  seems  to 
have  been  no  idea  of  a  vault  in  the  construction  of  these  arches; 
as  nearly  as  we  can  judge,  they  were  erected  partly  for  decora- 
tion, partly  to  steady  the  clearstory  walls.  A  long  straight  wall 
is  obviously  less  substantial  than  one  strengthened  at  intervals 
by  walls  placed  at  right  angles  to  it. 

Now  these  arches  created  a  difficulty  in  the  piers,  for  the 
old  square  piers  had  been  entirely  occupied  l)y  the  main  arcade, 
and  offered  no  support  to  this  new  arch.     This  difficulty  was 

•  As  in  the  Basse  CEu\Te  of  Beauvais  (which  is,  liowever,  a  later  monument  of  France). 
^  See  List  of  Monuments,  p.  175.     Some  remains  of  this  primitive  structure  exist  in  the 
present  clmrcli. 

167 


CAROLLNGIAN  ARCHITECTUEE 

met  by  building  a  special  spur  against  the  pier  to  receive 
the  arch,  thus  giving  the  pier  a  "T-shaped"  section  (111.  96, 
Fig.  4),  instead  of  the  old  rectangular  section  (111.  96,  Fig.  3). 
The  main  arcades  would  rest  (it  is  understood)  on  the  opposite 
arms  of  the  "T,"  the  transverse  arch  on  its  tail. 

The  next  step,  although  it  cannot  be  verified  from  existing 
monuments,  is  easy  to  supply.  It  wpuld  occur  to  the  architects 
that  this  "T"  section  was  unnecessarily  angular,  and  that  it 
could  be  improved  by  substituting  for  the  rectangular  tail  of 
the  "T"  a  semicircular  member,  like  an  engaged  column. 
This  would  serve  the  purpose  of  providing  a  support  for  the  trans- 
verse arch  equally  well,  and  be  much  less  cumbrous  and  bulky. 
This  change  carried  out  would  give  the  section  shown  in  111.  96, 
Fig.  5. 

One  further  advance  was  made  before  the  year  1000,  in  the 
church  of  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato,  at  Vicenza  (985  a.d.).  The 
transverse  arches  which  had  proved  so  successful  in  the  side 
aisles  were  here  applied  to  the  nave.  This  innovation  heightened 
the  impressiveness  of  the  interior  of  the  church,  for  it  practi- 
cally amounted  to  repeating  many  times  the  triumphal  arch, 
always  one  of  the  most  decorative  features  of  the  basilica.  Struc- 
turally it  stiffened  materially  the  clearstory  walls,  and  tied  the 
church  together  into  an  organic  unity.     (111.  101,  Fig.  4.) 

It  was  more  difficult  to  provide  supports  for  these  trans- 
verse arches  across  the  nave  than  for  the  transverse  arches 
across  the  aisles.  The  springing  of  the  former  was  near  the 
clearstory  level.  Consequently  their  supports  must  rise  from 
the  ground  to  a  height  much  greater  than  that  at  which  the  pier 
capitals  were  situated.  Analogy  with  the  supports  that  had 
already  been  devised  to  support  the  transverse  arches  of  the  aisle 
naturally  suggested  that  a  similar  half  column  be  added  to  the 
pier  on  the  side  of  the  nave,  and  boldly  continued  up  beyond 
the  capital  along  the  clearstory  wall,  until  it  reached  the  level 
of  the  springing  of  the  transverse  arch. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  the  compound  pier,  and  its  signifi- 
cance cannot  be  too  much  emphasized.  The  section  of  a  pier 
of  the  type  of  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato  is  shown  in  111.  96,  Fig.  6, 
and  the  elevation  in  111.  97.     It  is  obvious  that  the  two  semi- 

1C8 


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feast 


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"_i»SKP3_: 


•^^^i( 


THE  ALTERNATE  SYSTEM 

columns  added  to  the  old  pier  will  cause  some  difficulty  with 
its  capital.  On  the  side  of  the  aisle,  where  the  transverse  arch 
sprang  from  the  same  height  as  the  arches  of  the  main  arcade,  it 
was  reasonable  to  continue  the  capital  of  the  pier,  like  a  string- 
course, around  the  member  of  the  pier  which  supported  this 
transverse  arch.  This  device,  known  as  a  running  capital,  was 
henceforth  adopted  in  Romanesque  and  Gothic  architecture. 
It  is  a  logical  and  satisfactory  solution.  On  the  side  of  the  nave, 
however,  the  problem  was  by  no  means  as  easy.  The  engaged 
column,  or  shaft  —  to  give  it  its  proper  name  —  obviously  re- 
quired a  caj)ital  where  it  received  the  transverse  arch.  Should 
it  be  given  a  second  capital  by  continuing  around  it  the  running 
capital  of  the  main  arcade,  or  should  it  cut  across  this  ?  Both 
plans  were  tried  at  various  times,  and  we  shall  study  in  a  later 
chapter  the  solutions  that  were  finally  found  for  this  problem. 

The  innovations  introduced  at  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato  did 
not  end  with  the  compound  pier,  running  capital,  and  transverse 
arch.  The  architect  had  evidently  found  it  undesirable  to 
spring  a  transverse  arch  from  every  pier.  Arches  of  such  size 
were  more  efl'ective  from  a  decorative  standpoint  if  placed  fur- 
ther apart;  consequently  they  were  sprung  ojily  from  every  other 
pier  (111.  101,  Fig.  4).  The  transverse  arches  across  the  aisles 
were  also  sprung  only  from  alternate  piers,  for  the  sake  of  sym- 
metry. Consequently  in  the  intermediate  piers  where  there 
were  no  transverse  arches  to  support,  there  was  no  need  of  a 
compound  pier.  Here,  therefore,  the  old  simple  pier  was  used, 
and,  as  having  less  w^  eight  to  carry  than  the  compound  pier,  was 
made  much  lighter.  Hence  arose  the  alternate  system  of  com- 
pound piers  and  light  supports,  a  system  full  of  consequences 
for  the  future.' 

Now,   since  the  aisles  of  a  basilica  were  commonly  about 

'  It  seems  altogether  probable  that  this  entire  course  of  tlevelopment  was  worked  out  inde- 
pendently by  the  Lombard  builders.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  a  number  of  these  ad- 
vances seem  to  have  been  foreshadowed  in  the  East  in  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  times. 
Compound  piers  and  transverse  arches  both  occur  frequently  in  the  churches  of  the  Hauran, 
Syria.  In  Hagia  Sophia  transverse  arches  were  sprung  over  each  bay  of  the  aisles,  and  this 
same  construction  is  also  found  in  the  ancient  cisterns  of  Constantinople.  In  both  these  instances 
tlie  roofing  was  completed  by  means  of  domical  groin  vaults  with  semicircular  groined  arches 
and  raise<l  crowns.  (Moore,  Gotliir  Architecture,  pp.  3^Z,  37.)  At  Sta.  Prasseda  in  Rome  there 
are  transverse  arches  antedating  any  in  tlie  I^onibard  school. 

I(i9 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

half  as  wide  as  the  nave,  and  since  the  arches  of  the  main  ar- 
cades were  about  as  wide  as  the  transverse  arches  across  these 
aisles,  a  little  calculation  will  show  that  the  great  transverse 
arches  divided  the  nave  into  nearly  square  compartments.  The 
reader  has  long  ago  guessed  that  these  compartments  were  ex- 
actly fitted  to  contain  a  groin  vault.  But  this  never  seems  to 
have  been  actually  added  before  the  year  1000. 

One  final  innovation  in  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato  remains  to 
be  noted,  and  that  is  the  use  of  the  grij]e  in  the  bases  of  the  piers. 
During  the  Carolingian  period  we  have  said  little  of  the  profiles 
of  mouldings;  in  the  main  they  remained  too  debased  and 
rude  to  be  worth  study.  Generally  speakiag,  however,  the 
Attic  type  of  base  had  persisted,  with  its  roimd  torus  or  square 
plinth.  This  transition  from  round  to  square  is  somewhat 
harsh;  and  at  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato  it  was  eased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  griffe  or  claw,  projecting  from  the  torus  and  filling  the 
corner  of  the  plinth.  These  grifi^es  later  became  characteris- 
tic of  Gothic  art. 

After  this  glance  at  its  beginnings  so  full  of  promise,  let  us 
now  turn  to  the  study  of  the  fully-developed  style  of  the  Lom- 
bard Romanesque. 

CAROLINGIAN    MONUMENTS 

Monuments  of  the  First  Class 

AACHEN.  (Aix-la-Chapelle),  Rheinland,  Germany.  Dom.~l\\.  85,  86  — 
("Palatine  Chapel,"  " Palastkapelle,"  "Miinster,"  "Liebfrauenkapelle").  Of  the 
many  texts  relating  to  the  construction  of  this  famous  edifice,  I  translate  several  of  the 
more  important.  "^Tiile  he  was  detaining  the  said  Flaviacus  by  entreaties  and 
benefits,  the  latter  was  appointed  by  the  king  superintendent  of  the  roval  works  in 
the  palace  at  Aachen  under  Abbot  Eginhard,  a  man  in  everything  most  learned.  .  .  ." ' 
—  "To  Gerward,  librarian  of  the  palace,  the  king  at  that  time  had  entrusted  the 
work  of  building  the  palace.  .  .  .'"- — "Where  second  Rome,  in  her  mighty  new 
flower,  rises  great  aloft,  .  .  .  some  build  well  the  temple  lovely  with  its  mighty  mass, 

'  .  .  .  dum  pra?dictum  Fla\iacum  iure  precarii  ac  beneficii  teneret,  etiam  exactor  operura 
regalium  in  Aquisgrani  palatio  regie  sub  Einhardo  abbate,  \{to  undecimque  doctissimo  a  dom- 
ino rege  constitutus  est.  —  Gesta  abb.  Fontanell.  c.  17,  cit.  Schlosser,  8. 

'  Gerwardus  palatii  bibliothecarius,  cui  tunc  temporis  etiam  palatinonim  operum  ac  struc- 
tuarum  a  rege  cura  coTomissa  erat  ...  —  Einharti,  Translatio  S.  Marcellini  et  Petri  iv,  8,  cit. 
Schlosser,  9. 

170 


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AACHEN 

the  fcmple  of  the  eternal  king.  .  .  ."  '  —  "[Charlemagne]  .  .  .  undertook  many 
works  for  the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  his  kingdom  in  various  places, 
which  works,  indeed,  he  also  carried  to  completion.  Especially  worthy  among.st 
these  may  be  seen  the  basilica  of  St.  Mary,  Mother  of  God,  at  Aachen,  constructed 
with  wonderful  art."  "'  —  "...  He  [Charlemagne]  built  the  basilica  at  Aachen  with 
the  greatest  beauty  and  adorned  it  with  gold  and  silver  candelabra,-  arid  choir- screens," 
and  doors  '  of  solid  bronze.  Since  he  could  not  obtain  elsewhere  columns  and  marbles 
for  this  building,  he  had  them  sent  from  Rome  and  Ravenna."  ^  —  "When  the  most 
strenuous  emperor  Charlemagne  ^  could  have  rest,  he  chose,  not  slothful  ease,  but  to 
sweat  in  the  service  of  God.  Thus  he  rejoiced  at  his  vow  to  build  on  his  native  soil 
a  basilica  surpassing  the  ancient  works  of  the  Romans,  and  undertook  personally 
the  management  of  this  construction,  becoming  him.self,  in  short,  one  of  the  laborers. 
And  for  this  building  he  summoned  from  all  the  countries  this  side  of  the  sea  builders 
and  workmen  skilled  in  the  arts."  °  —  "For  [in  the  year  796]  he  [Charlemagne]  founded 
his  residence  [at  Aachen]  and  there  he  built  a  church  of  wonderful  size,  whose  doors 
and  choir-screens  he  made  of  bronze.  .  .  ."  '  —  "Pope  Leo  [III]  wintered  at  Aachen 
and  there  [in  804]  he  consecrated  with  great  solemnity  the  church  built  by  Charle- 
magne in  honor  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin  Mary."  '  These  passages  from  authors  either 
contemporary  or  nearly  so,  reinforced  by  many  others,'  establish  bej'ond  the  possibil- 

'  .  .  .  ubi  Roma  secunda 

Flore  novo  ingenti,  magna  consurgit  ad  alta   .   .   . 

Et  a^terni  lioc  alii  bene  regis  amoenum 

Construere  ingenti  templum  molimine  certant. 
—  Angilberli,  Carmen  de  Karolo  Magna  iii,  94,  cit.  Schlosser,  25. 

^  [Karolus]  .  .  .  opera  tamcn  plurima  ad  regni  decorem  et  commoditatem  pertinenta  di- 
versis  in  locis  inchoavit,  quadam  etiam  consumnia\'it.  Inter  qua  pnccipua  non  immerito  vid- 
eri  potest  basilica  Dei  gen.  Marise  Aquisgrani  opere  mirabile  constructa.  —  Einharti,  Vtia 
Karoli,  c.  17,  cit.  Sdilosser,  io. 

'  These  are  still  preserved. 

*  .  .  .  plurimiB  pulchritudinis  basilicam  Aquisgrani  extruxit  auroque  et  argento  et  lumin- 
aribus  atque  ex  a?re  solido  cancellis  et  ianuis  adornavit.  Ad  cuius  structuram,  cum  colunmas 
et  marmora  aliunde  habere  non  posset,  Roma  atque  Ravenna  devehenda  curavit  ...  —  Ein- 
harti, Vita  Karoli,  c.  26,  cit.  Schlosser,  26.  See  also  Chron.  Magnum  Belgicum,  p.  44,  cit. 
Sclilosser,  26. 

^  C'f.  also  Poeta  Saxo,  431  f.  cit.  Schlosser,  26;  Tituli  sa;c.  ix,  no.  iii.  Versus  in  aula 
ecclesiw  in  Aquiis  palatio.  Men.  Germ.  Poet.  Lat..  432,  cit.  Schlosser,  28;  Thegani,  c.  6, 
cit.  Schlosser,  28. 

"  Cum  strenuissimus  imperator  Karolus  aliquam  requiem  habere  potuit,  non  ocio  torpore, 
sed  divinis  servitiis  voluit  insudare,  jideo  ut,  in  genitali  solo,  basilicam  antiquis  Romanorum 
operihns  pra?stantiorem  fabricare,  propria  dispositione  molitus  in  bre\'i  se  compotem  voti  sui 
gavuierat.  .\d  cuius  fabricam  de  oinnil)Us  cisniarinis  regionibus  magistros  et  opifices  omnium 
id  geiuis  artium  advocaWt    .  .  .  — Monach.     Sangall.    ,1,  c.  27,  cit.  Schlosser,  28. 

'  Nam  ibi  firmaverat  sedem  suam  atque  ibi  fabrieavit  ecelesiam  mirse  magnitudinis,  cuius 
portas  et  cancellos  fecit  serea.  —  Chron.  Moissiacense  a.  796,  cit.  Schlosser,  28. 

'  Leo  papa  hyema\-it  AquLsgrani,  et  ibidem  ecelesiam  a  Karolo  constructam  in  honore  b. 
Mariie  virginis  cum  magna  solenipnitate  consecravit.  — Ann.  Tielienses  a.  804,  cit.  Schlosser, 
28. 

^  E.  g.  Infra  capella  .scriptum  M.ss.  bibl.  cses.  Vindolboa  909;  Theol.  354,  fol.  556, 
stec.  X;  Einharti  Vila  Karoli  ed.  Jaffe,  p.  51,  cit.  Schlosser,  28. 

171 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

ity  of  doubt  the  fact  that  the  chapel  at  Aachen  was  constructed  by  Charlemagne 
in  the  years  796-804.  For  the  rest  the  building  has  happily  preserved  through 
later  vicissitudes  its  primitive  forms.  In  829  the  roof  was  blown  off  by  a  severe  wind- 
storm; '  but  the  vault  seems  not  to  have  been  injured.  Slightly  before,  in  813,  during 
the  mass  on  Ascension  day,  a  wooden  portico  before  the  church  had  collapsed,^  bury- 
ing over  twenty  men  in  its  fall.'  The  edifice  was  restored  by  Louis  the  German 
about  870. ■"  Burned  by  the  Danes  only  twelve  years  later  ^  (882),  its  fire-proof  vaults 
seem  to  have  defied  the  flames.  Other  fires  followed  in  1224,  1366,°  and  1665;  but 
through  all  the  venerable  chapel  seems  to  have  preserved  its  original  dispositions. 
In  plan  it  is  undoubtedly  an  imitation  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna,  but  an  imitation  with 
so  many  points  of  difference  that  now  the  mosaics  of  Aachen  are  lost,  the  two  buildings 
produce  on  the  spectator  an  entirely  different  impression.  At  Aachen  the  niches 
between  the  bays  —  so  striking  a  characteristic  of  S.  Vitale  —  are  omitted.  As  a 
consequence  the  complicated  vaulting  employed  in  the  aisles  of  the  church  at  Ravenna 
became  unnecessary.  On  the  ground  story,  by  doubling  the  number  of  sides  of  the 
external  wall,  the  builders  of  Aachen  found  it  possible  to  divide  the  aisle  roof  into  a 
series  of  alternately  square  and  triangular  compartments  by  transverse  arches.  These 
compartments  were  then  easily  covered  with  groin  vaults.  In  the  triforium  gallery 
the  rectangular  compartments  are  vaulted  with  a  series  of  barrel  vaults,  whose  axes 
are  normal  to  the  radii  of  the  central  octagon,  but  slope  down  outwards.  The  build- 
ing is  constructed  largely  of  pilfered  materials,  and  contains  almost  no  original 
carving.  The  capitals  have  entablature  blocks.  The  nave  is  roofed  with  a  cloistered 
vault. 

Monuments  of  the  Second  Class 
MILAN,  Lombardy,  Italy.  S.  Ambrogio  (111.  92,  94,  106,  107,  108,  116,  119) 
is  probably  the  most  discussed,  and  the  least  understood,  church  in  Europe.  The 
question  of  date  has  been  much  confused  by  an  epitaph  still  extant  in  the  church, 
which  I  translate  in  full:  "Here  lies  Ansperto,  the  illustrious  archbishop  of  our  city; 
by  his  life,  by  his  voice,  by  his  shame,  by  his  faith,  a  follower  of  justice;  a  giver  of  alms 
to  the  needy  populace;  faithful  to  his  vow  and  to  his  word;  he  restored  upon  request 
the  destroyed  walls  of  the  city  confided  to  his  care;  he  gave  back  the  house  of  Stilico; 
he  rebuilt  many  sacred  buildings  with  much  labor;  be  built  the  neighboring  atrium 
and  the  doors  before  it;'  then  he  dedicated  to  S.  Satiro  a  temple  and  a  sanctuary, 
giving  all  his  own  fields  for  the  holy  place,  to  maintain  forever  eight  monks,  who  might 
pray  to  Ambrogio  and  Satiro  in  his  behalf.  He  died,  in  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of 
our  Lord  882,'  on  the  7th  day  of  the  month  of  December,  the  15th  indiction.     He 

*  Annalista  Saxo  a.  829,  cit.  Schlosser,  29;  Astronomus,  c.  43;  Einharti,  Vita  Karoli,  c.  32. 

^Einharti,  Vita  Karoli,  c.  32.  'Einharti,  Annates  a.  817. 

*  Ludwig  II  der  Deutsche,  Uricunde  fiir  Priim.  870,  Oct.  17.  M.  1440.  cit.  Schlosser,  34. 

^Ann.  Vedastini,  882,  cit.  Schlosser,  35.  i^  Surigny,  792. 

'  This  all-important  line  is  written  in  such  barbarous  Latin  that  its  interpretation  must  re- 
main doubtful.  Alternative  translations  are:  "  he  built  the  atrium,  but  first  he  built  the  doors," 
taking  ante  in  the  sense  of  antea,  or — "he  built  the  atrium  and  the  neighboring  doors  before  it," 
—  or,  as  Cattaneo  suggests,  "he  built  the  atrium  before  the  doors  near  to  his  tomb." 

*  i.e.,  881. 

172 


MILAN 

ruled  his  bishopric  I.')  years  5  months  12  days;  the  priest  Andrea,  moved  with  love 
for  this  bishop,  adorned  witli  tiiis  work  his  tomb."  '  "He  built  the  nekjhboring  atrium 
and  the  doors  before  it."  This  passage  has  been  taken,  and  is  still  taken,  by  many  Italian 
archipologists  to  prove  that  the  present  atrium  of  S.  Ambrogio  dates  from  the  IX  cen- 
tury. Sig.  Cattaneo  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  inconclusivene.ss  of  this  argument, 
remarking  that  (1)  the  meaning  of  the  text  itself  is  doubtful,  (2)  that  the  tablet  bear- 
ing the  epitaph  might  have  been  later  brought  to  S.  Ambrogio  from  another  building 
and  hence  not  refer  to  our  atrium  at  all,  (IJ)  that  even  supposing  Ansperto  had  built 
an  atrium  to  S.  Ambrogio,  it  is  not  at  all  impossible  this  atrium  might  have  been  re- 
built later.  Now  let  alone  the  question  of  the  ribbed  vault,  the  decoration  of  the 
atrium,  so  far  from  being  a  work  of  the  IX  century,  is  clearly  analogous  to  the  orna- 
ment executed  in  Lombardy  in  the  XII  century.  Rejecting,  therefore,  the  entire 
argument  of  the  old  school  critics,  who  argued  back  from  the  atrium  supposedly  of 
the  IX  century,  that  the  rest  of  the  church  must  be  even  older,  Sig.  Cattaneo  on  a 
study  of  internal  evidence  assigned  the  different  portions  of  the  edifice  to  the  following 
periods.  The  three  apses  and  the  choir  he  believes  the  work,  if  not  of  Ansperto,  at 
least  of  the  IX  century;  in  the  exterior  corbel-tables,  copied  from  the  buildings  of 
Ravenna,  he  sees  the  beginning  of  a  very  important  Lombard  decoration.  The  pali- 
otto  of  the  great  altar  he  believes  the  work  of  Anghilberto,  bishop  from  824  to  859; 
of  the  ciborium  only  the  capitals  are  of  the  IX  century,  the  rib  vault  being  later.  The 
mosaics  of  the  apse  he  assigns  to  the  XI  or  XII  century.  He  believes  that  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  XI  century,  or  more  specifically  during  the  pontificate  of  Guido  (1046- 
71),"  the  old  columnar  nave  was  transformed  into  a  nave  with  piers  and  vault:  that 
in  the  beginning  of  the  XII  century  the  present  atrium  was  built,  slightly  before  the 
new  campanile,  which  is  known  to  date  from  1129.  In  119()  repairs  were  in  progress 
on  the  vaults  of  the  nave,  which  had  fallen  in.  It  has  been  contended  that  the  vaults 
were  at  this  time  rebuilt  on  the  rib-system  imported  from  France;  but  while  there  is 
nothing  to  prove  absolutely  that  the  vaults  of  the  XI   century  were  supplied   with 

'  Hie  iacet  Anspertus  nostne  clarissimus  urbis 

antistes;  \ita,  voce,  pudore,  fide, 
Jikjui  sectator;  turbae  prailargus  egeiise, 

effector  voti,  propositique  teiiax. 
Moenia  sollicitiis  conimissa!  reddidit  urbi 

diruta  —  restituit  de  Stilicone  domum. 
Quot  sacras  aedes  quaiito  sudore  refecit, 

atria  ficitias  struxit  et  ante  fores. 
Tum  sancto  Satyro  templumque  doniunique  dica\it, 

dans  sua  sacrato  predia  cuncta  loco, 
Ut  monaclios  pascant  seterius  octo  diebus, 

Ai7il)rosium  pro  se  qui  Satyrumque  ropcnt. 
Obiit  anno  incarnationis  domini  DCCCLXXXII, 

septiino  idus  decembris,  iiulictione  XV. 
Rexit  episcopatum  suum  aiinis  XIII  iiiensibus  V  diebus  XII. 

Presulis  Andreas  prefati  captus  amore. 
Hoc  Iae\ita  sibi  condecoravit  opus. 
'  Rivoira. 

173 


C.\ROLINGL\N   MONUMENTS 

ribs,  it  is  unlikely  the  entire  nave  was  remodeled  in  1196,  since  the  new  vaults 
were  in  all  probability  reconstructed  on  the  lines  of  those  erected  in  the  last  half  of 
the  XI  century.  All  this  does  not  lessen  in  the  slightest  degree  the  extraordinary 
interest  attaching  to  S.  Ambrogio,  and  especially  to  its  IX  century  east  end,  which 
offers  not  only  the  protot\-pe  of  Lombard  architecture,  but  the  earliest  known 
instance  of  a  lengthened  choir. 

Chiesa  d'Aurona.  The  remains  of  this  church,  excavated  in  1869  and  now  col- 
lected in  the  Brcra  iMuseum,  are  among  the  most  precious  monuments  of  Carolingian 
architecture  that  have  come  down  to  us.  An  inscription  '  on  one  of  the  capitals 
records  that,  "Here  rests  Theodore  the  archbishop  who  unjustly  was  condemned." 
This  Theodore  is  doubtless  none  other  than  the  archbishop  who,  as  is  known  from 
the  Milanese  chroniclers,  was  bitterly  hated  and  persecuted  by  the  Lombard  king 
Ariperto,  but  who  was  afterwards  restored  to  favor  by  Luitprand.  This  bishop  died 
in  739,  and  hence  the  fragments  of  the  Chiesa  d'Aurona  have  been  held  to  date  from 
the  VIII  century.  Sig.  Cattaneo  ^  seriously  questions  this  view.  "  Who  does  not 
see,"  he  writes,  "  that  this  inscription  can  only  be  a  simple  indication  of  the  existence 
of  the  tomb  of  Theodore  in  this  church,  or  underneath  the  capital,  and  that  by  'here' 
(hie)  must  be  understood  '  in  this  church '  or  '  in  this  place ' .'  And  if  all  this  cannot 
be  denied,  who  can  ever  afSrm  that  the  inscription  and  with  it  the  capital  must  have 
been  made  in  the  VIII  century?"  And,  in  fact,  the  style  of  this  capital  and  of  sev- 
eral others  clearly  shows  the  work  of  the  last  years  of  the  XI  century.  But  certain 
other  fragments,  differing  widely  from  these,  seem  without  doubt  to  be  remains  of 
the  VIII  century  church,  rebuilt  in  1099. 

S.  Saliro.  The  epitaph  of  Ansperto  quoted  above  (p.  173)  states  that  that  bishop 
"dedicated  a  temple  and  sanctuary  to  S.  Satiro."  The  present  church  despite  Renais- 
sance mutilations  preserves  to  us  considerable  portions  of  this  ^'III  century  edifice. 
The  monument,  which  is  of  the  circular  type,  although  much  varieti  from  Early 
Christian  and  Byzantine  models,  consists  of  a  nave  of  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross 
inscribed  in  a  square  by  means  of  four  columns  placed  in  the  corners.  Three  arms 
of  the  cross  terminate  in  semicircular  apses.  The  nave  is  at  present  covered  with  a 
modern  dome,  so  that  the  original  dispositions  cannot  be  traced;  it  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  Carolingian  edifice  was  vaulted  throughout,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  familiar  at  Germigny-les-Pres.  The  campanile  is  assigned  to  the  IX  century 
on  its  style.      (Cattaneo.) 

S.  Vuicenzo  in  Prato.  A  tradition  handed  down  to  us  by  the  late  Milanese  chron- 
iclers, Benvenuto  da  Quiola,  Torre,  and  Castiglioni,  affirms  that  this  church  was 
founded  by  Desiderius,  the  last  king  of  the  Lombards,  in  780. ^  In  the  present  church, 
however,  Sig.  Cattaneo  —  and  in  this  he  has  generally  been  followed  by  later  writers 
—  saw  evidence  of  a  style  somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Lombard  domination, 
"without  denying  that  the  work  may  have  had  its  beginnings  in  the  more  modest 

'  Hie  requiescit  t  dominus  Theodorus  archiep[iscopus]  qui  iniuste  fuit  damnatus. 
2  Sig.  Mongeri  had  also  assigned  the  capitals  to  1099. 

'  Desiderius  died  in  774;  it  is  consequently  difficult  to  understand  how  he  could  have  founded 
a  church  in  780. 

174 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  SECOND   CLASS 

structure  of  Desiderius:  —  so  much  the  more  so,  that  we  can  recognize  traces  of  the 
style  of  the  VIII  century  in  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  nave."  '  In  fact  it  is  known 
that  a  monastery  was  here  founded  in  814,  and  that  this  monastery  was  subsequently 
enlarged  in  838:  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  earliest  portions  of  the  present  church 
were  erected  at  the  latter  date.  The  edifice  has  a  basilican  plan,  the  three  aisles  being 
separated  by  sixteen  columns  bearing  arches,  and  terminating  in  three  apses.  The 
facade  is  absolutely  plain,  as  are  all  the  exterior  walls,  save  only  those  of  the  apse 
which  are  decorated  with  arched  corbel-tables.  The  interior  columns  are  largely 
pilfered.     The  presbytery  is  raised.     (Cattaneo;  Rivoira.) 

S.  Eitstorgio.  This  church  is  interesting  as  representing  the  first  step  in  the  trans- 
ition from  the  monolithic  columns  or  square  piers  of  the  early  Christian  style,  to  the 
compound  piers  of  the  later  Romanesque.  Of  the  primitive  church  of  S.  Eustorgio, 
founded  in  the  IV  century,  nothing  remains.  The  apse  is  evidently  the  oldest  part 
of  the  present  structure,  and  may  be  assigned  to  the  end  of  the  IX  or  early  X  century; 
the  rest  of  the  edifice  has  obviously  been  rebuilt  in  the  centuries  following  the  year  1000 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  easternmost  arcades  of  the  nave,  which  with  their  piers 
seem  to  be  contemporary  with  the  apse.  These  piers  were  encased  in  compoimd 
piers  in  the  Lombard  reconstruction;  but  in  1869,  in  the  course  of  restorations,  the 
old  piers  were  brought  to  light.  From  a  study  of  these  it  becomes  evident  that 
in  the  basilica  of  the  X  century  tlie  aisles  were  separated  by  piers  instead  of  by  col- 
umns, and  that  these  piers,  instead  of  being  square  in  section,  were  T-shaped.  It 
is  probable,  consequently,  that  in  addition  to  the  main  arcade  of  the  nave  they  sup- 
ported transverse  arches  thrown  across  the  aisles.     (Cattaneo.) 

S.  Ceho  (111.  97,  102)  was  built  by  Landolfo  shortly  after  988,  but  was  subse- 
quently remodeled  in  the  Lombard  style.  Of  the  original  building  only  the  apse, 
with  the  usual  arched  corbel- tables,  remains.     (Cattaneo.) 

S.  Simpliciano.  S.  Simpliciano,  bishop  of  Milan  and  successor  of  S.  Ambrogio, 
seems  to  have  been  buried  in  a  primitive  church  existing  on  this  site.  In  the  IX  cen- 
tury this  church  was  reconstructed,  and  it  has  been  subsec)uently  many  times  restored. 
The  central  portal  of  the  present  facade  is  said  to  be  part  of  the  IX  century  building 
(?).     (Marini,  52.) 

GERMIGNY-LES-PRES,  Loiret,  France.  Eglise.  (111.  88,  89.)  We  are 
fortunate  in  knowing  the  exact  date  of  this  interesting  monument.  One  text  states 
thaf'Theodulfus,  the  bishop,  amonr;st  his  other  works,  built  in  the  town  which  is  called 
Germigny  a  basilica  of  wonderful  work,  like  that  which  has  been  founded  at  Aachen, 
and  the  memory  of  this  fact  is  elegantly  expressed  in  these  verses: 

"This  temple,  I,  Theotlulfus,  consecrated  in  honor  of  God, 
Whosoever  thou  art  that  cnterest  here,  I  pray  remember  me."^ 

'Cattaneo,  119. 

^.  .  .  Theodulfus  igitur  episcopus  inter  ca?tera  .suorum  openim  basilicam  miri  operis 
instar  videlicet  eius  quie  Aquiis  est  constituta  sedificant  in  \illa  quae  dicitur  Germiniacus,  quo 
etiain  his  versibus  sui  memoriam  eleganter  expressit: 

"Hieo  in  honore  Dei  Theodulfus  tenipla  sacraW, 
QuEE  dum  qui.squis  adis,  ore,  memento  mei." 
—  Miracida  S.  Maximi  abb.  Miciacens,  cit.  Schlosser,  218. 

175 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

Another  text  records  that  "Theodulfus  built  a  church  of  such  wonderful  art  that  not 
in  all  Neustria  .  .  .  could  be  found  another  to  equal  it."  '  Since  Theodulfus  was 
bishop  of  Orleans  from  801  to  806,  it  is  evident  that  the  church  must  have  been  erected 
between  these  dates.  Even  more  conclusive,  however,  is  the  inscription  still  preserved 
on  the  northeast  pier  of  the  church  itself:  "In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  the  Lord 
806  under  the  invocation  of  Ste.  Ginevra  and  St.  Germigny""  — and  on  the  south- 
east pier  the  inscription  is  continued:  "the  fifth  of  January,  dedication  of  this 
church."  '  The  monument  was  in  excellent  preservation  until  the  present  century, 
when  it  was  torn  down  and  replaced  by  a  copy.  The  plan,  recalling  the  church  of 
S.  Satiro,  Milan,  and  the  Prietorium  of  Mousmieh,  Syria,  consisted  of  a  Greek  cross 
inscribed  in  a  square  by  means  of  four  piers  placed  in  each  corner  of  the  square.  The 
arms  of  the  cross  were  barrel  vaulted,  and  all  (except  probably  the  western)  terminated 
in  semicircular  apses  covered  with  half-domes.  The  aisles  were  each  roofed  with  a 
dome,  as  was  also  the  crossing.  The  dome  over  the  crossing  was  raised  so  high  above 
the  rest  of  the  building  as  to  assume  the  character  of  a  central  tower,  and  was  exter- 
nally flat-roofed.  The  building  was  originally  richly  decorated  with  Byzantine  mosaics 
and  stuccos,  but  of  these  only  the  mosaic  of  the  eastern  apse  is  still  preserved.  The 
carving  throughout  was  rich,  and  the  apse  internally  was  adorned  with  a  blind  arcade 
above  the  windows.  Arched  corbel-tables  formed  a  prominent  feature  of  the  exterior 
decoration.  The  windows  were  double-squinched;  and,  strangely  enough,  the  arches 
had  a  decided  tendency  towards  the  horseshoe  form.  (Bouet;  Corroyer;  Enlart; 
Archives   de  la  Comm.  des  Monuments  Historiques  III.) 

BEAUVAIS,  Oise,  France.  Basse  CEuvre.  The  bishops  of  Beauvais,  driven 
from  St.  Lucien  by  the  Normans  at  the  end  of  the  X  century,  moved  their  church  to 
the  site  of  the  present  Basse  ffiuvre,  and  a  cathedral  was  here  begun  in  987  by  the 
Bishop  Herve.''  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  nave  and  fa9ade  of  this  church  of 
Bishop  Herve  are  preserved  to  us  in  the  present  Basse  CEuvre,''  although  archieologists 
in  the  past  have  advanced  the  wildest  theories  regarding  this  structure.  The  east 
end  was  destroyed  when  the  present  cathedral  was  built,  and,  indeed,  the  Basse  Qiuvre 
owes  its  partial  preservation  to  the  fact  that  the  nave  of  the  Gothic  church  was  never 
completed.  The  interior  of  the  Basse  (Euvre  is  plainness  itself,  and  is  now  entirely 
smudged  over  with  white  plaster.  The  three  aisles  are  separated  by  piers  either  square, 
or  with  the  edges  slightly  chamfered.  The  wooden  ceiling  is  perfectly  flat.  Nowhere 
is  there  to  be  seen  a  sign  of  a  moulding  or  of  decoration  of  any  kind.  Externally 
there  is  more  attempt  at  ornamentation,  though  the  structure  has  so  suffered  from  later 
alterations  that  it  is  difBcult  to  reconstruct  the  original  edifice.  Bands  of  colored 
brick  are  used  decoratively;  the  billet  moulding  occurs,  and  the  string-courses  are 

'  Theodulfus  ecclesiam  tarn  mirifici  operis  construxit  ut  nullum  in  tota  Neustria  invenire 
possit  fedificii  opus  quod  ei.  .  .  .  valeret  jequari. — Catalogus  abb.  Floriacens.,  p.  491,  cit.  Schlos- 
ser,  218. 

^  "Anno  incarnatioiiis  Domini  DCCC  et  VI  sub  invocations  Sanctae  Ginevrae  et  Sancti 
Germigni." 

^  "Nonas  januarii  dedicatio  hujus  a^cclesise." 

*  Woillez. 

^  Enlart. 

176 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   SECOND   CLASS 

arched  over  the  windows.  Triangular  ornament  also  was  used  in  this  fa9ade,  on  the 
voussoirs,  and  elsewliere.     The  windows  are  large  and  splayed  internally. 

POITIKRS,  Vienne,  France.  Baptiifcrc  St.  Jean  (111.  80,  81)  "the  oldest  church 
in  France."  Although  there  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  monu- 
ment, arch;cologists  are  agreed  in  assigning  it  to  the  VI  or  VII  century.  Foundations 
have  recently  been  found  which  prove  that  the  nave  was  originally  longer  than  it  is 
to-day.  The  present  plan  consists  of  a  rectangle  flanked  at  the  ends  by  two  semicir- 
cular apses,  and  on  one  side  by  an  apse  polygonal  internally  and  square  without.  A 
sort  of  vestibule  dating  from  the  XI  or  the  beginning  of  the  XII  century  is  separated 
from  the  main  body  of  the  edifice  by  three  arches.  The  eastern  fa9ade  is  the  most 
interesting  part  of  the  church,  presenting  analogies  to  Lorsch  and  to  the  Basse  Q5uvre 
of  Beauvais.     The  decoration  in  general  shows  strong  Byzantine  influence. 

St.  llilairc.  The  base  of  the  tower  and  parts  of  the  transepts  are  said  is  have 
belonged  to  the  church  of  Adele  d  'Angleterre,  consecrated  in  the  X  century.  (Robu- 
buchon,  89  seq.) 

BRESCIA,  Lombardy,  Italy.  S.  Salvaiore  (111.  83).  An  ancient  manuscript 
of  this  monastery  commences  with  these  words :  "  In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of 
the  Lord  753  our  monastery  was  begun.  .  .  .  Afterwards  it  was  consecrated  by  his 
holiness  the  Pope  with  his  cardinals  as  is  proved  by  authentic  chronicles  in  our  monas- 
ter}'." '  Other  historical  documents  confirm  this  manuscript,  stating  that  the  mon- 
astery was  founded  by  the  Lombard  Desiderius  and  his  wife  before  the  former  mounted 
the  throne,  that  is,  before  the  death  of  Aistulf  in  756.  Now  in  753  Pope  Stephan  III 
crossed  Lombardy  to  visit  the  court  of  Aistulf.  If,  then,  it  were  not  known  that  a 
church  had  existed  here  before  this  time,  we  should  seem  to  have  clear  evidence  for 
the  date  of  the  present  edifice.  But  it  is  known  that  the  church  of  Ss.  Michele  e  Pietro 
was  built  on  this  site  in  the  VI  century;  hence  the  doubt  arises  whether  the  word 
monastery,  as  used  in  the  passage  cited  above,  refers  to  merely  the  conventual  build- 
ings, or  whether  it  included  the  church  as  well.  The  style  of  the  existing  remains, 
however,  accords  so  well  with  the  date  753  that  archa?ologists  under  the  leadership 
of  Cordero  and  Catlaneo  are  practically  unanimous  in  seeing  here  a  church  of  the  VIII 
century.  The  capitals  are  almost  entirely  pilfered;  among  them  are  some  strongly 
Byzantine  in  character  that  probably  came  from  the  VI  century  edifice.  The  arches 
of  the  main  arcade  are  entirely  unmoulded.  Of  tlie  upper  part  of  the  ancient  church 
nothing  remains,  and  only  the  foundations  of  the  original  single  apse  are  in  situ.  The 
present  edifice  has  three  aisles  and  is  of  the  usual  basilican  type.  Many  remains  of 
the  old  church  furniture  are  in  the  neighboring  museum.  The  crypt  shows  two  dis- 
tinct parts,  one  corresponding  to  the  nave,  the  other  to  the  apse;  the  first  is  doubt- 
less an  addition  of  the  XII  century,  but  the  latter  belongs  to  the  construction  of  the 
V^III  century.     (Cattaneo.) 

Duomn  Vecchio  or  Rotonda.  In  the  chronicle  of  a  certain  Rodofo,  a  notary  of 
the  XI  century,  the  following  passage  occurs:  "Raimond,  count  of  Brescia,  heard  in 

'  Anno  al)  incamatione  D[oniiii]i  CCCCCCCLIII  inchoatum  fuit  monasterium  nostrum. 
.  .  .  Postea  consecratum  fuit  per  doiiiinuni  papain  cum  suis  cardiualibus  prout  invenitur  in 
cbronicis  .satis  auteuticis  in  dicto  nostro  monasterio.  —  Cit.  Cattaneo. 

177 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

what  good  repute  were  tlie  names  of  the  dukes  Marquand  and  Frodoard.  One  of 
these  dukes  had  begun  to  build  from  its  foundations  a  great  and  celebrated  basilica, 
and  this  basilica  his  son  had  finished  by  the  aid  of  gifts  sent  even  by  King  Grimoald. 
Moved  by  this  example  Raimond  himself  began  to  build  a  similar  basilica  .  .  .  but 
he  did  not  complete  it."  '  Many  archceologists  hold  that  the  present  edifice  is  the 
church  of  Raimond,  and  hence  dates  from  the  end  of  the  VIII  century,  —  a  view  sanc- 
tioned even  by  Dehio.  Since,  however,  in  a  recent  restoration  a  stone  bearing  a  dated 
inscription  of  897  was  found  used  as  second-hand  material,  it  is  certain  that  the  present 
building  must  be  later  than  the  IX  century.  It  is  probable  that  a  fire  which  destroyed 
the  city  in  1097  destroyed  also  the  church.  The  present  crN'pt,  however,  may  well  be  a 
relic  of  the  ancient  edifice.  A  text  cited  by  Cattaneo  seems  to  prove  the  church  of 
Raimond  had  a  cr\-pt:  "In  the  time  of  this  count  [Villerado]  Bishop  Ramperto  car- 
ried the  body  of  S.  Philastrio  from  the  church  of  S.  Andrea  into  the  city  to  the  crypt 
of  the  greater  church  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin."-  The  fact  that  such  a  cr\'pt  existed  is 
still  further  confirmed  by  a  sermon  of  838  written  by  this  same  bishop  Ramperto. 
Therefore  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  present  crvpt  dates  from  the  VIII  century. 
The  plan  is  somewhat  irregular,  but  in  the  main  basilican,  three  aisles  terminating  in 
three  apses.  The  capitals  offer  a  most  interesting  study,  a  few  being  evidently  con- 
temporary with  the  construction  of  the  VIII  century,  the  others  pilfered  from  various 
older  buildings.  —  The  upper  church  of  the  XI  centur}'  is  circular  and  covered  by  a 
dome.  The  aisles  are  vaulted  with  groin  vaults  by  the  same  system  of  alternate  rec- 
tangular and  triangular  compartments  employed  at  Aachen.  The  masonry  is  small 
and  rough;  of  decorative  carving  there  is  almost  none,  and  the  mouldings  are  scant 
and  simple,  though  the  exterior  is  adorned  with  arched  corbel- tables.  A  tower  for- 
merly rose  over  the  entrance,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  remains  of  two  spiral  staircases 
there  placed.     The  dome  is  not  expressed  externally.     (Cattaneo;  Dehio.) 

LORSCH,  (near  Worms),  Hessen,  Germany.  Facade.  (111.  98).  Archfeolo- 
gists  are  much  at  variance  in  regard  to  the  identity  of  this  important  monument  and 
the  date  to  be  assigned  to  it.  Two  churches  are  mentioned  by  the  chroniclers  as 
having  been  erected  at  Lorsch  in  the  Carolingian  period,  and  the  question,  to  which 
of  these  buildings  the  present  remains  belonged,  has  given  rise  to  much  difference 
of  opinion.  In  the  Annals  of  Lorsch  under  the  year  767  occurs  the  following 
text;  "  [Henotgang]  .  .  .  founded  [the  church  of]  St.  Gorgorius  in  his  own  monastery 
which  he  himself  had  built  anew,  and  whose  name  is  Gorzia;  St.  Nabor  in  another 
monastery  which  is  called  Novacella;  and  lastly  St.  Nazarius  in  our  monastery  at 
Lorsch."^  Under  the  year  776  we  read  further:  "Charlemagne,  returning  from 
Italy,  celebrated  in  the  monastery  of  Lorsch  the  consecration  of  the  church  of  St. 

'  Raimo  comes  Brixise,  quum  audiret  quam  bonoe  recordationis  essent  nomina  ducura  Mar- 
quardi  et  Frodoardi,  quorum  umis  inceperat  peclificare  a  fundamentis,  et  filius  perfecerat  grandem 
et  celeberrimam  cintatis  basilicam,  et  cui  munera  ad  adiutorium  rex  Grimoaldus  etiam  contul- 
erat,  ipse  cepit  fundare  similera  basilicam  .  .  .  sed  non  complevit.  —  Cit.  Cattaneo. 

■  In  huius  comitis  [\'illeradi]  etiam  tempore,  Rampertus  episcopus  de  ecclesia  Sancti  And- 
reae  porta\-it  corpus  Sancti  Philastrii  intra  civitatem  in  confessione  majoris  ecclesiae  sanctae  Dei 
Geuetricis. 

^  [Henotganus]  .  .  .  condidit  S.  Gorgorium  in  monasterio  suo,  quod  ipse  a  novo  aedificav 

178 


aioxu:ments  of  the  second  class 

Nazarius  and  the  translation  of  the  body  of  the  saint,  on  the  1st  of  September,  in  the 
j'ear  of  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  774."  '  Other  passages  state  that  Heimeric  "built 
the  ceiling,  laid  the  pavement,  and  decorated  the  altar""  about  779;  that  Richbod 
adorned  it  further  in  78j;^  that  about  805  Adalung  dedicated  several  altars,  and  still 
further  added  to  the  decorations  of  the  church.*  The  history  and  date  of  the  church 
St.  Nazarius  may  consequently  he  held  to  be  quite  firmly  established.  But  now 
comes  the  difficulty.  A  little  further  on  in  the  same  chronicle  of  Lorsch  occurs 
this  text:  "[Louis  the  German]  .  .  .  was  buried  in  the  church  which  is  called 
varia,"  ^  i.e.,  many-colored.  Louis  the  German  died  in  886.  There  is  also  an- 
other passage  referring  to  the  ecdesia  varia:  "Louis  III,  son  of  Louis  [the  German], 
King  of  Germany,  died  and  was  buried  beside  his  father,  at  Lorsch  in  the  church  called 
varia,  which  he  himself  had  constructed  for  this  very  purpose."^  The  question 
consequently  arises,  to  which  church  —  to  St.  Nazarius  consecrated  c.  774  or  to 
the  "fcc/csio  varia"  built  by  Louis  III,  c.  886  —  do  our  remains  belong.'  Herr 
Savelsberg  and  Herr  FiJrster,  followed  even  by  M.  Enlart,  believe  that  the  exist- 
ing facade  formed  part  of  the  ecclcsia  varia  because  the  decoration  in  several  colors 
so  exactly  corresponds  to  the  word  varia.  Herr  Adamy,  however,  seems  to  have  suc- 
cessfully established  the  opposite  contention.  To  follow  his  argument  it  is  necessary 
to  recapitulate  the  later  history  of  St.  Nazarius.  The  Carolingian  basilica  was  burned 
in  1090,  and  a  Romanesque  church  was  built  in  its  place.  Of  this  Romanesque  edi- 
fice, which  was  consecrated  in  1131,  three  arches  are  still  extant.  Now  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  axis  of  this  Romanesque  church  coincided  precisely  with  the  axis  of  our 
monument.  This  fact  caused  Herr  Adamy  to  suspect  that  the  existing  ruins  belonged 
to  the  entrance  gateway  of  the  atrium  of  the  Carolingian  basilica  of  774.  This  sus- 
picion was  verified  by  excavations  which  laid  bare  the  foundations  of  the  old  atrium. 
The  gateway  itself,  recalling  somewhat  in  its  design  a  Roman  triumphal  arch,  con- 
sisted of  two  fronts,  very  similar  in  design,  one  of  which  opened  on  the  atrium,  the 
other  on  the  street.  Exceptionally  classic  Composite  orders,  surmounted  by  Ionic- 
like  pilasters  bearing  triangular  arcades,  framed  the  three  archways.  According  to 
Herr  Adamy 's  restoration  the  church  itself  was  a  three-aisled  basilica,  with  a  single 
apse,  no  transepts,  two  western  towers,  and  a  narthex.     (Adamy,  Forster,  Enlart.) 

HOCHST  a.  M.,  Nassau,  Germany.  Heil.  Justimis.  "Here  in  honor  rests 
Justinus,  whose  sacred  bones  Otgar  the  bishop  received  from  Rome  and  placed  within 

erat,  qui  vocabulum  est  Gorzia;  S.  Naborem  in  monasterio  alio,  quod  dicitur  Novacella;  S. 
vero  Nazarium  in  monasterio  nostro  Laureshamensi.  — Ann.  Lauriss.  rain.  a.  767.  cit. 
Sclilosser,   47. 

'  Karlus  ab  Italia  regrediens  dedicationem  ecclesiie  Nazarii  et  translationem  corporis  ip- 
sius  in  monasterium  Lauresham  celebravit  a.  inc.  dom.  774,  die  Kal.  Sept. — Ibid.,  a.  776. 
According  to  the  Lorsch  chronicles  this  or  possibly  another  consecration  took  place  August  14, 
777.  —  Chron.  iMuresham.     a.  777,  cit.  Schlosser,  54. 

=  Chron.  Lauresham.     a.  779,  cit.  Schlosser,  47. 

3  Ibid.,  a.  785. 

*  Ibid.,  a.  805. 

^  [Liiddvicus  Germ.]  ...  in  lecclesia,  qu.-e  dicitur  varia,  sepultus  est.  — Ibid.,  p.  109. 

°  Ludovico  III  rege  Germaniie  filio  Ludowici  dcfuncto  et  iuxta  palrem  apud  Lauresham 
in  ccclesia  qua;  dicitur  varia  iiuam  ipse  hiiius  rci  gratia  construxerat  sepulto.  ...  —  Ibid.,  p.  375. 

179 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

this  church,  which  he  had  erected  for  this  purpose."  '  This  inscription,  formerly  in 
the  church,  fixes  the  date  of  the  construction,  for  we  know  Otgar  was  bishop  of  Mainz 
from  826-8-17."  The  church  is  mentioned  in  documents  of  1024;  it  was  restored  in 
1090,  according  to  an  extant  edict  of  the  archbishop  Ruthard  of  Mainz.  The  build- 
ing, however,  retains  largely  its  original  dispositions,  which  are  those  of  a  "T-shaped" 
three-aisled  basilica  with  transepts.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  tower.  The 
uncut  Corinthianesque  capitals  were  sculptured  for  their  present  position.     (Schmitt.) 

MICHELSTADT-STEIXBACH,  Hessen,  Germany.  Kirchc.  In  the  Annals 
of  Fulda,  under  the  year  821,  we  read  of  a  "dedication  of  the  church  of  Michelstadt 
in  the  Odenwald."'  In  Einhardt  there  is  another  text  referring  to  this  church:  "They 
come  ...  to  the  place  called  Michelstadt.  This  place  is  in  that  forest  of  Germany 
of  which  the  modern  name  is  Odenwald,  and  which  is  distant  from  the  Main  River 
about  six  leagues.  There  they  found  a  basilica  which  I  had  newly  constructed  but 
had  not  yet  dedicated,  and  to  this  they  bore  those  sacred  ashes."  *  The  translation 
of  relics,  in  connection  with  which  this  passage  occurs,  is  thought  to  have  taken 
place  about  827,  so  that  there  is  a  slight  discrepancy  between  the  two  texts.  The 
construction  of  the  church,  however,  may  be  safely  referred  to  the  first  quarter  of  the 
IX  century.  Fortunately  much  of  the  original  building  —  the  narthex,  the  main 
arcades,  the  north  transept,  the  crossing,  and  the  apse  —  is  preserved  to  us  in  essen- 
tially the  original  form.  It  was  a  three-aisled  basilica,  the  aisles  being  separated 
by  piers.  The  transepts  were  shut  off  from  the  crossing  by  low  arches;  on  the  east 
side  of  each  transept  was  a  semicircular  apse.  Before  the  church  was  an  atrium. 
(Bergner;  Dehio;  Enlart.) 

SELIGENSTADT,  Hessen,  Germany.  Kirchc,  begun  by  Eginhard  in  828,  is 
said  to  be  still  in  excellent  preservation,  though  the  eastern  parts  have  been  destroyed. 
I  have  been  able  to  find  no  adequate  publication  of  this  important  monument;  it  is 
briefly  described  by  Dehio,  Kirch.  Bauk.,  p.  10-1. 

GRADO,  Venetia,  Italy.  Sta.  Maria  is  assigned  on  its  style  to  the  last  years  of 
the  VI  century,  and  is  one  of  those  puzzling  buildings  which  one  hardly  knows  whether 
to  call  Early  Christian,  Byzantine,  or  Carolingian,  since  it  belongs  in  a  sense  to  all 
three  styles.  The  church  has  no  atrium  nor  narthex;  it  is  a  three-aisled  columnar 
basilica  with  an  apse  masked  externally  and  flanked  bj-  the  two  chapels  of  the  prothesis 
and  apodosis.     Fragments  of  a  Byzantine  mosaic  cover  the  floor.     The  capitals  are  of 

'  Istic  Justinus  pausat  lionorifice 
Quern  Otgarius  pnesul  Romana  assci\it  ab  urbe  et 
Ecclesia  a?di£icans  ossa  sacra  Iiic  posuit. 

—  Hrabani  Cami.,  71,  Versus  ad  Sepulchram  S.  Justitii  Confessions,  cit.  Schlosser,  38. 
^  Other  texts  confirm  tliis  inscription;  Schmitt  refers  to  five  poems  of  32  lines  in  all  by 
Rhabanus  Maurus,  successor  to  Otgar,  which  "sich  ausschliesslich  auf  dem  heiligen  Justinus 
und  die  zu  seiner  Elire  von  Erzbischofe  Otgar  errichtete  Hiichsten  Basilika  bpziehen." 

^  Dcdicatio  ecclesia'  Michilinstat  in  Odtonwald.  —  Ann.  Fuid.  a.  821,  cit.  Schlosser. 
^  Ad  locum  ^Micliilinstadt  nuncupatum  .  .  .  peneniunt.  Is  locus  est  in  eo  sajtu  German- 
ise qui  tempore  moderno  Odenwald  appellatur,  et  distat  a  ]M8eno  flumine  circiter  leucas  sex.  In 
quo  cum  basilicam  no\nter  a  me  constnictam,  sed  nondum  dedicatam  invenissent,  in  hanc  illos 
sacros  cineres  intulerunt  ....  —  iiniiarti.  Hist.  Trans,  ss.  Marcellini  et  Petri,  c.  2,  cit.  Schlos- 
ser.    This  passage  is  confirmed  by  Hrabani,  Carm,,  83,  cit.  Schlosser. 

180 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  SECOND  CTASS 

the  Composite,  Corintliianesf|ue,  or  basket  types,  while  some  seem  to  have  been 
remodeled  into  a  Itomanesque  form;  all  are  surmounted  by  stilt-blocks  of  varying 
sizes.     (Cattaneo.) 

BaplLilcri/  was  restored  under  Fortunalus  in  SO-'i-SSO,  by  workmen  imported  from 
France.     (Cattaneo.) 

ST.  GENEROUX,  Deux  Sevres,  France.  Eglisc.  (111.  90,  99.)  There  is 
no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  church,  which,  however,  may  be  as- 
signed on  its  style  to  the  X  century.'  It  was  materially  altered  in  the  XII  cen- 
tury, but  the  original  dispositions  may  still  be  traced,  despite  recent  vandali.slic 
"restorations."  The  church  consists  of  three  aisles  ending  in  three  apses  vaulted  with 
semidomes.  A  transverse  wall,  pierced  by  three  arches  surmoimted  by  three  triple 
windows,  divides  the  nave  into  two  unequal  parts.  Beyond  this  opened  a  transept, 
whose  projecting  arms,  now  walled  off,  were  originally  supplied  with  two  semicircular 
absidioles.  The  clearstory  is  pierced  with  windows,  separated  from  each  other 
e.Nternally  by  patches  of  triangular  ornament.  The  exterior  is  also  ornamented  with 
triangular  stone-cutting  which  recalls  Lorsch.  Arcuated  billet  string-courses  occur. 
The  choir  is  prolonged  by  two  (very  short)  arcades,  continuing  the  lines  of  the 
main  arcade  of  the  nave.     (Arch,  de  la  Comm.  des  Mon.  Hist.  II;  Enlart.) 

AGLIATE,  or  ALLIATE,  (south  of  Monza),  Lombardy,  Italy.  S.  Pidro.  As 
far  as  is  known  there  are  no  ancient  texts  bearing  upon  the  history  of  this  monu- 
ment. However,  Giulini  —  on  the  authority  of  an  hi.storian  of  the  bisliops  of  Milan — 
ascribes  its  foundation  to  Ansperto  (f  881),  remarking  at  the  same  time  that  he  does 
not  know  on  what  foimdation  this  writer  had  based  his  assertion.  Cattaneo  after 
a  careful  study  of  the  internal  evidence  of  the  monument  accepted  the  tradition.  The 
presbytery  in  its  three  apses  and  lengthened  choir  shows  analogies  to  S.  Ambrogio. 
The  apse  is  decorated  externally  with  flat  pilaster  strips  supporting  a  horizontal  strip, 
—  an  ornament  clearly  related  to  the  arched  corbel-table.  The  three  aisles  are  sep- 
arated by  pilfered  columns.  There  is  no  atrium  nor  narthex.  The  two  eastern  bays 
of  the  nave,  twice  as  wide  as  the  others,  were  probably  substituted  at  some  later  date 
for  four  of  the  original  bays.     (Cattaneo;  Rivoira.) 

Bapfis-fcry  is  octagonal  in  plan,  and  evidently  contemporary  with  the  church.  The 
windows,  like  those  of  the  basilica,  are  double  splayed.  The  exterior  ornament  con- 
sists of  pilaster  strips  and  arched  corbel-tables.  An  unusual  feature  for  a  baptistery 
is  the  projecting  apse.     (Cattaneo.) 

ARLIAXO,  (near  Lucca),  Tuscany,  Italy.  S.  Martina.  There  is  no  docu- 
mentary evidence  for  the  date  of  this  church,  except  a  bare  mention  in  a  document 
of  892,  which  gives  the  impression  that  it  had  already  existed  an  indefinitely  long  time. 
Ridolfi,  quoted  with  approval  by  Cattaneo,  assigns  the  edifice  on  its  style  to  the  early 
years  of  the  VIII  century.  The  church  is  basilican  in  plan,  consisting  of  three  aisles, 
but  the  northern  side  aisle  is  wider  than  the  southern.  Both  are  now  separated 
from  the  nave  by  two  ranges  of  two  square  piers,  on  which  rest  arches.  There  is  a 
simple  apse.  The  dimensions  are  small,  the  entire  building  being  only  about  17 
meters  long.     For  the  old  roof,  doubtless  of  wood,  a  modern  vault  lias  been  sub- 

'  Hardly  to  the  IX  ciutury,  as  is  often  done. 
181 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

stituted,  and  it  is  probable  that  tlie  original  pilfered  columns  were  replaced  by 
the  present  piers  at  the  same  time  that  this  vault  was  constructed.  The  exterior, 
with  its  low  clearstory,  is  severely  plain,  being  ornamented  only  with  corbel- 
tables  and    pilaster  strips.     (Cattaneo;    Rivoira.) 

SAN  LEO,  Marches,  Italy.  Pieve.  The  date  of  this  building  is  believed  to 
be  established  by  the  ancient  ciborium  over  the  altar,  which,  as  the  inscription  still 
e.xtant  records,  was  erected  by  Duke  Orso  of  Ferrara  in  the  times  of  Charles  the  Fat 
(879-887)  and  of  the  pope  John  VIII  (872-882).  Four  marble  columns  of  this  ci- 
borium are  preserved  in  the  present  baptistery,  and  their  capitals  present  the  same 
forms,  and  are  evidently  contemporary  with,  the  capitals  belonging  to  the  main  body 
of  the  edifice.  Consequently  it  is  assumed  that  the  church  must  have  been  built 
between  879  and  882.  The  edifice  is  of  the  usual  basilican  form;  the  three  aisles 
are  separated  by  two  columns  and  ten  piers.  Doubtless  the  original  supports  were 
all  columns,  for  which  the  piers  were  substituted  when  the  modern  barrel  vault  was 
constructed.  There  are  three  apses,  decorated  externally  with  pilaster  strips  and 
corbel-tables.     (Rivoira.) 

CrS'IDALE-IN-FRIULI,  Venetia,  Italy.  Sia.  Maria  in  Valle.  (111.  84). 
A  chronicler  of  the  XVI  century  states  the  present  edifice  is  the  same  as  that  erected 
by  Pertruda  (762-776)  in  the  VIII  century.  This  rather  questionable  evidence, 
which  is  entirely  unconfirmed,  Cattaneo  rejects,  assigning  the  building  on  its  style  to 
about  1100.  Judging  merely  from  photographs,  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  this 
ascription.  The  great  weight  of  modern  criticism,  however,  accepts  the  monument 
as  an  authentic  work  of  the  VIII  century.  The  plan  is  most  exceptional:  a  square 
cella  slightly  over  six  meters  in  each  dimension  is  covered  with  a  groin  vault. 
From  this  cella,  which  is  richly  decorated,  opens  a  little  presbj'tery  subdivided  by 
columns  with  architrave  into  three  chapels,  over  which  rise  three  slightly  stilted  barrel 
vaults.  The  exterior  is  decorated  by  blind  arches  enclosing  the  windows.  (Cat- 
taneo; Rivoira;  Enlart.) 

ZARA,  Dalmatia,  Austria.  "S.  Donato."  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  speak- 
ing of  the  church  of  Sta.  Anastasia  at  Zara,  goes  on  to  say,  "And  there  is  near  this 
another  church  that  is  vaulted,  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  above  its  aisle,  another  aisle 
for  the  catechumens,'  and  this  is  vaulted,  and  reached  by  spiral  staircases."  ■  This 
passage  has  been  commonly  taken  to  refer  to  our  monument,  and,  if  so,  proves  that  it 
must  have  been  built  earlier  than  the  year  949,  when  Constantine  wrote.  The  title 
by  which  it  is  commonly  known  —  S.  Donato  —  is  generally  explained  by  supposing 
that  the  name  of  its  founder  had  been  transformed  into  a  supposed  patron  saint. 
Consequently  it  has  been  assumed  by  Messrs.  Ilauser,  Bulic,  Jackson,  and  Smirichi, 
who  have  been  followed  by  Messrs.  Dehio,  Rivoira,  Enlart,  and  the  great  bulk  of 
modern  archfeologists,  that  the  church  was  founded  by  the  bishop  Donato  III,  a  con- 
temporary of  Charlemagne,  in  the  early  years  of  the  IX  century.     The  discovery  of 

>  Non-communicants. 

-'E(7t/  re  Kal  irepos  vab^  irXTjcriox  avrov  eiXr;/iaTi/c6s,  17  i/yla  Tpias,  Kal  ^vrai'ai  roO  vaov  avrou 
irdXip  ^T€pos  vaits  SIkt]!'  KaT€xovfi^votVf  Kai  ayrij  elX-jjfjuiTtKd^  cltravipxovrai  dia  KOxXe/as.  — Const. 
Porph.,  1.  c,  c.  29. 

182 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  SECOND   CLASS 

an  inscription  is  thought  by  those  authors  to  estabhsh  with  certainty  the  date  810.' 
Cattaneo,  ahnost  alone,  maintains  tliat  the  edifice  is  later  than  1000.  The  plan  of 
the  church  is  peculiar.  A  circular  nave  is  surrounded  by  a  circular  aisle,  from  which 
break  out  on  tlie  eastern  side  three  semicircular  apses.  The  nave  and  aisle  are  sep- 
arated by  six  piers  and  two  pilfered  columns,  the  latter  placed  before  the  apses.  The 
gallery  was  doubtless  originally  vaulted.  There  are  few  mouldings  and  no  ornament, 
except  that  the  apses  are  decorated  externally  with  blind  arches.  (Jackson;  Rivoira; 
Dehio;  Cattaneo;  E.  von  Edelberg;  Enlarl.) 

Bapti.sicnj  is  hexagonal  with  semicircular  niches.  The  dome  seems  to  have  been 
built  in  the  second  half  of  the  XIII  century,  though  it  may  be  older.  The  details 
of  the  construction  have  not  been  published  with  sufficient  care  to  make  it  possible  to 
determine  the  date  of  this  monument.     (Uehio.) 

^'EIlONA,  A'enetia,  Italy.  Sto.  Stefano  is  a  most  important  monument  offering 
an  early  and  unexpected  example  of  the  use  of  the  ambulatory.  The  church  is  of 
very  ancient  foundation;  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  V  century  it  seems  to  have  been 
demolished  by  order  of  Theodoric,  though  it  must  have  soon  after  been  rebuilt,  since 
St.  Petronius  was  buried  here  in  5-tO.  Cattaneo  believes  that  another  reconstruc- 
tion took  place  in  the  VIII  century,  since  certain  capitals,  which  he  assigns  to  that 
date,  are  employed  as  second-hand  material  in  the  present  edifice.  These  capitals 
he  thinks  must  have  come  from  an  earlier  church  on  this  same  site.  In  the  present 
building,  two  distinct  parts  may  be  traced.  The  first,  including  the  apse  and  ambu- 
latory, Cattaneo  assigns  to  the  X  century;  the  remainder,  including  the  facade,  the 
nave  and  side  aisles,  the  presbytery,  the  cupola,  and  the  crypt,  he  believes  to  be  of 
the  XII  century.  The  apse  is  surrounded  by  a  semicircular  ambulatory,  the  true 
continuation  of  the  primitive  side  aisles,  which  no  longer  exist.  This  ambulatory 
is  vaulted  with  groin  vaults  in  alternately  square  and  triangular  compartments,  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  gallery,  also  vaulted.     (Cattaneo;  Rivoira.) 

iS'«.  Tonca  e  Tenteria  was  consecrated  in  751  by  the  bishop  Annome.  Anotlier 
consecration  took  place  in  1160,  and  at  this  time,  no  doubt,  most  of  the  present  struc- 
ture was  erected,  though  the  outside  wall  and  the  apse  probably  antedate  the  year 
1000.  The  church  consists  of  a  square  central  area,  surrounded  by  a  square  aisle, 
and  covered  by  a  groin  vault  raised  over  a  little  clearstory  supported  by  four  piers. 
To  the  eastward  projects  a  single  apse.     (Cattaneo;  Rivoira.) 

Duomo.  Canobio-  states  that  "in  780,  during  the  life  of  Bishop  Loterio,  the 
church  of  Sta.  Maria  Matricolare  was  not  very  large"  and  that  that  bishop  "rebuilt 
it,  aided  at  first  by  Bertada,  who  was  wife  of  Pipin  and  mother  of  Charlemagne,  and 
later  by  the  wives  of  Desiderius  and  of  Charlemagne,  so  that  the  church  was  com- 
pleted in  better  form  under  Bishop  Ratoldo  (802-840).'"  The  oldest  parts  of  the 
present  edifice  —  the  outside  walls,  the  ajjse,  the  doors,  etc.  —  were  long  thought  to 
belong  to  this  j)rimitive  church,  but  are  now  recognized  as  a  work  of  the  XII  century. 
In   1884  excavations  revealed  a  pavement  of  the  VI  century,  a  capital,  and  other 

'  Sec  Jackson,  p.  ^213. 

'  .SVon'a  (/('  I'erona,  lil>ro  V. 

'  I  trauslate  tliis  pussaf^e  cited  by  Cattaneo. 

18.'$ 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

debris  of  the  church  of  the  VIII   century.     The  capital  is  very  classic,  and  of  the 
uncut  Corinthian  type.     (Cattaneo.) 

VICENZA,  Venetia,  Italy.  Ss.  Felice  e  Fotiunato.  This  monument  is  highly 
important,  as  offering  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  the  compound  pier  that  has 
come  down  to  us.  An  historical  document '  states  that  in  the  year  985,  the  bishop 
Ridolfo  having  found  this  church  "destitute  of  every  monastic  cult  and  sacred  service, 
on  acount  of  the  negligence  of  the  priests  and  the  barbarous  peoples  who  recently  burst 
into  Italy"  called  thither  the  black  Benedictines  and  restored  the  church  "in  honor 
of  the  sainted  martyrs  Felice,  Fortunatus,  Vitus,  and  ]Modestus."  This  church  of 
Ridolfo  underwent  in  the  course  of  centuries  restorations,  rebuildings,  and  mutila- 
tions, and  in  1614  it  was  completely  transformed.  Some  parts  of  the  earlier  buildings, 
however,  may  still  be  traced.  The  main  portal  dates  mainly  from  1153;  the  apse 
from  1179;  the  windows  of  the  crypt  from  1183;  and  the  campanile  from  11  GO,  as  is 
known  from  the  inscriptions,  with  which  this  church  is  most  generously  supplied. 
Cattaneo  believes  that  the  portions  dating  from  the  XII  century  are  only  those  enu- 
merated above  together  with  the  crypt  and  certain  fragments  of  the  walls.  The  remain- 
ing medieval  work,  he  thinks,  may  be  referred  to  the  building  of  985,  which  consequently 
must  have  been  not  merely  a  restoration,  but  a  thorough  reconstruction  of  the  church. 
The  medieval  structure  suffered  heavily  even  before  the  XVII  century,  for  in  the  XIV 
century  the  monks,  wishing  to  fortify  the  campanile,  found  it  necessary  to  separate 
this  from  the  church.  Therefore  they  tore  down  the  eastern  portion  of  the  northern 
aisle,  and  for  the  sake  of  symmetry  walled  off  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  southern 
aisle  to  form  a  sacristy.  Probably  at  the  same  time  the  old  compound  piers  were 
worked  over  into  a  circular  form.  Six  of  the  original  piers,  however,  remained  em- 
bedded in  the  new  walls,  and  these  are  still  preserved  to  us.  They  show  a  system  of 
supports  alternately  heavy  and  light,  the  heavy  piers  being  of  compound  section  with 
a  semicircular  colonnette  engaged  on  each  long  face.  It  is  probable  that  the  church 
was  not  vaulted,  but  was  furni.shed  with  a  series  of  transverse  arches,  thrown  across 
nave  and  aisles,  in  a  system  similar  to  that  of  S.  Miniato  at  Florence.  The  capitals 
of  the  compound  piers  are  continuous,  and  their  bases  are  supplied  with  griffes  —  in 
each  instance  the  earliest  known  examples  of  these  important  features.  (Cattaneo; 
Rivoira.) 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Cu^ss 

VALPOLICELLA,  (near  Verona),  Venetia,  Italy.  S.  Giorgio  (111.  82).  An 
ancient  ciborium  belonging  to  this  church  is  in  the  museum  at  \'erona,  and  is  dated 
712  by  an  inscription.  Further  than  this  there  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the 
date  of  the  church.  Cattaneo,  working  on  internal  evidence,  believes  that  the  mon- 
ument was  originally  a  basilica  of  the  VII  century  with  columns  and  a  single  apse. 
At  the  end  of  the  VIII  or  beginning  of  the  IX  century  he  thinks  that  the  orientation 
was  reversed,  the  old  western  apse  being  turned  into  an  entrance,  and  the  present 
three  eastern  apses  and  the  piers  being  added.  The  existing  vault  is,  of  course,  mod- 
ern.    (Cattaneo.) 

1  See  J.  Cabranca  e  F.  Lampertico,  Grande  Illustrazione  del  Lombardo  Veneto,  Vincenza,  <" 
il  sua  territorio,  p.  796. 

184 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   THIRD   CLASS 

INSEL  REICHENAU,  Constance,  Germany.  Sliflskirche  dcr  lieil.  Peter  und 
Paul  ill  Niederzetl.  The  eastern  part  of  this  church  is  held  to  be  largely  part  of  the 
original  foundation  of  799-802.  The  grave  of  the  founder  —  originally  in  the  west- 
ern apse  —  is  now  in  the  middle  of  the  choir.  It  is  covered  with  a  (restored)  bronze 
plate,  whose  metrical  inscription  gives  the  year  of  his  death,  802.  The  original  plan 
of  the  church,  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  disentangled  from  the  later  alterations,  consisted 
of  a  basilica  with  one  western  and  three  eastern  apses,  the  latter  masked  externallv. 
The  aisles  were  separated  by  piers,  and  the  nave  was  three  bavs  long.  There 
were  probably  two  western  towers  flanking  the  central  gable.     (Adler,  550.) 

Stiflskirche  des  heil.  Georgs  in  Obcrzell.  The  eastern  parts  of  this  church  —  the 
choir,  the  crypt,  the  crossing,  and  the  semicircular  transepts,  —  are  evidently  the 
oldest  part  of  the  structure,  and  doubtless  belonged  to  the  original  building  of  889. 
The  Carolingian  church  had  no  side  aisles,  and  was  supplied  with  only  a  single 
apse,  strangely  enough,  square  in  plan.  There  was  a  central  tower.  (Adler, 
556.) 

Hcil.  Maria  im  Miftclzcll.  There  are  two  important  texts  bearing  on  this  mon- 
ument. The  first  states:  "The  basilica  of  St.  Mary  at  Reiclienau  was  built  and  dedi- 
cated by  Haito,  abbot  and  bishop."  '  Haito  held  office  about  81().  The  second  te.xt, 
apparently  an  inscription,  is  preserved  in  the  Tituli  Augenses:  "Whoever  thou  art 
that  comest  under  this  sacred  roof,  while  thou  gazest  at  the  rare  beautv  of  the  mighty 
temple,  let  there  be  tears  for  these  things,  and  let  mortal  affairs  lay  hold  on  thy  mind." 
.  .  .  These  walls  which  thou  now  seest  were  raised  with  much  labor,  and  formerly 
lay  overturned  and  unknown  in  their  ruin,  and  the  crumbling  walls  showed  their  naked 
beams.  But  now  the  mighty  hall  is  filled  with  heavenly  serenity,  the  hall,  which,  after  it 
had  fallen  to  the  ground,  Haito,  the  priest,  full  of  divine  inspiration,  again  built  from 
the  foundations,  that  all  the  citizens  might  here  assemble."^  The  same  poem  a 
little  farther  on  refers  to  embellishments  added  by  Geroltus.  A  second  consecra- 
tion took  place  under  abbot  Witigowo  in  991,  and  only  a  short  time  afterwards  (1048) 
a  third  consecration  was  solemnized  by  Berno.  In  1172  further  alterations  were 
carried  out,  and  in  1-147,  as  is  known  from  the  inscription,  the  Gothic  choir  was  built. 

'  AugijE  basilica  s.  Marire  a  Heitone  abbate  et  episcopo  constructa  et  dedicata  est.  —  Heri- 
manni  Contract!,  Chron.  Aujiense,  a.  816,  cit.  Sclilosser. 
2  Quoted  from  Virgil,  .Eneid  I,  46-2: 

"Sunt  lacrimte  rerum  et  mentem  mortalia  tanguiit." 
^  Quis(|uis  ad  haec  sacri  concurris  culniina  tecti, 
Atque  sub  ingenti  lustras  dum  singula  temple, 
Sint  lacrima;  rerum  et  mentem  mortalia  tangant! 
********* 

Moeiiia  quae  cernis,  quantoque  clevata  Jabore, 
Oliui  conviiisa  agnoscuiitur  et  undi(|ue  lapsa, 
Nudatosquc  traljes  paries  vacuatus  habcbat. 
At  nunc  aula  potens  divino  plena  .sereno, 
Quse  disiecta  solo  riirsus  fundavit  al)  iino 
Haito  conipletus  divino  nutu  sacerdos, 
Fecitque,  ut  libeat  cunctos  hunc  currere  cives. 
—  Tituli  Augienses.     Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  I'oeta;  I^tiiii  aevi  Carolini  II,  428,  No.  5. 

185 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

Illibsch  erroneously  called  this  monument  mainly  a  work  of  the  IX  century,  and 
in  this  ascription  has  since  been  blindly  followed  by  several  archteologists.  In  point 
of  fact  the  aisle  walls  and  the  cast  arch  seem  to  be  the  oldest  part  of  the  church,  and 
may  date  from  991  or  1048.  The  piers,  arcades,  and  clearstory  are  evidently  works 
of  1172.  Thus  nothing  remains  of  the  IX  century  basilica  except  possibly  the  foun- 
dations of  the  eastern  transepts.  To  judge  from  the  few  fragments  left  of  Witigowo's 
building,  it  must  have  been  a  columnar  basilica,  richly  decorated  with  Byzantinesque 
ornament.     (Adler,  j60;  Dehio.) 

VIENNE,  Isere,  France.  St.  Pierre.  Founded  in  the  VIII  century  after  the 
Saracen  invasion,  this  church  was  restored  in  the  IX  century,  and  again  about  920. 
It  was  subsequently  practically  rebuilt  in  1052,  and  further  alterations  were  carried 
out  in  1072  and  in  1880.  The  tower  and  its  portal  belong  to  this  last  restoration  of 
the  XIX  century;  the  main  piers  and  arcades  of  the  nave  date  from  one  of  the  two 
preceding;  but  the  outside  walls  of  the  nave,  together  with  the  engaged  arcade  which 
adorns  them,  are  certainly  anterior  to  the  year  1000.  The  church  at  present  consists 
of  three  aisles,  all  of  equal  height;  it  is  probable  that  there  was  originally  over  the  side 
aisles  a  gallery,  which  was  removed  in  the  course  of  the  XI  century  alterations.  (En- 
lart;  Dehio.) 

NYMWEGEN,  Gelderland,  Holland.  Kapclle  der  Kaiserlichen  Pfalzen.  Not- 
withstanding the  alterations  of  the  XII  century,  the  original  dispositions  of  the  VIII 
century  church  may  still  be  traced.  This  primitive  structure  was  clearly  a  close  copy 
of  Aachen.  The  ground  plan  of  Nymwegen  is  identical  with  that  of  Aachen;  the  only 
noticeable  difference  in  the  superstructure  occurs  in  the  triforium  gallery,  which  at 
Nymwegen  is  at  present  covered  only  by  a  wooden  roof.  Nymwegen  was  consecrated 
by  Leo  III  in  799,  and  was  partially  burned  in  1047.     (Dehio.) 

MUGGIA  VECCHIA,  Istria,  Austria.  Sta.  Maria.  There  is  no  external 
evidence  for  the  date  of  this  church,  but  Cattaneo  assigns  it  to  the  IX  or  X  century 
on  the  style  of  the  sculptures  of  the  choir  screen.  It  is  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  a 
single  apse.  The  aisles  are  separated  by  columns  and  piers,  both  equally  simple  in 
design.  The  extreme  poverty  of  the  decoration,  the  barbaric  crudeness  of  the  con- 
struction, and  the  lack  of  any  signs  of  organic  progress,  make  it  seem  probable  that 
this  church  is  anterior  to  1000.     (Cattaneo.) 

MONTIER-EN-DER,  Haute-Marne,  France.  Abbaye  (111.  100)  was  founded 
by  the  Abbe  Adso  (960-992)  and  completed  by  Berenger,  who  consecrated  the  choir 
in  998.  The  choir  and  transept  were  later  rebuilt  in  the  style  of  the  XIII  century. 
However,  the  lofty  nave  of  the  X  century  church  still  survives.  The  three  aisles  are 
separated  by  square  piers.  The  entire  nave  is  singularly  bare  of  ornament,  there 
being  not  even  a  capital  with  carved  decoration.     (Dehio,  194.) 

TOURS,  Indre-et-Loire,  France.  St.  Martin.  (111.  93.)  This  famous  church, 
destroyed  in  the  Revolution,  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  France.  The  first 
building,  consecrated  in  the  V  century,  must  have  been  of  mean  proportions,  for  it 
was  soon  replaced  by  a  more  sumptuous  edifice  dedicated  in  472.  This  second  church 
was  burned  in  843;'  and,  since  it  is  known  that  in  912  the  body  of  the  saint  was  brought 

'  Hugonis  Floriacens.,  Modernor.  regum  Francorum  actus  a.  843,  cit.  Schlosser,  280. 

186 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  THIRD   CLASS 

back  into  the  church,'  it  is  probable  that  another  new  building  was  completed 
about  that  time.  This  fourth  building  in  turn  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  997,  and  a 
fifth  church  was  consecrated  between  1008  and  1017.  Burned  once  more  in  1096, 
the  monument  was  finally  rebuilt  in  the  transitional  and  Gothic  styles.  Only  two 
towers  —  one  of  the  west  facade,  the  other  belonging  to  one  of  the  transepts  —  are 
extant  of  this  monument.  Recent  excavations,  however,  have  laid  bare  the  founda- 
tions of  the  choirs  of  the  six  different  buildings.  The  foundations  of  997  are  most 
remarkable  in  tliat  they  show  a  fully  developed  chevet,  with  ambulatory  and  five 
radiating  chapels.  Below  these  foundations  come  to  light  others,  showing  also  an 
ambulatory:  this  second  ambulatory  was  long  held  to  belong  to  the  V  century  church, 
but  it  is  now  known  that  it  formed  part  of  the  building  of  912.  Even  so,  it  doubtless 
antedates  its  only  rival,  the  similar  ambulatory  of  Sto.  Stefano,  Verona.  (Dehio; 
Ratel:  Chevalier.) 

Pf-RIGUEUX,  Dordogne,  France.  'S7.  Front.  Some  portions  of  the  "Latin 
Church"  of  the  VI  century  "  remain  rebuilt  in  the  present  edifice.  Towards  the  west 
end  has  been  found  the  fafade  of  this  building,  the  narthex  which  preceded  it,  and  two 
chapels,  commonly  called  the  "  confessios."  The  primitive  church,  to  judge  from  these 
remains,  seems  to  have  had  three  aisles.  The  facade,  now  hidden  by  modern  walls, 
was  constructed  of  reticulated  work.  The  nave  was  covered  with  a  wooden  roof, 
but,  strangely  enough,  the  aisles  were  vaulted  with  a  series  of  barrel  vaults,  whose  axes 
were  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  nave.  The  tower  is  variously  assigned  as  con- 
temporary with  the  Latin  Church,  or  belonging  to  the  XI  century.  (De  Verneilh; 
Corroyer.) 

POLA,  Istria,  Austria.  Dom.  The  style  of  this  monument  clearly  bespeaks 
the  VI  century.  The  church  is  a  member  of  that  group  of  buildings  which  it  is 
difficult  to  know  whether  to  call  Early  Christian,  Byzantine,  or  Carolingian.  The 
apse  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is  surrounded  by  a  rectangular  room  divided  into  three  com- 
partments, destined  to  receive  relics  of  the  saints.  In  modern  times  the  apse  has 
been  removed,  and  the  eastern  chamber  has  thus  been  turned  into  a  prolongation  of 
the  nave.  The  church  probably  was  partially  rebuilt  in  the  IX  centur}',  since  the 
capitals  of  the  triumphal  arch  and  certain  other  details  seem  to  be  of  this  date.  In 
the  outside  wall,  used  as  second-hand  material,  is  an  inscription  of  857,^  which  was 
probably  embedded  in  the  masonry  in  the  XIV  century,  when  the  church  was  altered 
in  the  Gothic  style.     (Cattaneo.) 

VAISON,  ^'aucluse,  France.  CathMrale.  The  apse  is  said  to  date  from  the 
Merovingian  epoch.  The  church  was  rebuilt  in  910  by  the  bishop  Humbert,  and  the 
choir  and  outside  walls  of  the  aisles  are  believed  to  date  from  this  time.     (Enlart.) 

BIELLA,  Piedmont,  Italy.  Baptistery.  There  is  no  external  evidence  for  the 
date  of  this  building,  which  has  been  assigned  on  its  style  to  various  dates:  —  to  the 
IX  century  by  Cattaneo,  Mella  and  Dartein;  to  the  last  half  of  the  X  century  by  Riv- 

'  Ibid.,  a.  91'2,  cit.  Schlosser,  280. 

'  X  centurj'  accordin;;  to  Dehio.     I  have  not  examined  this  monument  on  the  spot. 
'  .Vn  Incariiat  Dni  DCCCLVII  ind  V  rege  Ludowico  Imp  Aug  in  Italia  Handegis  huius 
SBCcae  elec  die  pciite  cons  eps  sed  an  V. 

187 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

oira.  The  plan  consists  of  a  square  central  area,  off  which  open  four  semicircular 
apses.  The  central  area  is  covered  by  a  dome  on  squinches,  surmounting  a  clearstory. 
The  dome  is  concealed  externally  by  a  flat  roof;  the  apses  are  so  roofed  as  to  give 
the  building  from  without  the  appearance  of  having  a  side  aisle.  The  exterior  is 
decorated  with  corbel-tables  and  pilaster  strips;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  these  pil- 
aster strips  are  given  the  function  of  buttresses  on  the  reentrant  angles.  The  lantern 
is  modern.     (Cattaneo;   Rivoira.) 

ANGERS,  Maine-et-Loire,  France.  St.  Martin.  There  is  an  unconfirmed  tra- 
dition that  this  church  was  founded  by  the  Empress  Hermangarde,  wife  of  Louis 
the  Pious,  before  818;  but  the  charter  of  a  donation  made  to  the  Chapter  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, c.  1040,  states  that  the  church  had  been  rebuilt  after  1000  by  Foulques  Nerva 
and  his  second  wife  Hildegarde.  It  is  not  unlikely  the  two  names  Hildegarde  and 
Hermangarde  may  have  been  confused.  At  all  events  it  is  certain  that  works  were 
in  progress  in  1012,  when  the  body  of  St.  Loup  was  discovered  in  the  course  of  altera- 
tions. The  present  edifice  seems  to  date  in  large  part  from  the  XII  century;  but 
the  four  arches  which  carry  the  tower,  a  side  portal,  and  other  fragments  may  be 
anterior  to  the  year  1000.     (Enlart.) 

Baptistery  is  octagonal  and  very  small,  having  an  internal  diameter  of  only  5 
meters.  It  is  situated  very  near  to  the  church  of  Ste.  Maurille,  to  which  it  was  for- 
merly joined  by  a  short  gallery.  This  disposition  and  the  coarse  masonry  are  be- 
lieved to  indicate  a  date  somewhere  in  the  Carolingian  period.     (Enlart.) 

WtJRZBURG,  Unter-Franken,  Germany.  Liebfraukapclle  auj  dcm  Berge.  There 
are  two  rather  puzzling  texts  which  may  or  may  not  refer  to  this  monument.  "Every 
one  knows  that  he  firmly  established  upon  the  tomb  of  martyrs  the  monastery,  which 
he  built  on  the  mountain;  and  this  monastery  begun  in  wooden  materials  was  after- 
wards reconstructed  more  carefully  in  stone,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  high  priest 
of  God.  Hither  the  bodies  of  the  saints  were  brought  and  placed  gloriousl)'  in  a  finely 
worked  sarcophagus."  '  St.  Burchard,  to  whom  this  pas,sage  refers,  died  about  751. 
Another  passage  from  the  same  work  states  that  "on  the  narrow  slope  of  the  mountain 
often  mentioned  [i.e.,  the  Marienb 'rg]  and  in  the  loop  of  the  Main  River  he  [Burchard] 
began  to  found  a  monastery,  which  was  built  in  honor  of  the  blessed  mother  of  God 
and  of  the  apostle  Andrew.  .  .  .  And  he  placed  in  this  same  basilica  with  due  venera- 
tion the  body  of  that  martyr  of  great  renown."  "  Consequently  if  it  be  to  the  present 
monument  that  these  texts  refer,  the  structure  must  date  from  the  second  quarter  of 
the  VIII  century;  the  existing  edifice,  however,  could  hardly  have  served  as  the  church 
of  a  monastery,  and  if  connected  with  the  foundations  referred  to  in  the  texts  cited 

•  Visum  est  omnibus  ut  monasterium  quod  in  monte  constituere  disponebat,  circa  sepul- 
turam  martyrum  .  .  .  potissimunl  fabricaret;  quod  et  prinium  de  ligiiea  materia  initiatum,  post 
haec  accuratiori  lapidum  structura  per  S.  Dei  pontificem  ad  unijiieni  est  perductum,  ubi  et  denuo 
sanctorum  corpora  relata  et  in  operoso  sarcaphago  gloriose  sunt  recondita.  —  Vita  S.  Eurchardi 
episcopi  Wirsburg,  c.  7,  cit.  Schlosser,  IS'i. 

^ ...  in  arto  proclivi  mentis  saepedicti  et  allapsu  Moeni  fluminis  coepit  instituere  coeno- 
bium,  quod  in  lion.  Dei  genetricis  s.  apostoli  Andrese  constructum.  .  .  .  Recondidit  etiam  in 
eadem  basilica  digna  cum  veneratione  corpus  cuiusdam  martyris  magni  nomine.  — Ibid.,  c.  8, 
cit.  Schlosser,  ISi. 

188 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   THIRD   CLASS 

above,  it  must,  like  the  Altc  Thurm  of  INIettlach,  have  been  an  outside  chapel  or  a 
baplistt'ry.  The  plan,  whieh  is  strikingly  classical,  consists  of  a  circular  central  area 
supplied  with  two  entrances  and  three  semicircular  internal  niches.  The  upper 
portions  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  XI  century,  or  even  later.     (Dchio.) 

METTLACH.  (near  Trier),  Rheinland,  Germany.  Altc  Thurm.  (111.  91.) 
The  monastery  of  Mettlach,  according  to  tradition,  was  founded  as  early  as  the  VIII 
century,  but  in  the  X  century  it  had  fallen  into  great  disrepair.  A  restorat'on  com- 
menced under  the  inspiration  of  Ruotbert  of  Trier  (930-95G)  seems  never  to  have 
been  competently  carried  out,  for  it  is  stated  in  a  source  written  about  1070  that 
"[Bishop  Ekbert  of  Trier  (975-993)]  tore  down  the  little  building  which  Ilezzel  had 
left  unfinished,  and  sending  to  the  palace  at  Aachen  and  taking  a  likeness  of  that,  he 
built  the  tower  which  is  still  extant."  '  The  building  is  octagonal  with  a  square  ap.=e. 
The  lower  story  has  no  aisle  but  is  furnished  with  six  semicircular  niches;  the  second 
story  consists  of  a  little  triforium  gallery  built  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The 
resemblance  to  Aachen  is  not  striking.     (Dehio,  150;  Enlart.) 

GRAXDLIEU,  Loire  Inferieure,  France.  St.  PhUheii.  According  to  M.  Leon 
Maitre  this  church  is  a  building  entirely  of  the  Carolingian  epoch,  having  been  erected 
in  815  by  the  monks  of  Marmoutiers,  and  enlarged  by  them  in  83C  to  receive  certain 
relics.  The  choir  and  transepts,  indeed,  are  doubtless  very  ancient;  but  the  nave  is 
constructed  of  stone  courses  alternating  with  bands  of  brick,  its  archivolts  are  in  two 
orders,  and  its  piers  are  compound;  —  all  of  which,  as  M.  Brutails  has  pointed  out, 
indicates  the  developed  Romanesque  st\le  of  the  XI  century.     (Enlart.) 

P.WIA,  Lombardy,  Italy.  iS.  EiLsehio.  It  is  known  from  a  passage  in  Paulus 
Warnefridus  that  this  church  existed  in  the  time  of  Rothari,  king  of  the  Lombards 
(63fi-(i5':J),  and  that  it  belonged  to  the  Arian  cult.  This  last  circumstance  makes  it 
probable  that  the  monument  had  undergone  a  rebuilding  or  a  radical  restoration  under 
Authari  (583-590)  since  that  monarch  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  Arianism.  At 
least  it  is  certain  that  the  building  which  existed  in  the  time  of  Rothari  was  not  of  pre- 
Lombard  construction,  since  it  is  inadmissible  that  before  Alboin  (568)  such  degraded 
art,  as  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  crypt  of  this  church,  could  have  been  produced.  This 
crypt  is  the  only  part  of  the  original  edifice  that  has  survived;  the  rest  of  the  church 
was  destroyed  in  the  XVIII  century.  The  crypt  is  basilican  in  plan,  and  is  to-day 
covered  with  a  rib  vault  —  doubtless  an  addition  of  the  XI  century.  The  most  in- 
teresting of  the  capitals  have  the  form  of  inverted  truncated  pyramids.     (Cattaneo.) 

Sta.  Maria  delle  Caccie  is  a  church  founded  by  Epifania,  daughter  of  Ratchis 
(744-7-19).  Only  a  small  portion  of  the  lateral  wall  remains,  but  this  is  interesting 
since  it  contains  a  window  in  three  orders.     (Cattaneo.) 

LE  MANS,  Sarthe,  France.  Notre  Dame  de  la  Couture,  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  the  VI  century  by  St.  Bertraut,  was  burned  ■  by  the  Northmen  about  842.  In  996, 
a  rebuilding  took  place,  and  Hugh,  Count  of  Maine,  contributed  towards  the  expen.scs 

'  Domunculuni,  quam  Ilezzel  iinpcrfcctum  reliquerat,  ab  iiiio  cruit  et  Aquisgraiii  palatiiiin 
mittens  et  excode  siniiltuHiiioin  suniens,  turrini  <iiia!  adlnic  sui>orest  erexit.  — Mirarutis  S.  l.uit- 
H-ini,  Mss.  in  Bil)liothek  of  Trior,  printed  in  I'olland.,  29  Sept.  <it.  Coliauson. 

^  Hugonis  Floriacens.,  Mudcnium  reyum  Francorum  actus,  a.  843.     Cit.  Sclilosser,  220. 
189 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

of  this.  In  the  Gothic  period  (XII-XIV  centuries)  the  monument  was  largely  al- 
tered, but  the  walls  of  the  nave  and  the  ambulatory  of  the  X  century  structure  still 
survive.  The  Carolingian  church  had  three  aisles,  galleries,  a  transept,  and  a  cen- 
tral tower.  The  most  interesting  feature  was  the  fully  developed  chevet,  with  ambu- 
latory and  radiating  chapels,  —  a  feature  doubtless  copied  from  the  neighboring  St. 
Martin  of  Tours.     (Charles;  Enlart.) 

VENICE,  Venetia,  Italy.  S.  Ilario  is  a  most  interesting  monument,  whose 
foundations  have  been  excavated,  but  unfortunately  have  now  been  covered  up  again. 
The  church  was  founded  by  the  doges  Agnello  and  Giustiniano  Participazi  about  820, 
on  the  site  of  an  oratory  of  the  VII  century.  Portions  of  walls,  part  of  a  mosaic 
pavement  in  opits  alexandrinum,  and  fragments  of  sculpture  —  all  doubtless  of  the 
IX  century  —  were  found  in  the  course  of  the  excavations.  The  church  had  the 
usual  basilican  plan,  the  three  aisles  being  separated  by  columns.  There  were 
three  apses,  each  prolonged  beyond  the  semicircle.  The  outside  walls  were  con- 
structed of  herring-bone  masonry.     (Cattaneo.) 

VIEUX-PONT-EN-AL'GE,  Calvados,  France.  Eglise.  An  inscription  on 
a  stone  of  the  wall  is  unfortunately  only  in  part  legible.  It  seems  to  refer  to  a  cer- 
tain Ranold  (perhaps  the  count  who  lived  c.  1000  .•')  who  appears  to  have  done  some- 
thing to  the  church.  The  letters  are  Carolingian  in  character.  The  church  itself 
is  very  small,  with  a  nave  of  a  single  aisle  and  a  square  choir.  There  are  no  but- 
tresses. Two  of  the  walls  of  the  nave  seem  to  be  without  question  anterior  to  the  XI 
century.  The  base  of  the  tower  is  of  another  epoch,  but  perhaps  also  anterior  to  c. 
1000.  The  choir  is  of  the  XI  century,  and  the  portal  is  modern.  The  fine  tower 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  XI  century.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

CAPUA,  Campania,  Italy.  S.  Michele  is  assigned  on  its  style  to  the  second  half 
of  the  X  century  by  Cattaneo.  The  churcli  is  a  single-aisled  basilica  with  three  apses. 
The  presbytery  is  raised,  and  extends  some  distance  into  the  nave  beyond  the  apses; 
beneath  it  is  a  crypt,  reproducing  the  dispositions  of  the  upper  church  and  covered 
with  vaults  supported  by  a  single  column.  The  church  must  originally  have  had  an 
eastern  portico  with  two  columns,  as  these  may  still  be  seen  imbedded  in  a  modern 
wall.     (Cattaneo.) 

LA  BOURSE,  Artois,  France.  Eglise  Rurale.  The  ornament  is  even  more 
meager  than  that  of  the  Basse  CEuvre  of  Beauvais,  an  edifice  with  which  it  is  natural 
to  compare  this  monument.  The  apse  and  the  base  of  the  central  tower  are  the  only 
portions  of  the  ancient  building  that  still  survive.     (Enlart.) 

MUNSTER,  Grisons,  Switzerland.  Ste.  Croix  was  formerly  believed  to  be  a 
funeral  cella  of  the  Early  Christian  period;  it  is  now,  however,  generally  recognized 
as  a  construction  of  the  VII  century.  This  monument  probably  represents  the  type 
of  small  parish  church  usually  erected  in  early  Carolingian  times.     (Corroyer.) 

QUERQUEVILLE,  (near  Cherbourg),  Manche,  France.  Chapelle  St.  Ger- 
main. This  curious  little  church  has  often  been  assigned  to  a  very  early  epoch,  and  in 
fact  it  can  hardly  be  later  than  the  early  years  of  the  XI  century,  while  it  may  be  much 
older.  At  present  the  church  consists  of  a  Greek  cross,  three  of  whose  arms  —  the 
choir  and  transepts  —  terminate  in  semicircular  apses;  but  the  western  portions  are 

190 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  THIRD   CLASS 

modern,  and  flio  traces  of  the  ancient  stone  work  seem  to  indicate  that  the  nave  also 
terminated  in  a  semicircular  apse.  The  church  thus  had  originally  the  form  of  a 
f]uatrefoil. 

IVREA,  Piedmont,  Italy.  Cathedral  was  founded  or,  more  probably,  rebuilt 
by  the  bishop  Wermund,  as  is  known  from  an  inscription  still  preserved  in  the  ambu- 
latory— -"Bishop  Wernnmd  built  this  for  the  Lord  from  its  foundations."  It  is 
not  known  exactly  when  Wermund  lived,  but  it  is  probable  that  he  ascended  the  epis- 
copal throne  about  073.  The  church  has  evidently  been  many  times  altered  in  the 
course  of  the  centuries,  but  considerable  fragments  of  the  X  century  structure  still 
survive.  Most  interesting  is  the  barrel-vaulted  ambulatory  which  is  still  in  excellent 
preservation,  and  which  presents  a  most  striking  analogy  to  that  of  Sto.  Stefano, 
Verona.  The  original  crypt  also  survives  although  it  has  been  enlarged  at  a  subse- 
quent epoch;  and  the  campaniles  which  flank  the  apse  are  likewise  of  the  primitive 
construction.     (Rivoira.) 

GERXRODE-AM-IIARZ,  Anhalt,  Germany.  Kirche,  founded  in  960  and 
completed  before  the  end  of  the  century,  was  much  rebuilt  in  the  XII  century. 
The  original  dispositions,  however,  may  still  be  traced.  The  church  was  a  three- 
aisled  basilica  with  transepts,  three  apses,  an  interior  narthex,  and  two  towers.  Both 
columns  and  piers  were  used  for  supports.  In  the  XII  century  the  present  choir  was 
substituted  for  the  original  apse.     (Mauer;  Dehio.) 

FULDA,  Ilessen-Nassau,  Germany.  Heil.  Michael.  "This  temple  which 
that  venerable  man  [Eigil  f  882]  .  .  .  had  built,  Heistolfus  bishop  of  Mainz,  when 
he  crossed  Thuringia,  dedicated  in  the  honor  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  of  St.  Michael 
(Christ's  archangel),  and  of  the  relics."  '  —  "Now  the  abbot  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  brothers,  built  a  small  circular  church,  where  the  dead  bodies  of  the  brothers 
might  be  given  over  to  the  tomb  to  rest,  and  this  church  they  call  a  cemetery.  .  .  . 
The  part  of  this  building  which  is  underground  consists  of  a  passage  circulating  around 
a  boldly  rising  central  column,  from  which  arches  radiate  on  all  sides  to  the  outer 
wall  of  the  passage;  the  superstructure  is  supported  by  eight  columns  and  is  sealed, 
at  the  very  top  of  the  work,  by  one  stone." "  — "In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  the 
Lord  822,  the  15th  indiction,  this  cemetery  was  dedicated  by  Heistolfus  bishop  of 
Mainz  in  honor  of  St.  Michael  the  archangel.  .  .  ."  ^  These  three  texts  establish 
conclusively  the  date  of  the  original  foundation  of  our  monument.  Unfortunately 
a  restoration  of  the  XI  century  has  destroyed  all  except  the  lower  part  of  the  church; 

'  Hoc  igitur  templum,  quod  iste  \ir  ven.  .  .  .  construxit,  Heistolfus  Moguntiacensis  ec- 
clesiae  pnesul  Turingea  rura  transiens  dedica\-it  in  hon.  Domiiii  nostri  Jesu  Christi  et  S.  INIichaelis 
archangel!  Christi  et  reliquorum.     V.  Eigelis,  c.  21,  cit.  Schlosser,  99. 

•  Pater  namque  monasterii  .  .  .  cum  consilio  et  fratruni  consensu  ecclesiam  parvam  sedi- 
ficavit  rotundam,  ubi  defuncta  corpora  fratrum  sepulturie  tradita  requiescant,  quam  cemiterium 
vocant.  .  .  .  Cuius  etiam  axlificii  structura  sub  terram,  iilji  pervnum  circuit  antrum,  ab  una 
columna  lapidea  in  medio  posita,  arcubus  hinc  et  inde  in  eamdem  compaginata,  valenter  exsur- 
git;  supra  vero  octonis  subrigitur  columnis  atque  in  summitate  opens  lapide  uno  concluditur. 
—  V.  Eigilis,  c.  20,  cit.  S<-hIo.s.ser,  99. 

'  Anno  i.d.  DCCCXXII  iud.  XV  dcdicatum  est  hoc  cj-meterium  ab  Heistolfo  archiepiscopo 
Moguntiacensis  .  .  .  inhonoreS.  Michaelisarchangeli.  .  .  . — llrabani,  C'arnu'na,  42,  cit.  Schlos- 
ser, 99. 

191 


CAROLINGL\N   MONUMENTS 

it  is  still  possible,  however,  to  recognize  that  the  original  structure  was  a  circular 
domed  building,  with  an  aisle  separated  from  the  nave  by  pilfered  columns.  The 
ancient  apse  was  built  out  to  the  eastward.     (Dehio.) 

Salratorskirche.  This  monastery  was  founded  by  St.  Boniface  about  744;  ' 
the  church  was  commenced  between  790  and  79'2,"'  and  was  consecrated  in  818-819.' 
It  is  known  that  the  name  of  the  master-builder  in  charge  of  this  \'III  century  con- 
struction was  Racholfus  and  that  the  church  had  two  crypts  and  two  chcirs.''  This 
primitive  building  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  947,  and  underwent  various  alterations 
between  1000  and  1130.  How  much,  if  any,  of  the  building  of  790-819  survives  in 
the  present  structure,  has  long  been  a  subject  of  controversy  among  archieologists; 
it  seems  probable,  however,  that  only  the  western  aj)se  and  the  crypt  can  be  as- 
signed to  this  date.     (Dehio,  170;  Enlart.) 

ESSEN-AN-DP:R-RUIIR,  Rhcinland,  Germany.  Miinstcr.  "Altfridus  [tS74] 
was  buried  at  Essen  in  his  church,  which  he  him.sclf  had  begun,  finished,  and  dedi- 
cated.'"* In  944  or  946  the  church  was  injured  by  fire."  This  fire  seems  to  have 
totally  destroyed  the  west  narthex  and  the  eastern  clioir,  but  to  have  left  standing 
the  walls  of  the  nave.  At  all  events,  late  in  the  X  century  new  east  and  west  choirs 
were  built,  and  the  western  apse  was  flanked  by  two  chapels.  This  western  choir, 
which  is  still  extant,  consisted  in  plan  of  a  half  hexagon,  inscribed  with  its  two  towers 
in  a  rectangle.  To  the  eastward  it  opened  on  the  nave  by  a  trium])hal  arch  with  Cor- 
inthianesque  pilasters.  The  design  shows  evident  imitation  of  Aachen.  (Dehio, 
155.) 

WERDEN,  Rheinland,  Germany.  Salvatorsh-ircJic.  This  monastery  was 
foundetl  in  875;  and  the  church  '  doubtless  was  built  about  the  same  time.  In  1059 
the  crypt  was  restored;  in  1119  there  was  a  fire  in  which  the  church  was  destroyed  or, 
more  probably,  damaged.  The  building  reconstructed  after  this  fire  still  exists;  and 
in  this  structure  there  remains  enough  of  the  church  of  875  to  establish  the  fact  that 
the  original  basilica  had  transepts  provided  with  eastern  apses  expressed  externally. 
The  aisles  of  the  Carolingian  basilica  were  separated  by  square  piers  instead  of  by 
columns,  and  there  was  probably  a  western  narthex.       (Dehio,  164,  193;  Enlart.) 

INGELHEIM,  Hessen,  Germany.  Ileil.  Remigius  was  founded  by  Charle- 
magne 768-774,  but  rebuilt  by  Otto  I  in  the  late  X  century.  It  was  again  restored 
by  Frederic  I  (1152-89).  The  present  structure  consists  of  a  single-aisled  basilica 
with  a  semicircular  apse  and  deeply  projecting  transepts. 

GALLIANO,  (near  Cantu),  Lombardy,  Italy.  Pieve  di  S.  Vineenzo  was  con- 
secrated in  1007  by  Ariberto  d'  Intimiano.     The  three  aisles  terminate  in  a  semi- 

'  Ann.  s.  Bonifalii,  a.  744. 

2  Ibid.,  a.  790;  Ann.  breves  Fuld.,  a.  792;  Ibid.,  a.  791;  Ann.  Lamberti. 

"  Ann.  antiqtd  Fiddenses,  a.  819;  Vita  S.  Eigilis,  e.  16;  Ilrabani,  Cann.,  41. 

<  Vita  Eigilis  Metrica,  c.  156. 

*  Altfridus  Asnede  in  sua  secclesia  quam  ipse  inchoavit,  consummavit,  dedicavit,  sepultus 
quievit.  —  Chron.  Hildesheim.,  c.  4,  cit.  Schlosser,  37. 

°  Annal.  Colon.,  Monumenta  Germaniie  historica,  Scriptorum,  Vol.  I,  p.  98;  ibid..  Vol 
XVI,  p.  731. 

'  Vita  S.  Ladgeri  episcopi  II,  c.  8. 

192 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   TIIIliD   CLASS 

circular  apse,  considerably  raised  to  make  room  for  a  crypt  below.  The  fa<pade  is 
modern.  The  side  walls  are  decorated  externally  with  the  usual  corbel-tables  and 
pilaster  strips;  the  apse  is  adorned  with  a  number  of  rows  of  blind  arcades,  jjlaced  at 
intervals  along  its  entire  height.     (Rivoira,  30G.) 

Baptistery  is  contemporary  with  the  church,  as  is  proved  by  a  painting  now  in 
the  atrium  of  the  Biblioteca  Ambrosiana  at  Milan.  In  this  painting  Ariberto  is  rep- 
resenteil  in  the  act  of  offering  the  church  rebuilt  by  him,  while  in  one  corner  of  the 
picture  the  baptistery  may  be  distinguished.  The  actual  building  is  of  the  basilican 
plan  with  three  aisles,  gallery,  and  apse,  and  is  preceded  by  a  narthex.  The  monu- 
ment is  now  entirely  vaulted,  but  these  vaults  are  in  all  probability  a  later  addition. 
The  central  cloistered  vault  is  thoroughly  Lombard  in  style,  resting  on  squinches 
and  being  [jrotected  by  a  wooden  roof.     (Rivoira.) 

HEIDELBERG,  Baden,  Germany.  Heil.  Michael  aiif  dem  Berge.  "In  the  year 
of  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  863,  Thiodroch  was  chosen  to  succeed  Eigilbert  as 
abbot.  ...  He  founded  and  built  the  church  in  Obenheim  and  the  monastery  at 
Heidelberg,  and,  his  course  being  finished  in  12  years,  he  received  the  crown  of  jus- 
tice (Sept.  14,  875)."  '  As  was  usually  the  case,  the  construction  of  the  church  was 
not  begun  until  some  time  after  the  founding  of  the  monastery.  Gerhard  succeeded 
from  883-893  as  abbot  of  Lorsch,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  basilica  of  the  mon- 
astery was  built  while  he  was  in  office,  for  in  891  donations  were  sent  "as  an  aid  for  the 
basilica  which  has  been  erected  at  Heidelberg  in  honor  of  St.  Michael  the  Archangel."  ^ 
The  church  was  subsequently  rebuilt  "from  the  foundations"  by  Reginbald,  bishop 
of  Speyer  (1018-33)  and  restored  by  the  abbot  Oudabric'  (1056-75).  In  later 
times  the  monastery  was  abandoned,  and  the  church  fell  into  complete  ruin.  The 
foundations  were  excavated  in  1886.  It  was  found  that  the  Carolingian  plan  had 
been  preserved  in  all  the  later  rebuildings,  and  could  still  be  traced,  although  most 
of  the  superstructure,  including  the  western  portico  and  the  two  western  towers,  was 
of  later  date.  The  eastern  end,  however,  belongs  entirely  to  the  IX  century.  The 
original  Carolingian  building  seems  to  have  had  three  apses,  projecting  transepts, 
three  aisles  separated  by  piers,  an  atrium,  but  no  crypt.     (Schleunig;  Schmitt,  405.) 

FR.WKFURT,  A/M.,  Hessen -Nassau,  Germany.  Salratorskapelle.  (111.  95.) 
The  foundations  of  the  Carolingian  basilica  have  been  excavated  beneath  the  present 
cathedral.  This  Carolingian  church  was  consecrated  in  852  by  Rhabanus  Maurus, 
archbishop  of  Mainz,  since,  as  Grotefend  ■*  has  shown,  the  following  inscription  taken 
from  an  old  manuscript^  refers  to  this  monument:  "In  the  3'ear  of  the  incarnation  of 
the  Lord  85-2,  the  15th  indiction,  and  the  1st  day  of  September,  this  temple  newly  con- 
structed by  noble  King  Louis  was  dedicated  by  Rhabanus  archbishop  of  Mainz  in 

'  .\nno  dominicae  incamationis  865  (immo  863)  post,  Eigilbertum  Thiodroch  abbas  subro- 
gatur.  .  .  .  Hie  ecclesiam  in  Obbenheim  et  monasterium  in  monte  Abrahie  fundotenus  erexit 
et  XII  annis  (anno  DCCCLXXV,  XVIII  Oct.)  cursu  consomraato  coronam  accepit  justitiae. 
(Chron.  Laur.  in  Mon.  Gemi.  Hist.,  Soriptorum  XXI,  p.  369.) 

'  This  passage  is  quoted  in  I^tin  by  Schleunig  but  without  reference  as  to  whence  it  is  taken. 

^  Mon.  (ierm.  Hist.,  Scriptoruni  XXI,  p.  413. 

■*  p.  5,  note  i. 

^  Published  in  Brower,  Antiquitates  Fiddenses. 

193 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

honor  of  the  Lord  Saviour  (that  is  Jesus  Christ),  of  St.  Mary  ever  virgin,  and  of  the 
twelve  holy  apostles."  '■  The  church  is  further  mentioned  in  documents  of  880,  881, 
and  882.^  In  1238  the  ancient  basilica  was  doubtless  pulled  down  to  make  room 
for  the  present  edifice,  as  there  is  extant  a  bull  of  Gregory  IX  of  this  date,  offering 
indulgences  to  those  who  would  contribute  to  rebuild  the  edifice.  The  plan  as  ex- 
cavated shows  a  "T-formed"  basilica  with  three  apses,  the  side  ones  of  which  were 
probably  surmounted  by  bell  towers.  There  seem  in  addition  to  have  been  two  other 
towers  placed  at  the  west  end.  The  nave  was  five  bays  long,  and  the  three  aisles 
were  separated  by  columns.  The  transepts  projected  but  slightly.  (Schleunig; 
Schmitt.) 

CIMITILE,  [near  Nola],  Campania,  Italy.  5.  Felice  was  built,  according  to 
the  inscription,  by  Bishop  Leo  III  in  the  early  VII  century.  Of  this  church  only  the 
porch  remains  and  that  in  fragments.  These  broken  pieces,  however,  are  interest- 
ing both  in  themselves  and  as  showing  the  first  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  Lombard 
porch.  The  decoration  is  well  executed  and  strongly  Byzantine  in  character.  This 
monument  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  Renaissance  which  occurred  in  Italy  in  the 
early  VII  century.     (Cattaneo.) 

BENEVENTO,  Campania,  Italy.  Sta.  Sofia  was  founded  in  77-t  by  Arrichis, 
and  is  a  most  extraordinary  edifice.  An  hexagonal  nave  (covered  with  a  modern 
dome)  is  surrounded  by  two  aisles;  the  inner  of  these  is  roofed  with  domes,  often  ellip- 
tical in  form,  alternating  with  triangular  groined  vaults;  the  outer  is  covered  entirely 
with  groin  vaults.  To  the  east  is  a  rectangular  apse,  to  the  west  the  aisles  are  pro- 
longed lengthwise  into  a  sort  of  portico,  forming  a  flat  west  end,  much  wider  than  the 
central  part  of  the  church.  The  columns  are  of  the  Corinthian  order  and  pilfered. 
(Dehio.) 

Other  Monitments 

KOBLENZ,  Rheinland,  Germany.  Heil.  Kastor  was  built  by  Bishop  Hetti 
of  Trier  and  consecrated  in  836  as  is  known  from  the  following  text:  "  ...  in  the 
twenty-third  year  of  Louis  the  Emperor,  [Bishop  Hetti]  brought  the  body  of  St.  Cas- 
tor from  the  place  which  is  called  Karden-on-the-Moselle  to  Koblenz,  to  the  monas- 
tery which  he  himself  had  built;  and  on  the  9th  of  December  he  consecrated  the 
monastery  in  honor  of  St.  Castor  and  of  all  the  saints,  and  after  the  consecration  he 
buried  the  holy  body  in  the  church."^  This  church  of  Bishop  Hetti  was  destroyed 
by  the  Normans  in  882,  and  was  apparently  again  burnt  and  rebuilt  in  the  XI  cen- 

1  Anno  dominicje  incarnationis  DCCCLII  indictione  XV  mense  Septembri  prima  die  men- 
sis  hoc  teiiiplum  a  Hludox-ico  nobilissimo  rege  noviter  constructum  est  et  dedicatum  per  Hrab- 
anum  Maguntiacensis  ecclesise  antistitein  in  honorem  S.  Salvatoris  domini  videlicet  Jesu  Christi 
et  S.  Mariae  semper  \irginis  et  Ss.  XII  apostolorum. 

"  Mss.  in  Kloster  St.  Maximin  in  Trier. 

'  ...  in  XXIII  anno  Ludovici  imp.  apporta\nt  corpus  S.  Castoris  de  loco  qui  vocatur 
Cardena  ad  Confluentiam  ad  monasterium  quod  ipse  construxerat  et  V  die  Id.  Dec.  coiise- 
cravit  in  honore  S.  Castoris  et  omnium  confessorum  et  post  consecrationem  S.  corpus  in  ecclesia 
recondidit.  —  Gesia  Treverorum,  c.  15,  Hetti  episcopus  ord.  814  (?),  cit.  Schlosser,  4'-2.  Cf. 
also  Zusatz  des  Cod.  Vindob.  zu  Thegan,  Vita  Hlodoinci,  Men.  Germ.  Hist.,  Scriptorum  II, 
603,  cit.  Schlosser,  43. 

194 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

tury.  Of  this  last  building  the  lower  stories  of  the  west  towers  remain.  Of  the 
earlier  buildings  some  fragments  survive.     (Lehfelt,  1-42;  Dehio.) 

ILE  ST.  IIONORAT  DE  LERINS,  Alpes  Maritimes,  France.  Chapelle  de 
la  Trinite.  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  church,  which, 
however,  Corrover  assigns  to  the  VII  or  VIII  century.  The  monument  is  constructed 
of  regular  blocks,  carelessly  placed,  and  is  absolutely  without  decoration  or  mould- 
ings of  any  kind.  The  design  consists  of  a  small  square  nave  (17'  X  17')  covered  with 
a  barrel  vault  and  ending  in  an  apse.  Over  the  crossing  is  a  dome  on  pendentives. 
All  this,  I  should  suspect  (without,  however,  an  examination  on  the  spot),  indicates 
a  date  later  than  1000.     (Corrover.) 

COMO,  Lombardy,  Italy.  S.  Fedde  was  founded  in  914.  According  to  Dehio, 
parts  of  the  original  circular  church  remain,  forming  the  curved  transept  ends  of  the 
present  edifice.  Neither  Cattaneo  nor  Rivoira,  however,  include  this  monument  in 
their  list  of  edifices  anterior  to  1000.  On  analogy  with  S.  Lorenzo  of  Milan,  the  prim- 
itive church  is  commonly  restored  as  consisting  of  a  quadrangular  domed  central 
area  with  columnated  niches  opening  off  of  it. 

S.  Abondio.  In  a  recent  restoration  many  sculptures  belonging  to  an  ancient 
presbytery  were  found  built  into  the  present  walls.  Cattaneo  assigns  these  frag- 
ments to  the  IX  century  on  their  style. 

GRENOBLE,  Isere,  France.  Chapelle  St.  Laurent.  The  crypt  is  the  most 
ancient  j>art  of  the  existing  edifice,  and  probably  dates  from  early  in  the  IX  century.' 
The  plan  of  this  crypt  consists  of  a  nave  terminated  at  the  west  by  three  apses,  and 
towards  the  east  by  a  great  niche  as  large  as  the  apse  it  faces.  The  barrel  vault 
rests  on  pilfered  columns.  The  walls,  which  are  constructed  of  alternate  courses  of 
brick  and  rubble,  were  originally  covered  with  stucco.  (Archives  de  la  Com.  des 
Monuments  Historiques  IV,  3.) 

AUXERRE,  Yonne,  France.  St.  Germain.  This  monastery  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  as  early  as  the  V  century."  The  most  important  text  bearing  on  its 
history  is  the  following:  "The  work  having  been  finished  and  everything  appertain- 
ing to  the  decoration  completed,  .  .  .  the  most  holy  body  of  St.  Germain  .  .  .  was 
translated  into  the  crvpt,  —  a  receptacle  worthy  of  so  great  a  treasure.  This  was 
accomplished  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  841  ..  .  But  in  the  year  of  the  incarnation 
of  the  Lord,  859  .  .  .  the  same  basilica  was  enlarged  and  decorated  with  beautiful 
crypts,  as  has  been  above  set  forth,  and  the  tomb  of  our  often  mentioned  father  was 
moved  anew  from  the  place  of  its  first  translation,  to  the  repository  mentioned  above, 
prepared  with  new  and  toilful  diligence."  '     The  church  itself  was  destroyed  by  fire 

'  .Mtlioiitjli  M.  Enlart  speaks  of  this  church  as  "un  ensemble  du  7me  siecle." 

■  More  precisely  in  418.     Leclerc,  3. 

'  I'crfccto  Dpere  tunclisque  decorem  prsetendentibus  consummatis  sanctiss.  .  .  .  corpus 
1).  Gerinaiii  in  crvptum  tanto  condignam  thesauro  .  .  .  translatuni  est.  .  .  .  .\ctum  est  hoc 
a.  Dei  hominis  facti  841.  ...  At  a.  eiusdem  verbi  incarnati  859  .  .  .  amplificata  eadem  basil- 
ica, cn'ptarumque,  ut  snpra  digestum  est,  pulcliritndine  decorata  sa?pedicti  .  .  .  patris  nostri 
ss.  mausoleum  a  loco  primariie  translationis  denuo  summotum  est,  ad  conditorium  supra  scrip- 
turn,  nova  oporosaque  proeparatum  diligentia.  —  lleiriri  miracida  s.  Germani  Autissiod.  epis- 
cupi  II,  G,  tit.  Schlosser,  189. 

195 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

two  hundred  j'ears  later,  and  has  undergone  several  reconstructions,  the  last  in  the 
XIV  century;  but  the  crj'pt,  despite  numerous  restorations,  still  dates  mainly  from 
the  IX  century.     (Enlart.) 

BINGEN,  Hessen,  Germany.  Kapelle.  "[Bertha]  .  .  .  went  to  another  place, 
situated  on  the  Nahe,  (where  now  rest  the  relics  of  herself  and  of  St.  Robert),  and  there 
she  built  a  church."  ^  Bertha  and  Robert  lived  in  the  IX  century.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Carolingian  church  built  by  Bertha  still  exists  in  the  plain  Romanesque  chapel 
under  the  old  Roman  bridge  over  the  Nahe. 

KOLN,  (Cologne),  Rheinland,  Germany.  St.  Pantaleon.  The  archbishop 
Bruno,  brother  of  Otto  I,  was  buried  in  this  church  in  965;  the  consecration,  how- 
ever, did  not  take  place  until  980.  The  nave  was  rebuilt  in  the  XII  century,  the  choir 
in  the  XIII.  To  the  X  century  building  probably  belong  some  parts  of  the  present 
eastern  transepts,  and  the  western  end  of  the  edifice.  It  is  believed  that  the  orig- 
inal building  had  double  transepts.     (Dehio,  175.) 

Heil.  Maria  im  Capitol  was  founded  about  700,  but  none  of  the  present  edifice 
antedates  1000.     (Dehio.) 

JOUARRE,  Seine-et-Oise,  France.  Crypt  is  a  remnant  of  the  abbey  founded  in 
628  by  St.  Adon,  and  endowed  by  Ste.  Batilde  (f  660).  This  original  cr\-pt  of  St. 
Paul  was  subsequently  considerably  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  a  second  cr\-pt  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Ebregisile,  which  was  probably  built  about  847,  when  secular  clergy 
were  installed  to  take  the  place  of  the  monks  who  had  formerly  lived  here  in 
company  with  the  nuns.  The  crypt  of  St.  Ebregisile  extends  under  the  side  aisle 
of  the  church,  which  was  also  probably  added  at  this  time.  When  a  chapter  of  can- 
nons was  installed  in  the  XI  century,  the  crypt  of  St.  Paul  was  enlarged  at  the  west 
end,  and  in  other  ways  considerably  altered.     (Enlart.) 

ST.  QUENTIN,  Aisne,  France.  Eglise  Cathfdrale.  The  present  cr\-pt  seems 
to  be  a  remnant  of  the  church  that  was  built  by  the  abbot  Foure,  grandson  of  Charles 
Martel.  This  edifice,  it  is  known,  was  begun  in  816,  finished  in  824,  and  consecrated 
in  835.  It  was  burned  by  the  Normans  in  883  and  restored  in  888.  The  pavement 
belonging  to  this  or  a  still  earlier  church  has  recently  been  excavated  below  the  pres- 
ent Gothic  structure.     (Gomart;  Enlart.) 

LYON,  Rhone,  France.  Eglise  St.  Martin  d'Ainay.  This  church  was  founded  in 
theVcentur}-.  The  present  edifice,  however,  seems  to  date  entirely  from  theXI  century, 
although  it  has  often  been  ascribed  to  the  X  century."  One  doorway  in  the  church 
may  possibly,  however,  be  older,  and  the  crj-pt  under  the  Chapelle  Ste.  Blandine  is 
said  to  be  as  early  as  the  V  century  ( ?).     (Maitre.) 

St.  Nizier.  This  church,  formerly  dedicated  to  St.  Pothin,  was  rebuilt  in  580. 
The  dedication  was  changed  shortly  after  the  death  of  St.  Nizier  in  573.  Some  traces 
of  the  VI  century  edifices  are  said  to  survive  in  the  crj-pt  of  the  present  church. 
(Maitre.) 

■  [Bertha]  ...  ad  alium  locum  scilicet  super  Naham  situm  (in  quo  nunc  reliquiae  ipsius 
et  b.  Roberti  requiescunt)  se  contulit,  ibique  ecclesiam  aedifica\-it.  —  Vita  s.  Ruperti,  etc.,  c.  3, 
cit.  Schlosser. 

2  By  ThioUier,  Steyert,  etc. 

196 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

St.  Ircnec.  crypt  of  St.  Just.  There  is  much  controversy  as  to  how  much  of 
this  rather  unimportant  monument  belongs  to  the  Early  Christian  and  Carohngian 
eras,  and  how  much  is  due  to  later  alterations.  M.  Steyert  assigns  it  mainly  to 
the  VIII  or  IX  century.  The  present  church  of  St.  Irenee  dates  from  the  XI 
century  and  is  built  on  a  totally  ditferent  site.       (Maitre.) 

PADUA,  Venetia  Italy.  Baptistery  of  Sta.  Giii.stina.  The  date  of  this  monu- 
ment is  quite  uncertain.  The  building  is  of  cruciform  plan,  and  the  quadrangular 
central  space  is  surmounted  by  an  octagonal  cloistered  vault.  The  transition  from 
square  to  octagon  is  managed  by  squinches.     (Dehio.) 

BEZIERS,  Herault,  France.  Ste.  Aphrodise  is  a  church  thoroughly  Early  Chris- 
tian in  its  dispositions.  A  restoration  was  carried  out  in  the  X  century,  and  the  pres- 
ent structure  is  believed  to  date  from  this  time.     (Dehio,  25-t.) 

BAPTESTE,  Lot-et-Garonne,  France.  Baptistery  is  said  to  date  from  the  Caro- 
lingian  era.  The  monument  is  octagonal  internally,  square  without,  and  joined  by 
a  narthex  to  the  eastern  apse  of  a  little  trefoiled  church.     (Enlart.) 

VALLE  Dl  SUSA,  Piedmont,  Italy.  S.  Amhrogio  ai  Piedi  della  Sagra  di  S. 
Michclc.  The  foundations  of  the  campanile  are  ascribed  to  Giovanni  da  Pavia,  who 
is  believed  to  have  erected  a  church  on  this  site  shortly  before  he  became  archbishop 
of  Ravenna  in  983.     (Rivoira.) 

VITERBO,  Roma,  Italy.  Sta.  Maria  dclla  Cella.  The  campanile,  at  present 
built  into  a  wall,  is  ascribed  to  the  IX  century  by  Rivoira.  There  are  two  round- 
headed  windows  on  each  face  of  the  top  story. 

ISSOUDUN,  Indre,  France.  L'Ancienne  ChapcUe  du  Chateau.  This  chapel, 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  donjon,  retains  of  the  Carolingian  period  an  apse  flanked 
by  two  square  compartments.     (Enlart.) 

BLEIDEXSTADT,  (near  Wiesbaden),  Hessen-Nassau,  Germany.  Kirche 
was  founded  in  812  by  Riculf.'  Herr  Will  sees  in  the  present  edifice  this  church 
of  812,  but  the  identification  is  very  questionable. 

CH.\MALIERES,  (near  Clermont),  Puy-de-D6me,  France.  Eglise  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  X  century  by  M.  du  Ranquet.  The  interior,  constructed  of  granite,  has 
unhappily  been  covered  with  plaster  imitating  the  color  of  this  stone. 

CONSTANCE,  Constance,  Germany.  >S.  Mauritiiislcapelle  am  Dome.  This 
chapel  retains  a  single  circular  wall  built  by  the  Bishop  Konrad  (f  976).  The  vault 
is  of  the  XV  century.     (Dehio.) 

PEYRUSSE-GRANDE,  Gers,  France,  lujlise.  Although  restored  in  the 
XI  century,  this  monument  offers  certain  analogies  to  Germigny-les-Pres. 
The  geometrical  ornament  is  said  to  have  a  strikingly  Carolingian  character. 
(Enlart.) 

N.\NTES,  I^oire-Inferieure,  France.  St.  Similien.  The  substructions  of  an 
ancient  basilica,  excavated  beneath  the  present  church,  probably  date  from  the  Mero- 
vingian  era.     (Enlart.) 

HELMSTEDT,  Braunschweig,  Germany.     Kapelle,  in  two  stories.     This  mon- 

'  Tituli  sa^uli  IX,  No.  11,  in  Men.  Gerra.  Hist.,  Poetic  Latiiii  I,  431;  Hrabani,  Carm.,  70; 
Ma-girihar<li;  (it.  Sclilosscr,  37. 

197 


CAROLINGIAN   MONUMENTS 

ument,  dedicated  to  the  saints  Peter  and  Jolin,  is  said  to  date  from  as  early  as  the 
IX  century.     (Enlart.) 

ALET,  lUe-et-Vilaine,  France.  Ruins  seem  to  be  the  remains  of  a  basilica  with 
double  choir  but  no  transepts.  The  foundations  may  not  improbably  date  from  the 
VI  century.     (Dehio.) 

ST.  LUBIN,  France.  Eglise.  Beneath  the  clocher  are  some  arcades  which 
may  date  from  the  Carolingian  era.     (Enlart.) 

VALENCE,  Drome,  France.  Eglise.  Nothing  survives  except  the  founda- 
tions, which  show  that  the  church  had  three  apses  and  projecting  transepts.  The 
date  is  entirely  uncertain.     (Dehio.) 

JUMIEGES,  Seine-Inferieure,  France.  St.  Pierre  is  a  little  church  forming  part 
of  the  famous  abbey.     The  western  part  is  said  to  date  from  9;?().     (Enlart.) 

LANGON,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  France.  Chapelle  Ste.  Agathc.  A  church  built  of 
rubble  and  probably  of  early  date.     (Enlart.) 

COURCOME,  Anjou,  France.  Church.  Parts  are  said  to  date  from  the  Mero- 
vingian era.     (Enlart.) 

VALCABRERE,  Haute-Garonne,  France.  Church.  The  choir  seems  anterior 
to  the  year  1000.     (Enlart.) 

CLEPPE,  Loire,  France.  Church.  The  nave,  much  rebuilt,  may  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  X  century.     (Enlart.) 

SUEVRES,  Loire-et-Cher,  France.  St.  Christophc  is  said  to  date  from  the  Caro- 
lingian era.     (Enlart.) 

CHARTRES,  Eure-et-Loire,  France.  L'Hopital  St.  Brice.  The  church 
retains  some  fragments  which  are  said  to  date  from  963. 

GOURGE,  Deux-Sevres,  France.  Church  was  erected,  it  is  said,  between  889 
and  942.     (Enlart.) 

VOUTEGON,  ]\Iaine-et-Loire,  France.  Church.  One  of  the  side  walls  seems 
to  be  of  the  Carolingian  era.     (Enlart.) 

ST.-VINCENT-SUR-RISLE,  Dordogne,  France.  Church  may  date  from 
the  VIII  century.     (Enlart.) 

ST.  MAXIMIEN,  Var,  France.  Two  crypts  said  to  be  of  the  Merovingian 
era.     (Enlart.) 

SELOMNES,  Nievre,  France.     Church  of  the  Carolingian  era.     (Enlart.) 

GENNES,  Maine-et-Loire,  France.     St.  Eusebe  is  in  part  very  ancient.     (Enlart.) 

St.  Veterin  is  largely  of  the  Carolingian  era.     (Enlart.) 

DISTRE,  Maine-et-Loire,  France.     Eglise  Rurale. 

Carolingian  remains  may  also  be  found  in  the  Cathedrale  St.  Bcniqne  of  DIJON 
(Cote-d'Or,  France),  at  CHANCEAUX  (Indre-et-Loire,  France),  at  St.  Mesme  of 
CHINON  (Indre-et-Loire,  France),  at  CH.\TILLON-SUR-THONET  (Maine-et- 
Loire,  France),  at  SAVENIERES  (Maine-et-Loire,  France),  at  VIGNORY 
(Haute-Marne,  France),  in  the  Cathedral  of  NOVARA  (Piedmont,  Italy),  at  BONN 
(Rheinland,  Germany),  in  St.  Stephen  of  MAINZ  (Hessen,  Germany). 

198 


CHAPTER  V 

LOMBARD    ARCHITECTURE 

UNFORTUNATELY,  the  precise  order  of  the  final  steps 
by  which  the  basilica  was  converted  into  an  organic  vaulted 
structure  is  by  no  means  clear.  The  Lombard  period  presents 
a  poverty  of  dated  monuments  and  a  confusion  of  chronolog- 
ical sequence  hardly  equaled  elsewhere  in  architectural  his- 
torv.  And  yet,  however  puzzling  the  details,  the  main  course 
of  development  is  clear  enough. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  first  attempts  at  vaulting 
were  made  in  the  aisles.  We  have  seen  that  transverse  arches 
were  here  first  tried,  before  being  applied  on  a  larger  scale  to 
tlie  nave,  and  we  find  almost  all  the  other  Romanesque  schools 
of  Europe  developing  experimentally  in  the  aisles  the  systems 
of  construction  that  were  later  triumphantly  applied  to  the  main 
body  of  the  church.  \Miere  and  when  in  Lombardy  the  idea  of 
vaulting  the  aisles  was  first  conceived,  will  probably  never  be 
known,  since  the  early  instances  of  this  construction  seem  to 
have  all  perished.  Only  two  examples  of  groin-vaulted  aisles 
with  wooden-roofed  nave  have  come  down  to  us:  the  first, 
S.  Fidele  of  Como,  is  usually  assigned  to  the  XII  century;  the 
second,  the  later  additions  to  that  same  church  of  S.  Celso  at 
Milan  (111.  102),  whose  earlier  portions  we  have  already  studied, 
may,  [)erhaps,  be  of  the  second  half  of  the  XI  century.  The 
little  single-aisled  church  of  Vaprio  furnishes  an  example  of 
groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs  that  may  date  from  anywhere  in 
the  XI  century.  These  monuments,  however  late,  undoubtedly 
perpetuate  a  type  of  church  (111.  101,  Fig.  5)  which  was  current 
in  Lombardy  probably  in  the  very  early  years  of  the  XI  century, 
just  as  the  churches  of  Verona  in  the  XII  century  perpetuate 
that  type  of  basilica  with  transverse  arches  that  had  been  devel- 
oped at  Milan  in  the  X  centurj'. 

199 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

Hence  we  may  assume  the  employment  of  groin  vaults  be- 
tween the  transverse  arches  in  the  aisles  as  the  first  step  in  the 
evolution  of  the  rib  vault.  The  introduction  of  these  vaults 
necessitated  several  structui'al  changes.  Since  the  groin  vault 
is  best  constructed  on  a  square  plan,  transverse  arches  were 
thrown  across  the  aisles  from  every  support,  instead  of  from 
every  alternate  pier  (111.  101,  Fig.  5),  making  thus  twice  as  many 
transverse  arches  across  the  aisles  as  across  the  nave.  Provided 
that  the  side  aisles  were  one-half  as  wide  as  the  nave,  this  de- 
vice enabled  the  architect  to  divide  both  nave  and  aisles  into 
exactly  square  compartments. 

The  intermediate  transverse  arches  of  the  aisle,  falling  on 
the  intermediate  (light)  supports,  would  naturally  require  a 
compound  pier  (in  place  of  the  old  square  pier)  to  carry  their 
archivolts.  Still,  this  pier,  having  less  load  to  carry,  would 
logically  be  lighter  than  the  alternate  (hea^y)  pier.  After  the 
piers  had  been  thus  constructed,  the  architect  was  ready  to  place 
groin  vaults  in  the  square  compartments  of  his  aisles.  An  im- 
aginary plan  of  this  type  is  shown  in  111.  101,  Fig.  5. 

Transverse  arches  were  found  to  be  of  great  practical  con- 
venience in  the  construction  of  groin  vaults.  By  means  of  these 
arches  it  became  possible  to  erect  groin  vaults  without  the  use 
of  a  centering  as  long  as  the  entire  space  to  be  vaulted,  such  as 
would  otherwise  be  required;  for  the  transverse  arches,  as  has 
just  been  shown,  were  made  to  divide  the  aisle  into  square 
compartments,  and  each  of  these  compartments  could  be  vaulted 
separately,  the  same  centering  being  then  removed  for  use  in 
the  next.  It  therefore  occurred  to  the  Lombard  builders  that,  in- 
stead of  concealing  these  arches  —  or  ribs  as  we  may  now  call 
them  —  in  the  surface  of  a  flat  vault,  they  should  let  them  pro- 
ject beyond  the  surface,  showing  plainly  what  they  were,  and 
the  important  function  they  played  in  the  construction  of  the 
vault.'  These  ribs  thus  placed  below  the  under  surface  of  the 
vault,  offered  a  convenient  ledge  —  a  sort  of  permanent  center- 
ing —  on  which  to  rest  the  vault  surface.  Beside  this  structural 
advantage,  the  exposed  ribs  also  preserved  the  decorative  effect 

'  Groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs  had  already  been  discovered  and  utilized  by  the  builders 
of  Aachen  and  Hagia  Sophia. 

200 


li.i..   UH.        I'laii  nf  S.  (VK,,.  MihiM.      ^Kn.iii  Darlc 


EVOLUTION   OF  THE  RIB  VAULT 

of  the  old  transverse  arches.  The  new  construction  was  there- 
fore advantageous  for  both  practical  and  esthetic  reasons. 

In  our  study  of  Roman  construction  we  have  seen  that  the 
groins  of  a  groin  vault  were  often  constructed  first;  that  they 
were  self-sustaining  arches,  meeting  in  a  common  keystone; 
and  that  once  built  the  vault  was  divided  into  four  equal  com- 
partments, the  vaults  of  each  of  which  could  be  erected  by  the 
use  of  the  same  centering.  Now  it  occurred  to  the  Lombards 
to  treat  these  groin  arches  in  precisely  the  same  manner  that 
they  had  already  treated  the  transverse  arches,  that  is,  to  let 
them  project  from  the  surface  of  the  vault.  This  done,  the 
groin  became  a  rib  —  called  diagonal  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
transverse  rijj;  and  by  such  easy  stages  perhaps  the  greatest  of 
all  the  inventions  of  medieval  architecture  came  into  being 
(111.  101,  Fig.  6,  III.  104,  119). 

The  Lombard  rib  vault  offers  a  certain  peculiarity  that  it 
is  important  to  notice.  The  vault  rests  on  six  arches,  desig- 
nated in  Fig.  10  (111.  101)  by  the  letters  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  and  /.  It 
is  obvious  that  four  of  these  arches,  a,  b,  c,  and  d  have  equal 
bases,  and  that  semicircular  arches  erected  on  these  bases  would 
all  rise  to  the  same  height  (these  arches  are  shown  in  elevation 
at  a',  6',  c',  d').  It  is  equally  evident  that  the  bases  of  the  arches 
e  and  /  are  greater  than  those  of  the  arches  a,  b,  c,  and  d  ;  and 
that  semicircular  arches  {e')  erected  on  these  bases  would  rise 
considerably  higher  than  those  erected  on  the  bases  a,  b,  c,  or 
d,  —  that  is,  the  crown  of  the  vault  (at  the  intersection  of  the 
diagonal  ribs)  would  be  higher  than  the  crowns  of  the  arches 
a,  b,  c,  or  d,  and  the  ridge  of  the  vault  would  not  be  horizontal,  but 
would  rise  and  fall,  producing  a  warped  {i.e.,  non-geometrical) 
surface  between  the  different  ribs.  The  Romans  had  avoided 
the  difficulty  by  depressing  the  arches  e  and  /  into  ellipses,  whose 
crown  was  exactly  on  a  level  with  those  of  a,  b,  c,  and  d  (111.  101, 
Fig.  13) ;  the  Lombards  retained  the'  semicircular  diagonals, 
giving  their  rib  vaults  thus  a  little  the  appearance  of  domes, 
and  creating  those  warped  surfaces  which  were  to  be  the  glory 
of  the  Gothic  vault.     (111.  101,  Fig.  11,  12.) 

One  immediate  effect  of  the  introduction  of  the  ribbed  vault 
is  noteworthy.     It  was  necessary  to   provide  supports  for  the 

201 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

diagonal  as  well  as  for  the  transverse  ribs.  To  accomplish 
this,  new  members,  known  as  diagonal  sJiafts,  were  added  to 
the  compound  piers  to  carry  these  ribs.  As  it  was  found  that 
these  shafts  grouped  around  the  main  pier  gave  a  decidedly 
decorative  effect,  in  time  there  came  also  to  be  applied  to  the 
piers  members  not  required  to  support  ribs  and  quite  unmeaning 
structurally  —  extra  orders,  as  they  are  called,  added  merely  to 
give  grace  and  lightness  to  the  design  of  the  interior.  In  Eng- 
lish Gothic,  this  idea  was  later  carried  to  an  extreme,  but  in 
Lombard  architecture  it  was  used  extensively  only  in  the  four 
great  piers  of  the  crossing  (111.   103,   104). 

Extra  orders  were  introduced  also  in  the  archivolts  (111.  104, 
119).  In  the  Carolingian  period  the  classical  custom  of  mould- 
ing the  archivolt  had  passed  away,  and  the  resulting  plain  rec- 
tangular section  produced  an  effect  unduly  hea\'y  and  severe. 
Hence  arose  the  usage  of  stepping  the  archivolt,  or  breaking  it 
into  several  orders,  all  of  rectangular  section  —  an  innovation 
that  was  decorative  rather  than  structural  in  its  inception.  It 
had  its  structural  i"esults,  however,  in  that  the  support  had  to 
be  adapted  to  the  new  section,  and  this  was  usually  accomplished 
by  adding  to  the  piers  additional  members,  which  continued  the 
orders  to  the  ground. 

The  exact  time  at  which  these  various  improvements  were 
made  it  is  impossible  to  state  with  precision.  According  to  Comm. 
Rivoira,  who  speaks  very  convincingly,  the  rib  vault  was  intro- 
duced in  the  aisles  of  the  non-basil ican  church  of  S.  Flaviano 
at  Montefiascone  '  in  Umbria  —  a  building  erected  in  the  year 
1032,  as  is  known  from  an  inscription  still  extant.  If  these  vaults 
are  really  a  part  of  the  original  construction,  they  must  certainly 
be  considered  the  earliest  rib  vaults  known,  although  it  is  a  little 
surprising  to  find  them  so  far  to  the  south,  in  a  district  belong- 
ing rather  to  the  Tuscan  than  the  Lombard  school,  and  one 
noted  throughout  the  Romanesque  period  for  its  lack  of  struc- 
tural progress. 

At  all  events,  we  may  assume  that  about  this  time  rib- 
vaulted  aisles  came  into  use,  and  that  there  ensued  twenty 
or  thirty  years  of  hesitation  and  experiment  before  any  attempt 

'  I  have  not  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  this  important  monument  on  the  spot. 
202 


Ii.i,.  in:!.  — I'luii  i.f  S.  Mi.li.-lc,  I'avia.      il-'n.iii  Dartein) 


HISTORICAL   CONDITIONS 

was  made  to  vault  the  main  body  of  the  church.  A  large  vault 
is  not  easy  to  build,  especially  for  unskilled  workmen,  and  in 
all  the  Romanesque  schools  we  find  the  same  period  of  timidity 
and  hesitation  before  the  vault  was  finally  thrown  across  the 
nave.  The  single-aisled  church  of  S.  Nazzaro  Maggiore,  Milan, 
which  seems  to  have  been  rebuilt  immediately  after  a  fire  in  1073, 
was  undoubtedly  planned  from  the  foundations  for  a  rib  vault. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  held  as  established  that  rib-vaulted  naves 
were  in  use  by  1075.  The  famous  nave  of  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan, 
probably  dates  from  about  this  time.  That  this  was  one  of  the 
earlier  vaulted  naves  to  be  erected  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  builders  had  not  yet  acquired  sufficient  skill  to  dare  to  raise 
their  vault  on  a  clearstory.  This  feature  is  consequently  omitted 
and  the  main  vault  is  buttressed  by  the  vaults  of  the  triforium 
galleries  (111.  92,  106,  119). 

At  this  point  progress  in  the  Lombard  style  suddenly  stops. 
A  few  —  very  few  —  churches  of  the  type  of  S.  Ambrogio  were 
erected  during  the  last  years  of  the  XI  and  in  the  early  XII  cen- 
turies.' None  of  these  examples  shows  any  notable  progress, 
except  that  in  some  of  the  later  ones  the  vaults  were  raised  on 
a  diminutive  clearstory.  After  this  brief  existence,  the  rib 
vault,  which  had  promised  so  much,  was  brusquely  abandoned. 

The  reason  for  the  brilliant  entry  of  north  Italy  on  the  stage 
of  medieval  architecture  and  for  the  subsequent  anti-climax 
and  collapse  of  its  progress,  must  be  sought  in  the  purely  ex- 
ternal historical  events  of  the  time.  The  story  of  Italy  in  the 
XI  and  XII  centuries  is  divided  into  two  sharp  halves  by  the 
year  1076  —  the  year  in  which  opened  the  death-struggle  of 
Empire  and  Papacy. 

Before  that  year  there  had  been  an  era  of  comparative  peace 
for  the  troubled  cities  of  Lombardy.  The  XI  century  was  a 
time  of  increased  prosperity  and  economic  advance  throughout 
Europe.  Civilization  had  begun  to  awaken  from  the  long  sleep 
of  the  Dark  Ages;  men  began  to  be  conscious,  though  dimly, 
of  the  possibility  of  advance  and  progress.  Besides  sharing  in 
these  impulses  which  were  common  to  all  Europe,  Lombardy 

'  S.  Eustorgio  of  Milan  (probalily),  S.  Giorgio  al  Palazzo,  Milan  (1129),  Sta.  Sofia  of  Padua 
(1123),  and  S.  Michele  of  Pavia  (xil  century). 

203 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

in  the  XI  century  was  awakened  to  extraordinary  consciousness 
of  her  own  powers  and  possibilities  by  the  pohtical  circumstances 
in  which  she  found  herself  placed.  She  was  far  removed  from 
the  seat  of  power  of  the  German  emperor.  This  geographical 
situation  necessarily  tended  to  increase  the  local  power  of  the 
Lombard  cities,  since  it  was  impossible  for  the  central  author- 
ity to  keep  strict  watch  over  them.  Hence  there  grew  up  a 
strong  feeling  of  local  patriotism  which  resulted  in  each  city 
becoming  practically  a  self-governing  state,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  count-bishop.  At  intervals,  it  is  true,  the  German 
emperor  would  descend  on  the  peninsula  with  a  great  army. 
Instantly  all  was  at  his  mercy.  He  brought  the  count-bishops 
into  strict  subjection,  reorganized  the  government,  punished 
the  rebellious  citizens,  reduced  the  disobedient  cities  to  ashes. 
But  no  sooner  had  the  last  German  banner  disappeared  over 
the  Alpine  passes  than  the  whole  country  again  relapsed  into 
semi-independence. 

Thus  in  the  long  run  the  Empire  proved  utterly  unable  to 
cope  with  the  unruly  Lombard  towns.  Had  the  latter  been  able 
to  forget  their  local  jealousies  and  come  together  into  a  united 
confederacy,  they  would  doubtless  have  been  able  to  form  a 
strong  and  independent  state.  Attempts  made  in  1002  and  1014 
to  accomplish  this  end,  however,  resulted  in  wretched  failure, 
and,  although  in  the  XII  century  a  loose  confederacy  was  formed, 
the  Lombard  cities  remained  to  the  end  virtually  independent 
states. 

If  the  dawning  sense  of  patriotism  found  no  outlet  in  national 
channels,  it  turned  instead  with  double  vigor  to  civic  activities. 
The  quasi-independent  city  states  of  northern  Italy  rose  with 
extraordinary  rapidity  to  political  prominence;  trade  and  com- 
merce flourished;  wealth  was  vastly  increased.  The  cjuickened 
intellectual  life,  the  feeling  of  civic  pride,  increased  national 
prosperity,  comparative  peace  —  all  these  are  reflected  in  the 
buildings  of  the  XI  century. 

But  in  1076  began  the  momentous  struggle  of  Empire  and 
Papacy.  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  the  details  of  the  investi- 
ture contest  through  its  melodramatic  scenes  at  Canossa  in  1077, 
and  its  frequent  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  to  its  final  close  by  the 

204 


THE   LOMBARDS  AND   THE  PAPACY 

Concordat  of  Worms  in  112'-2.  For  the  history  of  architecture 
the  significant  thing  about  tiiis  struggle  is  the  fact  that,  although 
ending  in  a  nominal  compromise,  it  was,  in  the  main,  a  losing 
struggle  for  the  Empire.  Consequently  it  was  a  losing  struggle 
for  the  Lombard  cities,  which  generally  threw  in  their  lot  with 
the  Imperial  party.  Not  that  they  had  any  cause  to  love  the 
Germans,  but  from  this  moment  the  states  of  Italy  begin  that 
shifting,  juggling  policy  which  was  to  remain  for  so  many  cen- 
turies their  characteristic  and  their  bane.  Caught  in  the  whirl 
between  two  great  powers,  where  they  could  not  hope  to  main- 
tain their  existence  by  force  of  arms,  their  only  hope  was  to 
play  one  rival  off  against  the  other  by  means  of  diplomacy,  to 
join  now  one  side,  now  the  other,  as  political  advantage 
served. 

The  struggle  of  Empire  and  Papacy  made  of  Lombardy  the 
battle-ground  of  the  great  opposing  forces  of  history,  and,  al- 
though in  the  investiture  contest  the  suffering  entailed  by  actual 
battles  and  the  support  of  great  armies  in  the  field  was  prob- 
ably not  great  enough  to  account  altogether  for  the  decadence 
of  architecture,  it  undoubtedly  had  its  effect.  The  Concordat 
of  Worms  (1122)  seems  to  have  been  followed  by  a  marked 
revival  of  building  activity.  This  fact  shows  that  the  great 
struggle  of  the  age  distracted  to  no  inconsiderable  extent  the 
energies  and  resources  of  the  Lombards  from  building. 

Even  more  effective  than  the  hazards  of  war  and  politics  in 
causing  the  decline  of  architecture,  was  the  peculiar  relationship 
in  which  the  Lombard  cities  found  themselves  in  regard  to  the 
pope.  The  pope  was  the  head  of  the  Christian  religion,  the 
vicar  of  God  upon  earth.  Yet  the  Lombards  found  in  him  a 
most  dangerous  neighbor,  a  temporal  power  that  they  must  re- 
gard at  times  as  their  arch  enemy,  at  times  as  convenient  cat's 
paw  to  be  played  off  against  the  emperor  with  cynical  diplo- 
macy. Such  a  state  of  aft'airs  was  not  calculated  to  foster  the 
growth  of  that  religious  mysticism  and  enthusiasm  that  affected 
the  rest  of  Europe  so  strongly  about  this  time.  The  dominant 
interest  became  political  and  practical,  distinctly  non-religious. 
Trade  and  commerce  absorbed  an  increasing  amount  of  atten- 
tion, and  next  to  political  intrigue  commercial  interests  came  to 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

the  fore.  The  effect  on  architecture  was  much  the  same  as 
similar  interests  have  produced  in  our  own  day.  Only,  in  the 
XI  century,  monumental  building  was  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  churches;  there  were  no  banks  or  sky-scrapers  or  even 
palaces  in  which  it  might  express  itself.  Hence  it  resulted  that 
Lombard  architecture  dropped  behind  the  other  schools  of 
Europe  and  followed  where  it  formerly  had  led. 

Several  other  causes  contributed  to  dampen  the  ardor  of 
the  Lombards  for  building  churches.  Not  only  were  the  cities 
at  war  against  the  head  of  the  universal  Church  at  Rome,  but 
they  were  many  of  them  at  war  with  their  own  bishop.  As  the 
cities  increased  in  power,  the  bourgeoisie  had  risen  against  the 
authority  of  the  count-bishop,  and  eventually  in  almost  every 
case  had  succeeded  in  overturning  it.  The  struggle,  however, 
was  long  and  bitter.  The  democracy,  when  it  finally  triumphed, 
was  accordingly  little  inclined  in  any  way  to  aid  its  great  enemy 
or  to  increase  his  glory  by  shouldering  the  expenses  of  build- 
ing a  splendid  cathedral.  In  Italy  the  monasteries  were  not 
powerful  or  popular  enough  to  step  in  the  gap  and  absorb  for 
the  construction  of  the  abbey  the  resources  diverted  from  the 
cathedral,  as  in  similar  cases  they  did  in  the  North.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  bishops,  beaten  in  their  fight  against  the 
communes,  became  too  weak  and  too  poor  to  undertake  great 
building  schemes,  there  was  no  one  left  to  erect  large  churches. 
Thus  enthusiasm  for  architecture  was  frosted  in  Lombardy,  and 
never  —  except  in  the  Gothic  period,  and  then  in  direct  imita- 
tion of  northern  countries — did  the  Lombards  construct  churches 
of  more  than  very  moderate  costliness. 

The  peculiar  situation  of  the  Milanese  Church  tended  to 
increase  this  lack  of  enthusiasm  for  religion  among  the  Lom- 
bards, and  to  throw  them  out  of  sympathy  with  the  ideas  current 
at  this  time  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  bishop  of  jVIilan  had 
from  the  earliest  times  been  jealous  of  the  authority  of  Rome, 
even  on  more  than  one  occasion  presuming  to  set  up  his  power 
in  rivalry  with  the  see  of  St.  Peter.  The  ritual  of  the  Church 
of  Milan  differed  from  that  of  Rome  in  points  trivial,  it  is  true, 
but  for  that  reason  considered  none  the  less  important  by  the 
medieval  mind.     This  divergence  tended  to  throw  Milan,  and 

206 


THE   LOMBARD   COMMUNES 

consequently  all  Lom])ar(ly,  out  of  touch  with  the  reforming 
tenilencies  so  much  in  vogue  at  Rome. 

Nevertheless,  however  hostile  to  Rome,  the  Lombard  people 
could  not  but  view  with  disgust  the  degradation  of  the  local 
clergy,  who  had  fallen  to  a  depth  of  corruption  almost  un- 
paralleled even  in  X  century  Europe.  The  three  opposing 
forces  —  pope,  bishop,  and  bourgeoisie  —  were  all  brought  into 
collision  in  lO^o.  A  part  of  the  people  called  the  "Pataria" 
or  "ragamuffins"  advanced  certain  new  ideas.  These  ideas, 
many  of  which  were  certainly  heretical,  included  a  program  for 
the  thorough  reform  of  the  clergy.  The  bishop  Aribo,  hostile 
quite  as  much  to  reform  as  to  heresy,  held  a  strict  inquisition,  and 
proceeded  to  burn  many  members  of  the  "Pataria"  as  here- 
tics. But  at  this  moment,  the  pope  was  shrewd  enough  to  see 
his  advantage  in  intervening  and  supporting  the  heretics  against 
the  bishop.  In  the  long  run  the  honors  of  victory  remained 
with  the  popular  party. 

Thus,  through  all  the  confusion  of  the  tangled  period,  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  bourgeoisie  was  the  element  that  was 
gradually  gaining  the  upper  hand,  and  that  the  bourgeoisie  was 
either  indifferent,  or  actually  hostile,  to  the  episcopal  power  and 
its  expression  in  architecture.  It  is  probably  primarily  owing 
to  this  fact  that  building  in  Lombardy  was  pursued  in  so  half- 
hearted a  manner  during  the  XII  century. 

After  11 2*2  ensued  a  truce  in  the  war  of  the  Empire  and 
Papacy  —  a  truce  during  which  the  principal  contestants  were 
gathering  force  to  renew  the  conflict,  while  the  city  states  of 
Italy  indulged  in  constant  bickerings  and  even  war  among  them- 
selves. The  period  is  marked  by  the  rise  of  the  great  rival  par- 
ties of  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  —  names  in  which  are  summed  up 
so  many  civil  wars  and  so  much  hatred  and  suffering.  Under 
Barbarossa  (1152-1189)  began  the  final  struggle  of  pope  and 
emperor,  and  this  ended  at  last  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the 
latter.  The  Lombard  cities,  united  in  the  Lombard  League 
against  a  common  enemy,  now  espoused  the  cause  of  the  pope, 
and  the  battle  of  Legnano  (1176)  assured  the  triumph  of  the 
cities. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  accurately  the  political  condi- 

S207 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

tion  of  the  Lombard  communes  at  this  period  is  expressed  in 
their  architecture.  As  each  city  formed  a  separate  state,  with 
local  government  and  institutions,  so  each  city  had  its  own  pecu- 
liar and  well-defined  school  of  architecture.  And  yet  these 
local  schools  are  all  bound  together  by  certain  common  charac- 
teristics into  a  whole  clearly  distinguished  from  all  other  Ro- 
manesque schools,  just  as  the  separate  cities  banded  together 
in  the  Lombard  League.  The  first  and  most  important  of  these 
schools  is  that  which  flourished  at  Milan  and  Pavia.  It  was 
here  that  were  made  all  those  important  structural  advances 
that  were  destined  to  play  so  great  a  part  in  the  development 
of  Gothic;  it  was  here  that  almost  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
Lombard  style  came  into  being. 

From  Milan  and  Pavia  radiated  influences,  which,  meeting 
with  others  purely  local,  or  imported  from  abroad,  gave  birth 
to  the  other  Lombard  schools.  That  of  Como,  perhaps  the 
second  in  importance,  shows  strongly  this  Milanese  influence 
in  its  decoration.  But  Como  shook  off  only  reluctantly  Caro- 
lingian  tradition,  and,  until  the  Gothic  period,  never  cordially 
adopted  the  vaulted  church.  Hence  it  is  only  exceptionally  that 
we  find  here  the  alternate  system,  compound  jjiers,  or  rib  vaults; 
the  old  columnar  basilica  remained  the  typical  form  of  church 
building,  but  was  enriched  with  all  the  exuberance  of  Lombard 
ornament.  From  the  Carolingian  monuments  across  the  Alps 
came  the  doubled  campaniles,  which,  attached  to  the  church, 
flanked  now  the  apse,'  now  the  fa^ade.^ 

Verona  was  another  important  architectural  center.  Al- 
though the  monuments  of  this  school  that  have  come  down  to 
us  are  for  the  most  part  late  in  date,  they  seem,  curiously  enough, 
to  have  adopted  as  their  own  that  peculiar  phase  of  develop- 
ment through  which  the  architecture  of  Milan  had  passed  long 
before  —  a  phase  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  alternating 
system  with  transverse  arches,  and  a  wooden  roof.  The  vault 
never  seems  to  have  been  attempted  in  this  school.  Verona, 
however,  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  center  and  probably 
the  home  of  the  so-called  Lombard  porch'  (111.  118)  — one  of 

>  S.  Abondio,  Como  (111.  110),  etc.  =  Sta.  Maria  of  Susa,  etc. 

'  See  below,  p.  220. 

208 


Il.i..   KHi.  —  'rraii.svcrsc  Si-cHi>ii.  S.  Airiliriif;i(i  of  Milan.      (Froni  Darteiii) 


GEOCiRAPHICAL   SITUATION 

the  most  peculiar  features  of  I^ombard  architecture.  Here 
also  were  developeil  those  curious  conical  spires  (111.  118)  which 
crown  all  the  campaniles  and  still  give  the  city  so  picturesque 
an  appearance. 

The  cathedrals  of  Parma  and  Modena  each  show  local  pecu- 
liarities, and  although  they  were  in  common  profoundly  influ- 
enced by  the  neighboring  Tuscan  school,  nevertheless  each 
seems  to  be,  as  it  were,  a  school  to  itself.  A  large  group  of 
churches  in  Piedmont  shows  conflicting  influences  from  Como, 
from  ^lilan,  and  from  the  North,  with  the  latter  influence  often 
predominant.  In  Padua,  the  farthest  outpost  of  the  Lombard 
style,  the  church  of  Sta.  Sofia  shows  much  that  is  undoubtedly 
Lombard,  but  much  else  that  is  so  confused  as  to  defy  analysis. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  this  style,  starting  at  Milan  and 
Pavia,  in  the  center  of  Lombardy,  spread  through  all  Lombardy, 
through  Piedmont,  far  into  Venetia,  into  the  Emilia,  and  even 
into  Umbria,  becoming,  however,  weaker  and  more  modified 
by  external  influences  the  farther  it  spread.  Thus  its  geograph- 
ical distribution  corresponds  quite  accurately  to  what  is  known 
as  "Alta  Italia." 

The  well-nigh  universal  influence  Lombard  architecture 
exercised  upon  all  the  Romanesque  schools  of  Europe  must  be 
ascribed  no  less  to  the  accidental  chance  of  its  geographical 
situation  than  to  its  early  and  rapid  advance.  Italy  lay  directly 
in  the  path  of  all  travelers,  whether  to  Rome,  the  head  of  Chris- 
tendom, or  to  the  Holy  Land,  whither  in  the  early  XI  century 
ever-increasing  numbers  of  pilgrims  began  to  flock.  It  is  a 
significant  fact  that  the  Germans,  who  of  all  nations  were  brought 
into  the  closest  and  most  constant  contact  with  Lombardy 
through  the  ceaseless  expeditions  of  the  Empire  to  Rome,  pro- 
duced a  Romanesque  architecture  that  is  more  strongly  and 
obviously  influenced  by  Lombard  models  than  that  of  any  other 
nation.  But  to  a  o;reater  or  less  degree,  all  ^Yestern  aixhitec- 
ture  underwent  influence  from  Lombardy,  and  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  North  Sea,  there  is  hardly  a  later  Romanesque 
building  that  is  not  more  or  less  colored  by  the  force  of  Lom- 
bard tradition. 

It  is  a  strange  irony  of  fate  that  this  style,  which  thus  laid  the 
209 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

foundation  for  so  much  achievement,  should  itself  have  stopped 
so  far  short  of  perfection.  It  is  an  archaeological  rather  than  an 
esthetic  interest  which  attaches  to  these  buildings  of  North 
Italy.  We  are  attracted  to  them  rather  because  they  were  the 
first  buildings  of  Europe  to  break  away  from  the  old  classical 
and  Carolingian  tradition  and  to  strike  out  in  new  and  better 
ways  than  because  they  themselves  achieved  the  artistic  triumph 
they  made  possible  to  the  transalpine  builders. 

From  the  very  first,  side  by  side  with  the  progressive  inven- 
tive spirit  that  discovered  the  rib  vault,  there  was  present  in 
Lombard  architecture  that  conservative  tendency,  that  rever- 
ence for  ancient  tradition  that  has  always  been  characteristic 
of  Italian  art.  In  the  XI  century  this  force  was  only  secondary, 
although  it  is  evident  in  the  retention  of  the  atrium  (as  in  S. 
Ambrogio  of  Milan),  in  the  survival  of  the  simple  apse,  in  the 
detached  campanile,  in  the  use  of  baptisteries,  long  after  these 
features  had  passed  away  in  the  North.  Yet,  in  the  XI  century, 
the  structural  development  of  the  church  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  hindered  by  ultra-conservatism.  In  the  XII  century, 
however,  the  conservative  spirit  came  to  the  fore,  and  opposed 
not  only  any  original  alteration  of  time-honored  forms,  but  even 
the  introduction  of  improvements  discovered  abroad.  Thus 
in  the  XIII  century,  northern  Italy  was  almost  the  last  country 
of  Europe  to  adopt  the  Gothic  style,  and  when  she  finally  did 
adopt  it,  it  was  in  so  half-hearted  a  fashion  that  her  architec- 
ture retained  until  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  its  Lombard 
characteristics. 

This  conservatism  doubtless  contributed  its  share  to  the 
abandonment  of  the  vault  in  all  the  outlying  districts  of  the  Lom- 
bard style.  Como,  even  in  the  XI  century,  rejected  this  fea- 
ture of  the  Milanese  style,  and  in  the  XII  century  Verona 
showed  quite  as  unmistakably  her  preference  for  the  wooden 
roof.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  many  of  these 
schools,  while  declining  the  expense  and  uncei-tainty  of  construct- 
ing a  vault,  recognized  the  progress  of  Milan  by  adopting  the 
alternate  system  of  supports,  sometimes  without  shafts,'  some- 

'  Verona,  S.  Pietro  in  Castello  (XI  century);  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte  (1122);  S.  Vittore  of  Ar- 
sago  (XI  century?);  and  Cortazzone  d'Asti  (XI  century?). 

210 


LOMBARD   VAULTS   A    FAILURE 

times  with  transverse  arches  '  (111.  Ill),  and  sometimes  with 
shafts  merely  running  into  the  flat  ceiling.^  Thus  the  alternate 
system  became  formulated  into  a  sort  of  tradition,  and  we  shall 
later  find  it,  as  such,  exercising  much  influence  north  of  the 
Alps. 

But  perhaps  the  one  reason,  more  than  any  other,  which 
led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  Lombard  vault  in  the  XII  cen- 
tury, was  the  failure  of  the  builders  to  devise  adequate  abut- 
ment. In  such  buildings  as  the  basilica  of  Constantine,  the 
Romans  had  invented  sufficient  and  scientific  methods  for  but- 
tressing a  groin  vault.'  Knowledge  of  this  construction  had 
been  lost  during  the  Dark  Ages,  but  the  Lombards  evolved  from 
the  pilaster  strip  a  new  system  of  external  buttressing.  Pilaster 
strips  had  first  been  employed  in  a  purely  ornamental  fashion, 
to  express  externally  the  internal  bays.  They  were  then  grad- 
ually strengthened,  as  their  structural  value  was  discovered. 
That  the  exterior  buttress  of  the  Lombards  is  merely  an  exag- 
gerated pilaster  strip  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  baptistery  of 
Biella,  the  only  building  that  has  preserved  an  example  of  the 
intermediate  steps  of  this  evolution.  Now,  the  great  difiiculty 
with  Lombard  buttresses  was  the  fact  that  the  evolution  was 
never  entirely  completed.  The  buttresses  always  remained 
more  or  less  pilaster  strips  in  their  nature;  they  were  flat  and 
weak  and  quite  insufficient  to  carry  the  thrusts,  which  conse- 
quently must  be  taken  up  by  the  walls.  Unfortunately  these 
walls,  thick  and  clumsy  as  they  were,  have  almost  all  proved 
unequal  to  the  task  thus  imposed  upon  them.  The  difficulty 
was  increased  by  the  enormous  thickness  of  the  vaults  themselves, 
the  builders  not  seeming  to  have  understood  that  by  lightening 
the  weight  of  the  vault,  they  lightened  its  thrust.^  (111.  94,  102, 
103,  105,  106.) 

•Verona,  S.  Zeno  (1128),  S.  Lorenzo;  Modena,  Duomo  (1099-1184). 

-  Verona,  S.  Zeno.     (The  western  bays  of  the  nave.) 

'  "The  Romans  did  not  at  any  time  employ  the  buttress  as  a  distinct  architectural  member. 
They  contrived  their  buildings  in  such  a  manner  that  the  thrust  of  the  vaults  should  be  taken 
either  by  dividing  walls,  or  by  the  enclosing  walls  so  thickened  as  to  render  them  sufficiently 
resistant  by  the  sheer  inertia  of  their  masses.  The  Romanesque  builders  were  the  first  to  develop 
the  buttress  as  a  di.stinct  functional  member."  (Moore,  Gothic  Architecture,  p.  11.)  And  yet,  in 
Syria,  there  are  e.xamples  of  Roman  or  Early  Christian  exterior  buttressing. 

'  "In  S.  Ambrogio  the  thrusts  of  the  vaulting  of  the  nave  are  met  by  heavy  cross  walls, 
211 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

This  inadequate  butti-essing  has  brought  it  about  that  of  all 
the  Lombard  vaults  hardly  one  has  stood  to  our  day.  Many 
fell  or  had  to  be  repaired  '  immediately  after  completion;  others 
were  made  to  stand  some  time  before  they  had  to  be  replaced,^ 
but  all  have  given  more  or  less  constant  trouble.  To  overcome 
this  difficulty  with  the  thrust  of  the  vault,  resource  was  had  in 
the  XII  century  to  the  use  of  tie-rods.  These  were  pieces  of 
metal  stretched  across  the  transverse  arches  at  their  springing. 
The  idea  structurally  was  immensely  clever,  for  the  thrust  of 
the  arch  being  equal  at  both  sides,  these  tie-rods  joining  both 
thrusts  made  one  exactly  neutralize  the  other.  By  this  inex- 
pensive system,  vaults  may  be  sustained  on  lighter  supports  than 
by  any  other  device  known.  From  an  artistic  point  of  view, 
however,  the  system  is  most  objectionable.  Nothing  makes  a 
building  look  so  unfinished,  so  unstable,  nothing  so  spoils  the 
lines  of  architectural  design,  as  a  series  of  these  tie-rods,  which 
indeed,  give  an  excellent  text  for  the  truism,  that  while  all  artis- 
tically good  architecture  is  structurally  correct,  by  no  means  all 
architecture  structurally  correct  is  artistically  good  (III.  119). 
Nevertheless,  the  tie-rod  attained  great  popularity  in  Italy,  and 
came  to  be  one  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  Italian  Gothic. 
According  to  Dartein  the  earliest  building  in  which  it  was 
planned  from  the  foundations  to  make  use  of  this  construction 
was  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel-d'Oro  of  Pavia,  dating  from  1132,  although 
the  vaults  of  many  older  buildings  have  had  to  be  subsequently 
reinforced  by  the  addition  of  tie-rods. 

Another  structural  peculiarity  of  Lombard  architecture 
brought  about  by  the  difficulty  of  meeting  the  thrust  of  the 
vaults,  was  the  use  of  wooden  chains,  embedded  in  the  masonry 
to  solidify  the  walls.  Such  chains  are  found  at  S.  Ambrogio 
of  Milan.  They  are  concealed  construction  of  the  most  fla- 
grant type,  and  have  the  additional  fault  of  being  perishable,  a 
fault  singularly  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  since  they  are 
hidden  from  sight,  it  is  impossible  to  watch  them.' 

built  over  the  transverse  rib  of  the  vaulting  of  the  triforium  gallery,  and  they  in  turn  are  vigor- 
ously reinforced  by  salient  pilaster  buttresses  against  the  outside  waif."  (Moore,  op.  cit,  p.  39.) 
None  the  less  these  vaults  have  never  been  secure. 

•  E.  g.,  S.  Ambrogio  of  Milan.  '  S.  Michele  of  Pavia. 

'  Dartein,  462. 

212 


'  ^^^4Miif»iM^^^^f^^ 


jfs\jp!Aj^\^\^\^\ 


-A'^ww;--7Fi. 


ll,l,.  10«.  ^  Anliccl  C.rlMl-'l'ahlo  ..r  S.  Aiiil.rutjiu.  Milan.        Kroni   Dailiiii^ 


FACADES 

Certain  peculiarities  of  vaulting  occur  in  the  transepts  and 
crossing  of  Lombard  churches.  The  transepts,  at  least  in  Pavia, 
were  regularly  covered  with  barrel  vaults,  with  axis  at  right  angles 
to  that  of  the  nave  (111.  103,  104).  Over  the  crossing  was  placed 
the  Lombard  cupola,  one  of  the  peculiar  features  of  the  style. 
This  was  raised  considerably  above  the  other  vaults,  and  con- 
sisted of  a  cloistered  vault,  usually  octagonal,  supported  by 
squinches.  Externally  the  form  of  the  vault  was  masked  by 
an  octagonal  tower  ornamented  with  several  stories  of  arched 
corbel-tables  or  galleries  and  covered  with  a  flat  roof  (111.  104, 
105,  106).'  This  feature  gave  architectural  importance  and 
dignity  both  internally  and  externally  to  the  most  important 
part  of  the  church  —  the  sanctuary.  AYhen,  however,  it  was 
borrowed  north  of  the  Alps,  the  crossing  had  ceased  to  be  part 
of  the  sanctuary  and  the  feature  lost  much  of  its  significance. 

The  most  unfortunate  part  of  Lombard  churches  was  the 
fa9ade.  The  design  of  this  portion  of  the  basilica  gave  much 
trouble  to  many  different  schools  of  architecture,  but  by 
none  w'as  it  treated  with  such  signal  failure  as  by  the  Lombards. 
In  declining  to  attach  the  campaniles  to  the  church,  the  Italians 
rejectetl  what  apparently  is  the  only  possible  solution.  We  have 
not  a  sufficient  number  of  monuments  extant  to  trace  the  devel- 
opment of  the  particular  forms  the  Lombards  finally  adopted, 
even  were  the  task  worth  while.  It  seems  probable,  however, 
that  the  tvpe  which  came  to  be  characteristic  of  the  churches 
at  Pavia  was  due  to  certain  chance  constructions  at  S.  Ambrogio 
of  Milan  (111.  107). 

In  S.  Ambrogio,  as  we  have  seen,  to  buttress  the  nave  vaults 
the  clearstory  was  omitted  and  triforium  galleries  wath  vaults 
almost  as  high  as  those  of  the  nave  were  added.  Consequently 
the  roof  of  the  fa9ade  showed  a  gable  with  a  continuous  slope. 
Tliis  facade  (111.  107)  with  its  great  open  arches  and  flanking 
campaniles  is  the  most  successful  one  the  Lombards  ever  erected, 
and  the  continuous  slope  of  the  gable  seems  to  have  offered  such 
attractions  for  the  Pavians  that  they  adopted  it  even  in  churches 
where  the  aisle  roofs  were  much  lower  than  those  of  the  nave. 
Such  "false"  fa9ades  as  that  of  S.  Michele  Maggiore  (111.  105, 

'  Cf.  the  Carolingian  church  of  Germigny-Ies-Pres  (111.  89). 
213 


LOMBARD   ARCHITECTURE 

109)  resulted  —  designs  where  the  form  of  the  basiUca  section  is 
obviously  belied.  Even  before  this,  it  had  been  the  custom  in 
fa9ades  where  the  three  aisles  had  been  expressed,  to  raise  the 
fa9ade  walls  much  above  the  actual  roof  of  the  church,  perhaps 
with  a  view  to  making  the  church  appear  externally  larger  than 
it  really  was.  This  gross  fraud  continued  to  be  practised  in 
the  churches  of  Verona  and  indeed  of  all  Italy,  so  that  it  finally 
became  characteristic  of  Italian  church  architecture. 

On  the  false  facade  thus  obtained,  ornament,  utterly  irrel- 
evant for  the  most  part,  was  spread  with  a  more  or  less  lavish 
hand.  Two  great  buttresses  or  groups  of  shafts,  usually  end- 
ing in  the  most  inconsequential  sort  of  way,  divided  the  fa9ade 
vertically  into  divisions  corresponding  to  the  aisles ;  the  remainder 
of  the  wall  space  was  more  or  less  covered  with  a  miscellaneous 
assortment  of  sculpture,  arched  corbel-tables  (111.  108),  Lom- 
bard porches,  pilaster  strips,  arcades,  galleries,  and  sometimes 
a  window  or  so.  A  study  of  these  fa9ades  is  convincing  evi- 
dence of  how  completely  at  this  time  the  Lombards  had  lost 
all  sense  of  composition,  or  proportion,  and  of  design.  The 
best  of  them,  such  as  that  of  S.  Abondio  of  Como  (111.  110), 
rise  by  sheer  force  of  simplicity  to  a  certain  rude  dignity;  the 
worst,  such  as  S.  Michele  of  Pavia  (111.  109),  are  incredibly 
crude,  childish,  and  barbarous.  All  sense  of  rhythm,  of  the 
relationship  of  parts,  is  totally  lacking.  With  the  vices  of  Ro- 
man architecture  had  been  forgotten  also  its  virtues.  Looking 
at  this  fa9ade  of  S.  Michele  we  can  well  understand  how  for 
many  years  it  was  believed  by  archaeologists  to  be  a  work  of 
the  VII  century,  of  the  darkest  hour  of  the  Dark  Ages.  Dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  XII  century,  it  is  true,  improvement  was 
made  in  the  treatment  of  fa9ades;  in  that  of  S.  Zeno,  Verona 
(111.  118),  for  example,  much  of  the  crudeness  has  disappeared. 
Still,  throughout  this  period,  and  with  a  few  exceptions  in  the 
Gothic  period  also,  the  church  fa9ades  continued  to  be  stumbling- 
blocks  to  the  Italians.  The  architects  were  fortunate  if  they 
succeeded  in  making  them  inoffensive,  and  almost  never  were 
they  able  to  impart  any  positive  artistic  interest  to  them. 

In  passing,  a  word  should  be  said  on  the  detached  campanile, 
so  conspicuous  a  feature  of  Lombard  churches.     To  the  end 

214 


"« 

^: 

^^— ^^^-j 

J-n^llcdt  ooQjipoar  imcTc  '  ,7itt,  , 


li.i..    11(».  —  F;i<,a.l.-  Ill'  S.  .Vlioiiiliu  ul'  CiiiMu.      il'"r(.iii  Diirti'lji) 


LOMBARD   CONSTRUCTION 

these  campaniles  remained  simj)le  square  towers,  though  they 
were  decorated  more  or  less  richly  with  pilaster  strips,  arched 
corbel-tables,  and  other  ornaments.  The  appearance  of  greater 
height  was  given  by  emphasizing  the  vertical  divisions,  and 
most  unexpected  delicacy  was  displayed  in  the  distribution 
of  the  window  openings,  which  were  made  larger  and  more 
numerous  towards  the  top,  thus  lightening  the  effect  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  tower.  Altogether  these  campaniles  are  among 
the  most  picturesque  and  artistic  achievements  of  the  Lombard 
style  (111.  118). 

Although  somewhat  aside  from  the  main  course  of  our  study, 
it  will  l)e  well  to  notice  before  leaving  the  subject  of  Lombard 
construction,  the  substitutes  that  were  found  during  the  XII 
century  for  the  rib  vault  on  an  alternate  system.  The  point  of 
departure  seems  to  have  been  the  discovery,  imported  into  Italy 
from  the  North,  that  a  groin  vault  could  be  built  on  an  oblong 
j)lan  by  stilting  either  the  transverse  or  longitudinal  arches. 
The  rigid  system  of  proportion  necessitated  by  the  alternate 
system  seems  to  have  bound  down  the  architects  somewhat 
too  closely,  and  it  was  eagerly  abandoned.  At  first  the  nave 
vault  seems  to  have  been  left  square,  but  the  intermediate  piers 
were  omitted,  thus  making  the  aisle  compartments  oblong  in 
the  longitudinal  sense  and  equal  in  length  to  those  of  the  nave. 
This  step,  taken  at  S.  Teodoro  of  Pavia,  is  illustrated  by  the 
diagram  (111.  101,  Fig.  8). 

The  next  change  was  to  exactly  reverse  the  situation.  The 
aisle  compartments  were  made  square,  those  of  the  nave  oblong 
in  the  transverse  sense.  This  stage  '  is  illustrated  in  the  dia- 
gram by  Fig.  9  (111.  101).  From  this  moment  oblong  groin 
vaults  were  used  freely  by  the  Lombard  builders  in  both  nave 
and  aisles,  and  the  alternate  system  as  a  logical  construction 
passed  out  of  use.  The  tradition,  however,  often  survived, 
every  alternate  pier  being  made  heavier,  though  all  carried 
exactly  the  same  load. 

The  rib  vault  cannot  be  said  ever  to  have  been  actually  for- 
gotten in  Lombardy,  although  a  large  majority  of  the  vaults 
of  the  XII  century  were  constructed  with  simple  groins.     Prob- 

'  See  Cathedral  of  Pamia. 
215 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

ably  as  a  consequence  of  this  preference  for  the  groin  vault, 
plain  circular  piers  came  to  be  substituted  for  the  compound 
type.  Since  there  were  no  longer  any  ribs  for  which  supports 
were  needed,  the  compound  form  became  useless.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  circular  piers  had  been  from  the  first  character- 
istic of  the  school  of  Corao,  and  it  is  possible  that  this  motive 
spread  from  that  region  to  the  other  districts  of  Lombardy. 

No  further  changes  of  construction  were  introduced  until 
Lombard  architecture  gave  place  to  the  new  style  imported 
from  France.  Its  final  years  tell  a  story  —  not  of  stagnation 
and  decay,  for  progress  never  stopped  —  but  of  brilliant  prom- 
ise unfulfilled,  of  great  possibilities  come  to  nought.  But  while 
the  last  of  the  XII  century  brought  only  disappointment  in 
structural  lines,  it  was  far  otherwise  in  the  field  of  ornament. 
The  barbaric  exuberance  of  early  Lombard  decoration  was  in 
the  later  monuments  curbed  and  refined,  so  that  much  that  is 
of  genuine  merit  was  produced. 

Of  all  Lombard  ornaments,  the  most  important  and  the 
most  characteristic  is  the  arched  corbel-table  (111.  108).  The 
popularity  of  this  decoration  was  almost  unbounded,  and  hardly 
a  cornice  in  all  Lombardy  but  is  adorned  with  it.  From  Italy 
it  spread  over  well-nigh  all  western  Europe,  and  forms  a  dis- 
tinctive clue  by  which  Lombard  influence  may  be  immediately 
detected.  Of  the  simplest  form  of  this  ornament  as  applied 
externally  to  the  apse,  we  have  already  spoken  in  the  chapter 
on  Carolingian  architecture.  In  Carolingian  edifices  it  had 
generally  been  used  in  connection  with  pilaster  strips,  and 
openings  were  pierced  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  beneath 
the  arches.  This  primitive  form  persisted  occasionally  through- 
out the  Lombard  period,'  but  often  gave  place  to  more  complex 
forms  of  the  same  fundamental  motive. 

Very  soon  after  the  year  1000,  there  is  noticeable  a  tendency 
to  greatly  extenuate  and  narrow  the  pilaster  strips.  Soon,  doubt- 
less on  analogy  with  the  interior  system,  shafts,  or  slender 
engaged  colonettes,  were  substituted  for  them  (111.  105,  107, 
110).  These  shafts  became  so  favorite  a  feature  that  groups 
of   them   were   used   to   replace   buttresses    on   the   facade    of 

'  As  at  Vercelli,  Cassale  Monferrato,  etc. 
216 


"'    :•'  -  . '     '*'  ,  ' 


III-   111.  —  Section  of  S.  Zeno,  Verona,  showing  System.      iFrom  Dehio) 


111.  1H.  — Capital  ami  liase  of  S.  (Vis.),  Milan.     (From  Dartein) 


ORNAMENT 

St.  Michele  at  Pavia  (111.  109).  They  were  also  used  to  form 
a  new  decoration,  one  of  these  shafts  being  placed  under  each 
of  the  corbels  of  the  arched  corbel-table  so  as  to  appear  to  sup- 
port its  arches.  This  turned  the  ornament  into  a  sort  of  engaged 
arcade  (111.  105).  The  step  to  make  these  engaged  arcades 
practicable  galleries  was  a  short  one;  the  latter  feature,  how- 
ever, seems  hardly  to  have  been  introduced  into  Lombardy 
before  the  XII  century.  At  that  time  it  became  a  favorite  mo- 
tive, one  treated  with  a  play  of  fancy  and  a  delicacy  seldom 
shown  by  Lombard  art  (111.  109). 

Arched  corbel-tables  were  essentially  an  exterior  ornament, 
but  they  were  at  times  also  applied  internally,  usually  as  a 
string-course  to  mark  the  division  into  stories.  At  S.  Ambrogio, 
shafts  from  the  intermediate  piers  rise  to  support  the  arched 
corbel-table  at  the  triforium  level  (111.  92,  119),  a  curious  dis- 
position repeated  at  S.  Celso  of  Milan  (111.  97)  and  in  the  bap- 
tistery of  Arsago.' 

To  the  XII  century  belongs  the  doubled  arched  corbel- 
table  —  a  motive  perhaps  suggested  by  the  double  arcades  of 
Normandy.  The  reproduction  (middle  left  of  111.  108)  shows 
the  nature  of  this  variation.  The  last  form  assumed  by  the 
corbel-table  —  perhaps  the  one  most  momentous  of  all  for 
the  future  —  was  the  flat  corbel-table.  In  this  variant  the  arches 
are  left  out,  and  the  ornament  is  reduced  to  a  series  of  corbels 
supporting  a  flat  cornice.  These  flat  corbel-tables  seem  almost 
like  a  reminiscence  of  the  Corinthian  modillion.  They  are 
found  in  the  interior  of  S.  Michele  of  Pavia  (111.  104)  early 
in  the  XII  century,  and  are  of  frequent  occurrence  thereafter. 

All  these  and  many  other  variations  were  played  on  the 
theme  of  the  arched  corbel-table,  and  yet  the  original  motive 
is  clearly  to  be  recognized  in  all.  Whether  following  the 
rake  of  a  gable  or  dividing  a  campanile  into  stories,  whether 
as  a  gallery  or  an  arcade,  in  some  one  of  its  many  forms 
the  motive  may  be  found  in  every  Lombard  building.  How 
constantly  it  was  used,  may  be  appreciated  by  glancing  over 
the  illustrations  of  Lombard  buildings  given  in  this  chapter. 

Next  to  the  arched  corbel-table,  sculpture  formed  the  most 

'  See  below,  p.  257. 
217 


LOMBARD   ARCHITECTURE 

characteristic  feature  of  Lombard  decoration.  No  adequate 
study  has  yet  been  made  of  this  art,  and  until  such  is  done,  it 
is  impossible  to  trace  any  growth  or  development  in  the  style. 
The  main  characteristics,  however,  are  patent  enough.  Fig- 
ures are  used  in  a  purely  decorative  way,  being  mingled  with 
leaf  or  string  patterns  in  rinceaux  or  capitals.  The  figures  are 
often  grotesque  and  always  badly  proportioned,  being  generally 
much  too  broad  for  their  height.  They  are  composed  with  an 
eye  for  humor  rather  than  for  beauty,  and  many  of  the  subjects 
before  modern  expurgations  were  extremely  obscene.  Mon- 
sters, mythological  creatures,  strange  distorted  animals,  inter- 
change with  the  human  figures.  The  drawing  often  shows  a  sense 
of  caricature  that  ill  befits  the  character  of  a  sacred  edifice  (111. 
112,  113).  These  humorous  grotesques,  barbarous  as  they 
seem  to  us  to-day,  offered,  however,  a  singular  attraction  to 
the  medieval  mind.  In  the  days  before  comic  newspapers 
they  seem  to  have  fulfilled  the  function  these  journals  fill  with 
us.  It  was  in  vain  that  St.  Bernard  invoked  against  such  deco- 
rations all  the  thunders  of  the  Church.  Even  the  gloom  of  medi- 
eval asceticism  could  not  quench  all  the  deviltry  of  human  nature; 
and  these  immoral  grotesques,  funny  even  to-day,  disported 
themselves  on  the  buildings  of  the  Church  which  should  have 
opposed  them. 

Of  pure  figure  sculpture,  the  Lombards  offer  us  but  little. 
The  most  notable  examples  are  the  slabs  of  reliefs  built  in  the 
fa9ade  of  S.  Michele  —  slabs  placed  so  crudely  and  so  at  hap- 
hazard as  to  suggest  a  rebuilding  with  second-hand  materials. 
At  all  events,  it  seems  clear  that  this  fa9ade  was  designed  with 
a  view  to  displaying  the  sculpture,  rather  than  the  sculpture 
executed  to  decorate  the  fa9ade  (111.  109). 

The  conventional  scul2:)ture  of  the  Lombards  was  very  rich 
and  varied.  It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  stop  to  analyse  its  sep- 
arate motives;  many  would  hardly  be  found  twice,  and  yet  the 
character  of  the  whole,  as  will  at  once  be  seen  from  the  illus- 
trations (112,  113,  114,  116,  117)  is  unmistakable.  Many 
familiar  forms  will  be  found  persisting  in  but  slightly  changed 
dress  —  the  rinceau  and  acanthus  in  both  the  Latin  and  Byzan- 
tine versions,  the  guilloche,  the  interlace,  etc.     At  bottom  this 

218 


III.  113.  —  Capital  nf  S.  Michfle.  I'avia.     (From  Dartein) 


LOMBARD   SCULPTURE 

ornament  is  Carolingian,  and  shows  the  uninterrupted  develop- 
ment of  such  CaroHngian  sculpture  as  has  been  studied  in  the 
previous  chapter.  Strangely  enough,  however,  the  Germanic 
element  comes  to  the  front  even  more  decidedly  than  in  Caro- 
lingian ilccoration.     It  is  evident  in  the  grotesque  character,  in 


III.  115.  —  Cubic  Capital  from  S.  Abondio,   Como. 
Dartcin) 


(From 


the  lack  of  symmetry,  and  above  all  in  the  exuberance,  of  Lom- 
bard ornament.  There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  much  less  that 
is  B\*zantine  in  Lombard  than  in  Carolingian  decox-ation.  Yet, 
even  so,  the  Eastern  element  remains  unmistakable,  and  that 
Byzantine  stringiness  we  have  so  often  spoken  of,  here  reached 
its  extreme  development  (111.  117). 

The  best  field  for  ornamental  sculpture  was  offered  by  the 
219 


LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE 

doorways.  In  the  thick  walls  necessitated  by  a  vaulted  basil- 
ica, it  had  been  the  custom  to  splay  the  door  openings,  just  as 
windows  had  been  splayed.  This  splaying  was  of  practical 
advantage  in  facilitating  the  passage  of  a  large  crowd  through 
the  opening.  Then,  like  the  archivolts  of  the  nave,  the  archi- 
volt  and  jambs  of  the  door  came  to  be  built  in  several  orders, 
usually  alternately  rectangular  and  three-quarter  round  in  sec- 
tion. These  orders  were  commonly  decorated  with  great  rich- 
ness, although  in  Lonibardy  they  never  were  given  quite  such 
lavish  decoration  as  was  bestowed  upon  them  in  the  North. 
Yet  such  portals  as  those  of  S.  Ambrogio,  Milan,  or  of  S.  Michele, 
Pa  via  (111.  117),  are  decidedly  the  most  richly  ornamented  part 
of  the  building,  and  are  of  great  architectural  effect. 

In  the  XII  century,  and  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Verona,  the  entrance  to  the  church  was  still  further  emphasized 
by  the  addition  of  the  Lombard  porch.  This  consisted  of  a 
little  porch  built  before  the  door,  and  supported  usually  by  two 
columns  resting  on  the  back  of  sculptured  monsters.  A  sec- 
ond story  often  served  as  a  niche  for  the  image  of  a  saint.  These 
peculiar  porches  are  very  characteristic  of  the  late  Lombard 
style  (111.  118). 

In  capitals  the  style  offers  a  very  wide  variety.  At  S.  Abon- 
dio  of  Como  (1013-1095)  are  found  cubic  capitals  whose  na- 
ture can  be  best  understood  from  the  reproduction  (111.  115) 
and  which  we  shall  find  playing  an  important  role  in  Normandy. 
More  typical,  however,  are  the  elaborately  carved  examples 
shown  in  111.  112,  113,  116.  In  these  it  will  be  seen  that  classic 
tradition  has  all  but  died  out.  The  position  of  a  head  now  and 
then  recalls  the  Corinthian  volute,  but  in  the  main  the  sculptor 
has  gone  his  own  way  with  an  exuberant  fancy,  untrammeled 
by  conventional  forms.  It  is  impossil^le  to  classify  or  general- 
ize concerning  these  Lombard  capitals;  the  variety  is  well-nigh 
infinite.  And  yet  even  from  the  few  examples  reproduced  in 
the  illustrations,  the  unity  of  feeling  which  runs  through  'them 
all  may  be  readily  perceived. 

Doubtless  one  of  the  main  fields  of  Lombard  ornament, 
though  one  unfortunately  now  lost  to  us,  was  the  painting  with 
which  the  interior  walls  were  decorated.     It  is  impossible  to 

220 


J^W::0'^0^' 


"^^c^  1i 


MILAN 

say  just  how  extensively  ornament  of  this  character  was  em- 
ployed, but  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was  largely 
used."  Fresco-painting  had  been  practised  from  Early  Chris- 
tian times,-  and  as  mosaic  decoration  passed  out  of  use,  this  art 
doubtless  came  to  take  the  place  mosaics  had  once  occupied  in 
mural  adornment.  How  materially  such  color  would  have 
lightened  the  oppressive  gloom  that  now  weighs  upon  Lombard 
interiors,  there  is  no  means  for  us  to  judge,  but  we  can  imagine 
that  the  stiff  conventional  figures  of  the  medieval  Italian  school 
would  not  be  without  their  value  as  architectural  accessories. 

Lombard  architecture,  although  it  showed  much  attainment 
on  its  decorative  no  less  than  on  its  constructive  side,  still  fell 
far  short  of  being  a  truly  great,  or  even  a  satisfying  art.  There 
is  no  monument  of  the  Lombard  Romanesque  capable  of  afford- 
ing deep  esthetic  enjoyment.  Although  the  charm  of  age,  the 
glamour  of  history,  the  thought  that  these  monuments  are  the 
parents  of  the  stately  cathedrals  beyond  the  Alps,  lend  them 
an  undeniable  interest;  although  there  is  a  grace  that  cannot 
be  gainsaid  in  such  a  design  as  that  of  S.  Lazarro,  Pavia,  the 
daintiest  of  all  Lombard  constructions;  yet  we  turn  away 
from  Lombardy  towards  Pisa,  or  Venice,  or  the  Rhineland,  or 
France,  or  Spain,  with  the  feeling  that  Lombard  art,  after  all, 
was  only  a  failure;  that  it  was  an  art  which  attempted  what  it 
was  unable  to  carry  to  completion. 

LOMBARD  MONUMENTS 

I.    MONTMEXTS    OF   THE    FiRST    ClASS 

MILAN.  Lombardy.  .S.  Ambrngin.  For  tliis  most  important  of  all  Lombard 
monuments,  whose  nave  probably  dates  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  XI  century,  see 
p.  172. 

S.  C'elso.  For  the  apse,  see  p.  175.  Subsequently  to  the  foundation  of  this  church 
in  998,  it  is  known  that  three  restorations  were  carried  out:  the  first  (1,5jO)  was  no- 
table for  the  construction  of  the  vault  which  still  survives;  in  1651  a  new  fa9ade  was 
erected;  and  in  1777  still  other  additions  were  made.  In  the  XIX  century  the  first 
two  bays  of  the  nave  were  pulled  down.  The  main  body  of  the  present  church,  how- 
ever, can  hardly  have  been  erected  at  the  time  of  the  original  construction    in  998 

'  The  most  notable  example  remaining  is,  I  believe,  in  S.  Fidele,  Como. 
'  E.  g.,  Rome,  Sta.  Maria  Antica,  S.  Paolo,  f.l.m.;  Como,  ancient  basilica  of  S.  Abondio, 
etc. 

221 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

nor  in  any  of  these  subsequent  restorations,  since  it  betrays  the  fully  developed  Lom- 
bard style.  Moreover,  the  bays  of  the  nave  which  have  been  torn  down  —  to  judge 
from  descriptions  made  before  their  destruction  —  could  not  have  been  contemporary 
with  the  bay  which  survives,  and  which  Dartein  assigns  to  the  second  half  of  the 
XI  century,'  though  I  should  be  inclined  to  place  the  construction  even  earlier,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  XI  century.  The  nave  was  undoubtedly  roofed  originally  in  wood, 
although  the  aisles  were  groin-vaulted.  The  system  is  alternate,  with  compound 
piers  of  several  orders  and  transverse  arches.  There  seem  to  have  been  no  external 
buttresses. 

S.  Eustorgio.  For  the  X  century  church,  see  p.  175.  The  Lombard  nave  has 
been  so  many  times  rebuilt  and  altered,  that  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  confidence 
of  its  original  arrangements.  The  present  edifice  is  characterized  by  three  aisles,  a 
nave  eight  bays  long,  and  piers,  which,  while  varying  so  much  among  themselves 
as  to  suggest  construction  at  different  epochs,  are  in  general  compound  with  diagonal 
shafts.  Although  the  three  aisles  are  now  of  equal  height,  capitals  placed  half  way 
up  on  the  piers  and  low  transverse  arches  thrown  across  the  aisles,  seem  to  show  that 
there  were  originally  galleries.  These  were  probably  cut  away  in  order  to  erect  but- 
tresses for  the  main  piers.  The  nave  is  vaulted  in  square  compartments  with  rib 
vaults  —  in  at  least  one  compartment  a  waU  rib  is  included  in  the  system.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  assign  a  date  to  this  nave,  but  as  the  ground  work  of  the  present  structure' 
appears  to  be  about  contemporary  with  S.  Ambrogio,  it  may  be  referred  to  the  last 
half  of  the  XI  century. 

S.  Nazaro  Maggiore  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  S.  Ambrogio  in  396.  In 
1075  the  primitive  church  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  construction  of  the  edifice  still 
extant  was  presumably  begun  immediately  afterwards.^  S.  Nazaro  Maggiore,  con- 
sequently, may  be  considered  as  an  accurately  dated  monument,  and  as  such  assumes 
unique  importance  in  the  history  of  Lombard  architecture,  although,  unfortunately, 
its  dispositions  are  somewhat  exceptional.  It  is  a  church  of  a  single  aisle,  a  Latin 
cross  in  plan,  the  choir  and  transepts  being  much  extended  and  ending  in  semicir- 
cular apses.  The  crossing  is  covered  with  an  octagonal  dome.  The  church  is  vaulted 
throughout  with  ribbed  vaults  in  square  compartments,  resting  on  engaged  compound  ' 
piers.  These  piers  were  obscured  in  the  redecoration  of  1578  and  entirely  removed 
in  1818;  but  their  design,  which  is  happily  known,  included  diagonal  shafts,  a  fact 
which  proves  that  the  church  was  planned  from  the  foundations  for  a  rib  vault. 
On  the  basis  of  this  evidence  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  rib  vaults  must  have  been 
known  in  Milan  shortly   after   1075.     (Dartein,    199.) 

Sta.  Babila.  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  the  present  build- 
ing, which  is  assigned  by  Dartein  to  the  XII  century,  although  Comm.  Rivoira  ascribes 
it  to  the  first  years  of  the  XI.    The  building  was  restored  in  1387,  and  must  have  been 

'  P.  195.     Cattaneo  (somewhat  carelessly)  assigns  it  to  the  XII  century. 

-  The  account  in  Aniolf  of  this  fire  which  in  1075  devastated  almost  the  entire  city  ends 
as  follows:  "Hoc  tantum  crudelior,  quod  multo  plures  ac  majores  combussit  ecclesias.  Illam 
scilicet  vestivam  ac  mirabilem  Sanctae  Virginis  Teclfe,  Beati  quoque  Nazarii,  nee  non  Proto- 
martyris  Stephani,  cseterasque  plures,  etc."  —  cit.  Dartein,  p.  199. 

222 


MILAN 

much  modernized  since,  for  the  present  barrel  vaults  are  evidently  comparatively 
recent  additions.  The  interior  is  characterized  by  three  aisles  (of  which  the  side  aisles 
are  groin- vaulted)  separated  by  compound  piers  carrying  transverse  arches;  the 
exterior,  by  salient  buttresses  of  rectangular  section.     (Rivoira;  Dartein,  213.) 

iS.  Giorgio  al  Palazzo.  There  is  extant  an  historical  notice  of  the  consecration  of 
this  church  in  1 129,  and  the  present  edifice  doubtless  dates  largely  from  this  time, 
though  it  has  been  modernized  in  the  XVI  and  X^TI  centuries.  Several  of  the  an- 
cient piers,  which  still  survive  in  the  eastern  jiart  of  the  nave,  show  that  the  original 
system  was  alternate,  the  nave  and  aisles  both  being  divided  into  square  compart- 
ments. It  is  probable  that  it  was  at  least  intended  to  cover  the  church  with  rib  vaults, 
constructed  on  a  system  similar  to  that  of  the  contemporary  church  of  S.  Michele  of 
Pavia.     (Dartein,  212.) 

S.  Calimero  is  a  church  of  a  single  aisle,  terminating  in  a  great  apse.  The  in- 
terior is  divided  by  transverse  arches  (vigorously  buttressed  internally  and  exter- 
nally) into  five  bays,  which  are  covered  with  groin  vaults.  The  first  four  bays, 
oblong  in  plan,  are  half  as  long  as  wide,  but  the  last,  which  forms  the  choir,  is  nearly 
square.  This  choir,  which  is  placed  over  a  crypt,  is  raised  five  steps.  The  monu- 
ment may  be  assigned  on  its  style  to  the  XII  cciitury.     (Dartein,  214.) 

S.  Sivipliciano.  The  present  building  is  cruciform  in  plan,  the  three  aisles  being 
intersected  by  a  projecting  transept.  This  transept  is  remarkable  in  being  separated 
into  two  equal  aisles  by  a  line  of  pillars.  The  vaults  which  all  spring  from  the  same 
level  are  slightly  pointed.  According  to  Mongeri,  the  primitive  basilica  was  replaced 
during  the  Lombard  period  by  a  church  covered  with  a  wooden  roof.  In  the  XIII 
century  the  transept  was  added,  the  side  aisles  raised  (like  those  of  S.  Eustorgio),  and 
the  vault  constructed.  An  unfortunate  restoration  of  the  monument  in  1841  has 
made  it  difficult  to  study;  in  fact,  the  facade  is  the  only  portion  that  is  still  well 
preser\'ed.     (Dartein,    216.) 

Sto.  Stejano  in  Brolio.  Since  this  church  was  destroyed  by  the  same  fire  which 
burned  S.  Nazaro  Maggiore  '  in  107.5,  it  was  doubtless  reconstructed  soon  after  this 
date.  The  only  relic  of  this  Lombard  church,  however,  is  a  pier  at  present  placed 
in  the  square  adjoining  the  modern  Renaissance  structure  of  the  same  name.  (Dar- 
tein, 215.) 

S.  Sepolcro.  This  church  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  that  founded  in  1030  by 
Benedetto  Rozone  da  Cortesella  and  dedicated  to  the  Trinity.  Modified  in  the 
same  century  in  imitation  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  Jerusalem,  it  in  consequence 
received  the  present  name.  Further  alterations  were  carried  out  in  the  XVI,  XVII, 
and  XVIII  centuries.     (Marini,  51.) 

8.  Giovanni  in  Conca,  to-day  desecrated,  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  Rebuilt  in 
1615,  it  preserves  of  the  Lombard  structure  only  the  fa9ade,  whose  style  seems  to 
be  that  of  the  late  XII  century.     (Dartein,  215.) 

Sta.  Maria  di  Brera,  which  ser%'es  at  present  as  an  archaeological  museum,  dates 
from  the  first  years  of  the  XIII  century,  except  for  the  fa9ade  of  1362.  The  supports 
are   cylindrical   piers. 

'  See  above,  p.  2'2'2. 
22.'} 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

PA  VIA.  Lombardy.  S.  Michele  Maggiore  (111.  103,  104,  105,  109,  113,  114, 
117)  among  Lombard  edifices  is  surpassed  in  interest  and  importance  only  by  S. 
Ambrogio  of  Milan.  The  church  must  be  of  very  ancient  foundation,  since  it  is 
mentioned  by  Paulus  Diaconus  in  reference  to  the  years  663  and  737,  while  in  the  A'lII 
century  Desiderius  left  the  basilica  a  legacy  for  the  welfare  of  his  soul.  In  924  the 
Hungarians  burned  Pavia,  reducing  it,  as  say  the  terrified  chroniclers,  to  a  heap  of 
stones;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  basilica  of  S.  Michele  shared  in  the  general 
destruction.  Yet  this  disaster  could  not  have  been  as  great  as  the  chronicles  would 
lead  us  to  believe,  for  Rudolf,  King  of  Burgundy  and  Italy,  established  his  capital 
at  Pavia  in  the  very  year  of  the  supposed  destruction  of  the  city,  and  Lothaire  here 
held  his  court  until  948.  Furthermore,  Berengar  and  Adelbert  were  crowned  in  the 
church  of  S.  Michele  in  950,  and  as  early  as  930,  or  only  six  years  after  the  Hunga- 
rian occupation,  the  body  of  S.  Colombano,  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Babbio,  was 
received  in  the  same  church  with  great  pomp.  All  these  facts  justify  the  inference 
that  if  the  church  suffered  at  all  in  the  disaster  of  924,  it  could  have  been  only  in  part 
destroyed.  It  probably  also  escaped  from  injury  in  the  fire  started  by  order  of  the 
Emperor  Henry  II  in  1004  —  a  fire  which  certainly  did  destroy  neighboring  build- 
ings, —  since  it  is  recorded  in  public  documents  that  Adeltruda,  abbess  of  Ss.  Leone  e 
Marino  in  1005  exchanged  a  stable  not  far  from  "the  basilica  of  the  arc-angel  Michael, 
which  is  called  Maggiore,"  '  and  that  in  the  same  year  Otto,  son  of  King  .\rduin, 
signed  an  act  of  donation  "in  the  palace  next  the  church  of  St.  Michael."  "  But  how- 
ever this  may  be,  the  present  structure  can  date  neither  from  924  nor  from  1004,  since 
the  style  is  undoubtedly  that  of  the  XII  century,  or  more  precisely  of  c.  1125.  Now 
although  it  is  unknown  at  what  date  the  monastery  was  established  in  S.  Michele, 
it  is  first  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  XII  century.  It  is  therefore  not  improbable 
that  the  monks  were  here  established  about  this  time,  and  that  they  at  once  set  to 
work  to  rebuild  their  church.  The  existing  edifice  is  characterized  by  crude  technitiue, 
and  consists  of  a  nave  two  double  bays  long,  two  side  aisles,  and  projecting  transepts. 
The  nave  was  originally  vaulted  with  rib  vaults  on  an  alternate  system,  but  in  the 
XV  century  these  were  torn  down  and  replaced  by  the  present  oblong  vaults.  The 
transepts  and  choir  are  barrel- vaulted ;  the  aisles  have  groin  vaults  with  transverse 
ribs;  and  a  cloistered  dome  rises  over  the  crossing.  S.  Michele  in  its  general  interior 
design  is  quite  similar  to  S.  Ambrogio  of  IMilan,  although  it  differs  from  the  earlier 
structure  in  being  supplied  with  a  clearstory.  The  system  in  the  two  buildings  is 
precisely  similar,  except  that  in  S.  Michele  the  corbel-table  at  the  triforium  level  is 
flat,  offering  thus  an  awkward  termination  for  the  shafts  of  the  intermediate  piers. 
Modern  side  chapels  now  line  the  ex-terior  walls,  completely  masking  the  original 
buttresses.  The  false  facade  is  ornamented  with  unmeaning  shafts,  practicable  gal- 
leries, and  sculpture,  which  here  as  throughout  the  church  is  employed  in  a  lavish, 
if  somewhat  barbaric,  manner,  suggesting  the  use  of  second-hand  materials.  No  less 
than  six  richly  ornamented  doorways  enrich  the  splendor  of  the  exterior  decoration. 
(Venturi;  Dartein;  Dehio;  Cattaneo;  Dell'   Acqua;  etc.) 

'  Non  longe  de  basilica  S.  Archangel!  Michaelis  quae  dicitur  majore. 
2  In  palatio  juxta  ecclesiam  S.  Michaelis. 
224 


PAMA 

S.  Pictro  ill  Ciil  d'Oro.  The  fame  of  tliis  ehurch  was  established  by  Luitprand, 
who  in  7'i3  transported  hither  the  relics  of  St.  Augustine,  formerly  buried  in  Sardinia. 
According  to  Paulus  Diaconus  the  same  king  founded  the  monastery:  "he  [Luit- 
prand] founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter,  which  is  situated  without  the  walls  of  the 
city  of  Pavia  and  is  called  Ciel  d'Oro."  '  Soon  after,  in  743,  the  pope  Zacharias,  who 
chanced  to  be  at  Pavia,  celebrated  on  the  eve  of  St.  Peter  a  solemn  mass  in  the  church 
of  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro.  But  of  all  the  notices  in  regard  to  this  church,  the  most 
interesting  dates  from  1132.  In  this  year  on  May  9th,  the  church  was  solemnly 
consecrated  by  Innocent  II.  It  was  undoubtedly  the  present  edifice  which  was 
then  dedicated,  so  here  at  last  we  have  an  authentically  dated  Lombard  monument, 
giving  a  central  date  of  support  for  the  study  of  the  style.  The  church  originally 
consisted  of  a  nave  five  bays  long,  two  side  aisles,  non-projecting  transepts,  and  three 
apses.  The  first  four  bays  of  the  nave  are  covered  with  oblong  rib  vaults,  without 
wall  ribs,  but  with  slightly  pointed  wall  arches  —  an  evident  advance  over  S.  Michele 
Maggiore;  the  last  bay  is  covered  with  a  barrel  vault,  and  a  cloistered  dome  rises 
over  the  crossing.  Tie-rods  seem  to  have  been  introduced  as  part  of  the  original 
construction  to  neutralize  the  thrust  of  all  these  vaults.  The  piers  are  compound, 
with  diagonal  shafts  but  with  no  e.xtra  orders,  except  in  the  triumphal  arch.  The 
false  fafade,  evidently  slightly  later  than  that  of  S.  Michele,  is  decorated  with  the 
usual  unmeaning  shafts,  single  and  double  arched  corbel-tables,  and  practicable 
galleries.  External  buttresses  reinforce  the  stability  of  the  side  walls.  (Dartein, 
279.) 

S.  Teodoro.  a  church  which  was  originally  consecrated  to  St.  Agnes,  is  of  very 
ancient  foundation.  St.  Theodore,  who  was  bishop  of  Pavia  from  736  to  778,  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni;  but  the  body  of  the  saint  was  later  transferred 
to  Sta.  Agnese,  whose  title  was  consequently  changed.  This  is  all  that  is  known  of  the 
history  of  the  church  before  the  XIII  century.  Although  Dartein  assigns  the  present 
structure  to  the  middle  or  second  half  of  the  XII  century,  the  style  of  the  edifice  makes 
it  evident  that  it  must  be  at  least  as  early  as  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro  (1132).  The 
monument  consists  of  a  nave  four  bays  long,  two  side  aisles,  non-projecting  transepts, 
and  three  apses.  Except  for  the  cloistered  dome  which  rises  over  the  crossing,  the 
building  is  covered  throughout  with  groin  vaults  reinforced  by  heavy  transverse  arches. 
The  number  of  vaulting  compartments  in  aisles  and  nave  is  equal,  those  of  the  nave 
being  square,  and  those  of  the  aisles  consequently  oblong  in  the  longitudinal  sense. 
The  compounil  piers  are  crowned  by  capitals  either  cubic  or  crudely  carved,  for  the 
sculpture  throughout  is  very  poor  and  has  lost  what  little  character  it  originally  pos- 
sessed through  modern  restorations.  Beneath  the  vaults  is  inserted  a  low  clearstory. 
The  exterior,  especially  the  apses,  is  decorated  with  arched  corbel-tables  resting  on 
shafts;  on  the  cupola  are  flat  corbel-tables  and  arcades.     (Dartein,  2S2.) 

•S.  Latijraneo.  According  to  an  ancient  manuscript,  which  I  believe  has  never 
been  published,  this  monastery  was  founded  in  1090,  and  the  church  was  begun  in 
the  same  year.     There  is  furthermore  record  that  a  donation  was  made  to  the  mon- 

'  "Hie  monasterium  Beati  Petri,  quixj  foras  muros  Ticinensis  civitatis  situm  est  et  cjelum 
aureuni  appcliatur,  iustituil."  —  Paulus  Warncfridus,  lib.  vi,  cap.  oS. 

22.5 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

astery  of  S.  Lanfranco  in  1116,  which  would  seem  to  confirm  this  statement.  But 
another  manuscript '  refers  the  arrival  of  the  monks  to  the  year  1190,  and  states  very 
precisely  that  the  church  was  consecrated  in  1236,  the  campanile  erected  in  1237, 
and  the  fa9ade  completed  in  1257.  Dartein  reconciles  the  contradiction  by  suppos- 
ing that  the  church  orignally  erected  in  the  XII  century  was  remodeled  in  the  XIII; 
but,  since  the  style  of  the  present  edifice  is  evidently  about  contemporary  with  that  of 
S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d  'Oro,  it  is  probable  that  an  error  has  crept  into  the  last  text,  and 
that  the  dates  should  be  altered  to  1090,  1136,  1137,  and  1157  respectively,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  church  certainly  was  altered  in  the  XIII  century.  The 
monument  which  is  of  a  single  aisle  with  transepts  is  covered  with  groin  vaults  on  an 
oblong  plan  except  for  the  cloistered  dome  which  rises  over  the  crossing.  The  false 
fa9ade  shows  a  poverty  of  ornament  which  is  characteristic  of  the  entire  edifice. 

Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  the  ancient  cathedral,  is  completely  ruined,  only  the  south- 
ern wall  to  the  level  of  the  pier  capitals  and  parts  of  the  crypt  surviving.  From  these 
ruins  it  is  evident  that  the  first  five  oblong  rib  vaults  of  the  nave  corresponded  to  an 
equal  number  of  square  vaults  in  the  aisles.  The  sixth  bay  of  the  nave,  however, 
was  expanded  to  form  a  sort  of  transept.  The  vaulting  of  the  aisles  was  peculiar. 
In  the  bays  2,  3,  and  5,  counting  from  the  west,  were  placed  rib  vaults  erected  at  the 
usual  level;  but  in  1,  4,  and  6,  barrel  vaults  were  erected  at  a  level  halfway  between 
that  of  the  lower  aisle  vaults  and  that  of  the  nave  vaults.  There  is  no  historical  evi- 
dence for  the  date  of  this  building,  which  Dartein  is  doubtless  right  in  assigning  to 
the  XII  century.     (Dartein,  301.) 

«S.  Lazaro.  A  deed  of  gift  of  Dec.  29,  1157  gives  positive  evidence  that  this 
little  church  was  constructed  about  the  middle  of  the  XII  century.  The  monument 
consists  of  a  simple  rectangle  of  19.03  X  7.37  m.  covered  with  a  modern  barrel  vault. 
A  semicircular  apse  projects  to  the  eastward.  The  decoration  consisting  of  redoubled 
orders,  pilaster  strips,  and  stilted  arcades  is  very  elegant,  and  this  building  is,  per- 
haps, from  the  point  of  view  of  ornament  the  cliej  d'oeuvre  of  the  Lombard  style. 
(Dartein.) 

Sto.  Stefano.  This  church,  of  which  there  remain  only  a  fragment  of  the  facade 
and  some  of  the  ancient  supports  now  imbedded  in  masonry,  seems  to  have  had  five 
aisles.  The  surviving  supports  are  Lombard  compound  piers;  but  in  the  center  of 
one  of  these  piers  was  found  a  column  whose  capital,  a  barbarous  imitation  of  the 
Corinthian,  must  be  referred  to  the  Carolingian  era.  Dartein  assigns  this  capital 
to  the  VII,  the  Lombard  construction  to  the  XII,  century.     (Dartein,  295.) 

S.  Agostino,  S.  Ambrogio,  Sta.  Maria  Dcodata,  S.  Tommaso,  S.  Salvatore.  These 
five  ancient  churches  have  been  completely  modernized.     (Willis.) 

Monuments  of  the  Second  Class 

VERONA,  Venetia,  S.  Zeno  (111.  Ill,  118)  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the 
IX  century  by  Charlemagne  or  his  son  Pipin,  was  destroyed  by  the  Hungarians  in 
924;  but  two  centuries  later  (1138)  the  present  building  was  erected  —  as  is  known 

>  In  the  archives  of  S.  Lanfranco,  entitled  Funus  Munasticum.  For  a  discussion  of  this 
whole  question,  see  Dartein,  288. 

226 


VERONA 

from  an  inscription  on  the  campanile  —  althougli  the  Gothic  choir  was  evidently  added 
in  the  XI\'  century.  The  nave  is  characterized  by  an  alternate  system  of  compound 
piers  and  columns.  In  the  two  easternmost  bays  there  are  transverse  arches,  and  it  was 
probably  the  intention  of  the  builders  to  erect  similar  arches  at  all  the  alternate  piers. 
But  except  in  the  two  bays  mentioned  these  arches  were  never  executed,  and  the 
shafts  destined  for  their  support  are  merely  continued  to  meet  the  wooden  roof.  The 
archivolts  in  two  orders  are  carried  to  the  ground  in  the  alternate  piers.  The  false 
fa(,'ade  (the  east  ridge  of  the  nave  is  also  raised  above  the  roof  to  balance  the  west 
gable)  is  characterized  by  the  use  of  pilfered  materials,  by  pilaster  strips  and  corbel- 
tables  in  several  stories,  by  a  Lombard  porch,  by  a  large  rose  window,  and  by  a  hori- 
zontal arcade.     (Dehio;  Dartein:  Cummings;  Fergusson.) 

S.  Pielro  in  Caslello,  said  by  Panvinio  to  be  the  oldest  of  the  ^'e^onese  churches, 
is  now  completely  destroyed,  save  for  a  few  fragments  of  the  walls.  Manara  refers 
these  ruins  to  the  IX  or  X  century,  but  they  can  hardly  be  earlier  than  the  year  1000. 
According  to  Biancolini  who  saw  the  monument  while  it  was  yet  intact,  there  were 
galleries  and  an  atrium.  A  square  apse  opened  upon  very  wide  square  transepts, 
across  which  the  main  arcade  was  originally  carried  in  three  bays,  but  these  bays  were 
later  walled  up.  The  supports  were  alternately  square  piers  and  columns,  apparently 
without  transverse  arches  except  at  the  crossing.  The  fa9ade  had  no  tripartite  division. 
(Manara.) 

Sto.  Stcfano.  The  history  of  this  monument  has  been  summarized,  and  the 
apse  described,  above  (see  p.  183).  The  portions  dating  from  the  XI  century  con- 
sist of  the  nave,  the  side  aisles,  and  the  projecting  transepts,  all  roofed  in  wood.  The 
choir,  raised  thirteen  steps  above  the  pavement  of  the  church,  occupies  the  last  bay 
of  the  nave,  the  transepts,  and  the  apse.  A  low  octagonal  tower  rises  over  the 
crossing.  The  supports  are  plain  square  piers,  and  there  is  no  clearstory.  (Dartein, 
■Hi;  Cummings,  145.) 

Diiomo,  founded  in  the  VIII  century,  was  rebuilt  in  840.  Repeated  recon- 
structions must  have  followed  in  the  XI  and  XII  centuries,  and  it  is  known  that  a 
consecration  of  the  edifice  was  solemnly  celebrated  by  Pope  Urban  III  in  1187.  The 
monument,  however,  has  since  been  much  altered  —  so  much  so  that  it  is  difficult  to 
trace  the  XII  century  dispositions.  The  present  nave  is  entirely  Gothic.  Romanesque 
work,  however,  survives  in  the  fafade,  and  in  the  Lombard  porches  which  adorn  the 
entrances.     (Cummings,  151.) 

.S.  Giovanni  in  Fonie,  the  baptistery  of  the  Duomo,  is  remarkable  for  its  basil- 
ican  plan.  Perhaps  an  old  church  was  converted  to  this  use.  The  nave,  wkich  is 
not  vaulted,  is  prolonged  westward  beyond  the  side  aisles;  it  is  separated  from  them 
by  four  small  arches,  carried  alternately  on  columns  and  square  piers.  At  the  east 
end  are  three  apses.  The  building  which  is  ascribed  to  the  XII  century  may  have 
been  rebuilt  after  an  earthquake  of  1122.     (Longfellow.) 

.S.  Lorenzo  consists  of  three  aisles,  terminating  in  three  apses.  While  there  are 
no  transepts  properly  speaking,  the  last  bay  of  the  nave  is  flanked  on  either  side  by 
two  projecting  chapels,  and  it  was  probably  the  intention  of  the  builders  to  erect 
over  it  a  Lombard  cloistered  dome.     A  triforium  gallery  surmounts  the  aisles.     The 

2^27 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

system  is  alternate  with  finely  clustered  compound  piers  and  columns  whose  shafts 
and  occasionally  whose  capitals  also  are  pilfered.  The  nave  is  at  present  barrel- 
vaulted,  but  was  originally  roofed  in  wood  and  spanned  by  transverse  arches. 
The  western  facade  is  preceded  by  two  circular  towers,  and  a  third  campanile,  which 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  Ss.  Apostoli,  rises  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  apse. 
Curious  features  are  the  well-defined  buttresses  of  triangular  shape.  There  is  no 
documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  interesting  monument. 

S*.  Apostoli.  Of  the  church  consecrated  in  1104,  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
apse  and  the  campanile  survive.  This  apse  is  decorated  with  interlacing  mouldings 
and  reed-like  columns  similar  to  those  of  the  Duomo.  The  campanile,  whose  lower 
stories  are  constructed  of  alternating  courses  of  bricks  and  j)ebbles  with  corner  chains 
of  dressed  blocks,  is  crowned  by  a  cone  or  spire  built  of  pebbles. 

Ss.  Siro  e  Libera  is  a  flat-roofed  basilica,  with  transepts  and  an  elliptical  apse. 
The  crossing  is  crowned  by  an  octagonal  cloistered  dome.  ]Many  other  portions 
of  the  building  including  the  Gothic  fafade  have  been  rebuilt  subsef|uently  to  the 
Lombard  period.  The  apse  is  ornamented  with  arched  corbel-tables  and  pilaster 
strips. 

iS'.  Giovanni  in  Valle  is  a  flat-roofed  basilica  with  a  modern  clearstory.  Most 
of  the  piers  are  square  without  capitals,  but  certain  columns  have  pilfered  Corinthian 
capitals,  whose  volutes  are  replaced  by  grotesque  carvings  of  rams. 

Sta.  Maria  in  Organo  has  been  entirely  modernized.  Of  the  original  building 
nothing  remains  but  the  capitals. 

iS7o.  Maria  Antica,  a  small  church  with  three  apses  but  without  triforium,  clear- 
story, or  transepts,  has  been  recently  restored.  The  only  windows  are  pierced  in 
the  vault.  The  transverse  ribs  of  the  nave  are  not  carried  down  to  the  uncarved 
capitals  of  the  main  piers,  but  the  transverse  arches  of  the  aisles  rest  on  round  columns. 

Sta.  Trinita  is  said  by  Willis  to  date  from  1115. 

S.  Antonio  Vecchio.     (Willis.) 

PARMA,  Emilia.  Duomo  is  the  masterpiece,  esthetically  speaking,  of  Lombard 
architecture.  Until  the  X  century  the  cathedral  church  of  Parma  was  situated  within 
the  city  walls.  Destroyed  by  fire  in  920,  it  was  rebuilt  without  the  walls,  a  precau- 
tion, however,  which  did  not  prevent  its  being  burnt  anew  in  August,  1058,  by  a  ter- 
rible conflagration  which  consumed  a  large  portion  of  the  city.  In  consequence  of 
this  disaster,  the  bishop  Cadalus  (the  same  who  afterwards  became  anti-pope 
under  the  name  of  Honorius  II)  undertook  a  complete  reconstruction.  Pascal  II 
consecrated  the  new  church  in  1106,  but  the  earthquake  of  1117  destroyed  it  "in 
great  part."  The  edifice  was  doubtless  reconstructed  again  after  this  calamity,  but 
according  to  Dartein,  the  lower  part  of  the  walls,  the  lower  part  of  the  piers  of  the  cross- 
ing, and  part  of  the  facade  of  the  XI  century  church  were  preserved.  The  structure 
as  thus  rebuilt  in  the  XII  century  still  survives  practically  intact;  it  consists  of  a  nave 
seven  bays  long  (the  bay  adjoining  the  transept  is  somewhat  longer  than  the  others), 
two  side  aisles,  projecting  transepts,  and  a  prolonged  choir.  The  rib  vaults  are 
constructed  on  an  oblong  plan  in  the  nave,  on  a  square  plan  in  the  aisles;  over  the 
crossing  rises  a  cloistered  dome.     The  compound  piers,  alternately  heavy  and  light, 

228 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   SECOND   CLASS 

although  showing  much  variation,  all  have  about  the  same  number  of  members.  Apses 
open  ofT  the  transepts  both  at  the  ends  and  on  the  eastern  sides.  There  is  a  large 
triforium  gallerv  and  a  clearstory.  The  facade  is  interesting  for  its  Lombard  porch, 
its  three  Tuscan  arcades,  its  double  arched  corbel-table  supported  by  little  shafts, 
and  its  stepped  cornice.  In  general,  the  exterior  is  ornamented  with  blind  arches, 
arcades,  and  buttresses  of  slight  projection.     (Dartein,  412.) 

MODENA,  Emilia.  Cattedrale.  The  construction  of  this  monument  was 
begun  in  1099  as  is  known  from  the  following  inscription  still  to  be  read  on  the  apse: 
"This  house,  in  which  rests  the  body  of  St.  Germinianus,  is  everywhere  splendid  with 
beautiful  marble  sculpture.  The  world  honors  this  famous  saint,  and  we  especially, 
to  whom  he  was  bishop,  and  whom  he  nurtured  and  clothed  with  his  ministry  when- 
ever any  one  sought  from  him  the  true  cure  for  body  and  soul.  Lanfranc,  clever  at 
art,  a  man  learned  and  skilful,  was  the  first  master  and  director  of  this  work,  by 
whom  it  was  commenced  (as  this  inscription  bears  witness)  on  the  9th  day  of  June, 
ninety  nine  years  after  the  year  1000  of  our  Lord.  He  composed  these  appropriate 
verses  in  the  same  year.  Bocalino  Massario  of  St.  Germinianus  caused  this  work 
to  be  carried  out."'  Although  works  were  sufficiently  far  advanced  in  1106,  that 
the  botly  of  St.  Germinianus  could  be  translated  into  the  crypt,  it  was  only  in  1184  that 
the  church  was  consecrated  by  Pope  Lucius  III.  In  1209  the  great  southern  portal 
was  commenced,  and  about  this  same  time  the  rose  window  was  pierced  in  the  facade. 
Henry  of  Campione  finished  in  1319  the  octagonal  spire  of  the  campanile.  In  com- 
paratively modern  times  the  galleries  were  suppressed,  chapels  and  various  accessory 
buildings  were  added,  and  the  present  rib  vaidts,  very  lightly  constructed  and  sus- 
tained bv  tie-rods,  were  erected.  The  present  three  aisles  are  separated  from  the 
three  apses  by  transepts  which  do  not  project  and  which  are  included  in  the  sanctuary. 
The  supports  consist  of  compound  piers  of  several  orders  alternating  with  columns; 
there  were  doubtless  originally  transverse  arches  and  a  wooden  roof.  The  exterior 
is  adorned  with  several  fine  Lombartl  porches,  and  the  facade  is  decorated  with  arched 
corbel-tables  and  pilaster  strips.  The  Tuscan  character  of  the  rich  decoration  is  un- 
mistakable.    (Dartein.  4'-27;  Rivoira.) 

PI.\CEXZ.\,  Emilia.  S.  Antottio.  This  interesting  church  is  of  ancient  founda- 
tion. Partially  destroyed  by  the  fortune  of  war  in  924,  it  was  entirely  rebuilt  in  the 
first  years  of  the  IX  century,  the  new  building  being  consecrated  in  1014.     Some 

'  Marmoribus  sculptis  doraus  haec  niicat  imdique  pulchris, 
Qua  corpus  .sancti  requie.scit  Gerniiniani, 
Quem  plenum  laudis  terrarum  celelirat  orbis, 
Nosque  niagis  quos  pa.scit,  alit,  vestitque  niinistri. 
Qui  petit  ic  veram  niembris  aiiimaeque  mcdelam. 
Ingenio  clarus  Lanfranciis  doctiis  et  aptus, 
Est  operis  princeps  huius  rectorque  niagister. 
Quo  fieri  cepit  (demonstrans  littera  presens) 
Ante  die.s  quintus  jimii  tunc  fiilserat  idus 
Anni  post  mille  domini  nonogeiita  novemque. 
Hos  utiles  facto  versus  composuit  anno. 
Bocalinus  Mas.<:arius  sancti  Gerniiniani  hoc  opus  fieri  fecit. 

—  cit.  De  Cauniont,  85. 
229 


LOMBARD    MONUMENTS 

portions  of  this  second  church  still  survive,  though  much  altered  in  the  XIII  century. 
The  existing  edifice  is  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  three  apses,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  square  western  transept.  This  transept  is  preceded  by  a  porch.  Over  the  cross- 
ing rises  an  octagonal  tower  supported  on  four  great  piers  and  eight  intermediate 
columns.  The  nave  is  at  present  covered  with  sexpartite  pointed  vaulting.  Since 
the  supports  are  all  cylindrical  (except  the  two  middle  ones  which  are  compound 
piers),  it  is  evident  that  they  were  not  intended  to  support  the  present  vaults.  Per- 
haps they  follow  the  lines  of  the  XI  century  church,  which  may  have  had  a  single 
transverse  arch.  The  exterior  is  characterized  by  shallow  buttresses  and  ornamental 
shafts.     (Osten  XXIV.) 

Duomo,  begun  in  1122  by  Bishop  Aldo,^  was  finished  only  in  1233,  by  the  archi- 
tect Rainaldo  Santo  da  Sambuceto.  In  1564  the  present  portico  was  added,  but  this 
feature  was  considerably  altered  in  1775.  Only  the  choir  of  the  existing  edifice  seems 
to  date  from  the  XII  century,  the  remainder  of  the  building  showing  clearly  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  Gothic  style.  The  three  compartments  into  which  this  choir  is 
divided  are  unequal;  the  central  aisle  is  prolonged  beyond  the  apses  of  the  side  aisles 
on  which  it  opens  by  two  unequal  arcades.  The  transepts  are  in  three  aisles.  In 
the  nave  the  supports  are  cylindrical  except  for  a  few  which  have  a  single  engaged 
shaft,  and  the  vaults  are  pointed.  The  f<a9ade  retains  somewhat  of  a  Romanesque 
character,  being  adorned  with  galleries,  Lombard  porches,  and  buttress  shafts.  Sim- 
ilar galleries,  arcades,  and  shafts  decorate  the  apses  externally.     (Osten  XX-XXIII.) 

S.  Savino,  a  church  of  unknown  date,  is  constructed  on  the  alternate  system 
with  groin  vaults.  The  archivolts  are  in  two  orders,  although  most  of  the  other  pro- 
files have  plain  rectangular  sections.  There  is  a  clearstory,  but  no  triforium  gallery. 
The  exterior  is  unrelieved  by  buttresses.     (Dehio,  taf.  163a.) 

COMO,  Lombardy.  S.  Abondio.  (111.  110,  115).  Excavations  executed  in 
1863  laid  bare  beneath  the  present  structure  the  foundations  of  the  earlier  church 
of  Ss.  Pietro  e  Paolo.  These  foundations,  still  visible,  belonged  to  a  church  of  a 
single  aisle,  with  deeply  projecting  transepts,  and  a  semicircular  apse  preceded  by 
an  oblong  bay.  Two  long  halls  placed  at  the  side  and  with  no  opening  towards  the 
chevet  were  reserved  probably  for  catechumens  and  penitents.  Three  doors  opened 
in  the  nave,  while  two  others  gave  access  to  the  lateral  halls.  There  were  thus  five 
doors  in  the  western  facade,  which  was  preceded  by  a  narthex.  Stones  bearing  in- 
scriptions (mostly  epitaphs  of  the  V  and  VI  centuries)  were  used  to  form  the  pavement. 
This  primitive  church  is  usually  assigned  to  the  V  century.  Dartein  believes  that 
work  on  the  present  edifice  was  commenced  in  1013,  when  Benedictine  monks  were 
installed;  Sig.  Boito  also  maintains  that  the  building  must  have  been  begun  before 
1027,  for   in   this   year  certain   citizens   of  Milan   made   a  donation  in  honor  of  S. 

1  On  the  wall  of  the  facade  may  still  be  read  an  inscription  to  the  following  effect,  the  let- 
ters painted,  not  cut,  and  consequently  without  doubt  restored:  —  "In  the  year  of  Christ  one 
thousand,  one  hundred  and  twenty-one,  this  praiseworthy  temple  was  begun." 

Centum  inceni  duo  XPI  mille  juere 

Anni  cum  ceptum  fecit  hoc  laudable  templum. 

—  cit.  De  Caumont,  71. 
230 


COMO 

Abondio,  doubtloss  that  the  building  uiiglit  be  continued.  At  all  events  the  con- 
struction must  have  advanced  slowly,  for  the  consecration  was  not  celebrated  until 
1095,  or  eighty  years  after  works  were  begun.  The  present  edifice  is  a  basilica  of 
five  aisles  of  three  different  heights.  The  choir  which  is  much  prolonged  is  flanked 
by  two  campaniles,  one  of  recent  construction.  E.xcept  for  the  groin  vaults  of  the 
choir  the  church  is  roofed  in  wood  throughout,  and  the  only  transverse  arch  is  in  the 
last  bay  of  the  nave.  The  supports  are  columns  much  heavier  in  the  inner  than  in 
the  outer  rows  and  supplied  with  cajjitals  mostly  of  the  cubic  variety.  At  the  west 
end  of  the  nave  is  a  sort  of  interior  narthe.x  in  two  stories.  The  fa9ade,  one  of  the 
most  structural  in  Italy,  is  divided  by  buttresses  into  five  parts  corresponding  to  the 
aisles.  Like  the  rest  of  the  exterior  it  is  lavishly  adorned  with  arched  corbel-tables 
and  pilaster  strips.     (Dartein,  312;  Boito.) 

S.  Carpoforo.  The  plan  of  this  church  is  irregular,  including  at  present  only 
two  aisles,  though  doubtless  there  were  originally  three.  The  groin-vaulted  choir 
is  long  and  much  raised;  the  main  apse  (which  is  deflected)  is  separated  from  the 
side  apse  (beyond  which  it  projects)  by  a  solid  wall.  The  nave  is  separated  from  the 
side  aisle  by  square  piers,  two  of  which  are  quatrefoiled  to  carry  the  transverse  arches. 
The  intercolumniation  is  very  irregular.  A  curious  disposition  recalling  S.  Antonio 
of  Piacenza  is  the  placing  of  the  transepts  nearer  the  fafade  than  the  apse.  The  whole 
edifice  is  remarkable  for  its  poverty  of  decoration.  In  a  manuscript  of  Bishop  Nin- 
guarda  the  consecration  of  the  church  by  Bishop  Litigerius  is  recorded  as  having  taken 
place  on  June  28,  101.0.  This  tradition,  which  agrees  well  with  the  style  of  the  mon- 
ument, is  in  some  sort  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  even  yet  the  anniversary  of  the  con- 
secration is  celebrated  on  June  28.  The  campanile  probably  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  XI  century;  the  apse  is  assigned  by  Dartein  to  the  second  half  of  the  XII  cen- 
tury.    (Dartein.) 

■S.  Fidele.  a  church  of  much  esthetic  interest,  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  basil- 
ica dedicated  to  Sta.  Eufemia.  In  the  first  years  of  the  XI  century  the  relics  of  S. 
Fidele  were  placed  in  this  basilica  whose  name  was  in  consequence  changed.  The 
same  event  probably  occasioned  the  reconstruction  of  the  church,  although  to  judge 
from  the  style  of  the  present  monument  this  rebuilding  could  hardly  have  taken  place 
before  the  XII  century.  The  plan  of  the  existing  edifice  is  unique.  A  very  short 
nave  is  flanked  by  two  side  aisles,  which  are  groin-vaulted  and  carried  around  the 
wide  semicircular  transepts  in  compartments  alternately  square  and  rectangular. 
Galleries  surmount  the  aisles  and  are  continued  even  around  the  apse,  where  they 
are  constructed  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  nave  is  at  present  barrel-vaulted, 
but  this  vault  is  a  modern  alteration  replacing  the  original  wooden  roof,  which  was 
probably  carried  by  transverse  arches.  The  supports  are  piers,  all  quatrefoiled  ex- 
cept those  of  the  crossing  which  are  in  many  orders.  The  crossing,  transept  ends, 
and  apse  are  covered  with  cloistered  vaults  which  are  expressed  externally,  giving 
the  building  somewhat  of  a  Byzantine  appearance.  Four  transeptal  absidioles  exist, 
but  do  not  a[)pear  on  the  exterior.  The  external  decoration  consists  of  arched  cor- 
bel-tables, shafts,  pilaster  strips,  buttresses,  and  galleries.  A  relic  of  the  ancient  Caro- 
lingian  church  survives  in  the  campanile.     (Dartein,  345.) 

2.-51 


LOMBARD    MONUMENTS 

S.  Giacomo.  According  to  Barelli  this  churcli  must  have  been  constructed  after 
1095,  the  date  at  which  S.  Abondio  was  finished,  since  it  evidently  copies  the  latter  edi- 
fice, and  before  1117,  the  year  in  which  began  the  ten  years'  war  between  Como  and  Mi- 
lan. S.  Giacomo,  originally  the  largest  church  of  Como  —  the  length  was  G-l.lO  meters 
—  has  now  lost  the  six  westernmost  bays  of  its  nave,  and  the  little  that  survives  of  the 
ancient  edifice  has  been  much  modernized.  The  vaults  —  except  those  of  the  apse 
and  of  the  transept  ends  —  are  modern;  the  entire  church  was  probably  originally 
roofed  in  wood.  The  western  facade  was  flanked  by  two  towers.  (Dartein,  310.) 
CIVATE,  Lombardy.  S.  Pietro,  according  to  tradition,  was  founded  by  the 
Lombard  king  Desiderius  (756-774).  The  abbey  is  first  mentioned  in  an  historical 
document  of  927.  About  the  beginning  of  the  XI  century  the  monastery  of  S.  Pietro 
changed  name,  and  was  placed  under  the  invocation  of  S.  Calocero,  after  the  trans- 
lation of  relics  of  this  saint  from  Albenza.  Already  the  abbey  had  become  rich 
and  powerful,  and  the  monks,  doubtless  tired  of  the  long  climb,  established  them- 
selves around  the  new  church  of  S.  Calocero,  built  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 
However,  they  did  not  entirely  desert  their  old  sanctuary,  S.  Pietro,  for  several  altera- 
tions were  subsequently  executed  upon  that  church.  One  of  these  must  have  amounted 
to  rebuilding  completely  the  edifice.  Excavations  undertaken  in  1881  laid  bare,  be- 
tween the  present  altar  and  the  crypt,  and  placed  at  an  angle  with  these,  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  confessio,  which  must  have  belonged  to  the  VIII  century  church.  These 
excavations  have  made  it  evident  that  the  present  edifice  with  its  two  apses  is  a  homo- 
geneous structure:  that  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  XII  century;  and  that  the  ex- 
istence of  the  western  apse  is  caused  by  the  crj-pt,  necessarily  placed  further  down 
the  sloping  hillside,  while  the  eastern  apse  was  built  in  its  present  form  for  the  purpose 
of  opening  the  main  doorway  to  the  eastward.  The  church  is  of  a  single  aisle.  The 
interior  retains  its  original  decoration  in  stucco:  the  exterior  walls  are  divided  by  slen- 
der pilasters  ending  in  arched  corbel-tables.     (Dartein,  Note  B,  515,  also  40.) 

Battistero  is  a  little  building  consisting  of  a  square  hall  (which  never  seems  to 
have  been  vaulted)  enlarged  on  three  sides  by  semicircular  apses  and  on  the  west 
by  a  rectangular  vestibule.  This  structure,  to-day  desecrated,  is  commonly  known 
as  the  chapel  of  St.  Benedict.  There  is  so  little  decoration  that  it  is  impossible  to 
assign  a  date  to  the  building.     (Dartein,  35.) 

MONTEFIASCONE,  Umbria.  S.  Flaviano.  The  date  of  the  foundation  of 
this  very  important  monument  is  uncertain.  A  bull  of  Leo  IV  (845-857)  confirm- 
ing to  Omobono,  Bishop  of  Toscanella,  the  jurisdiction  of  all  places  subject  to  his 
diocese  implies  that  in  these  times  the  church  of  Montefiascone  was  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin.  The  present  building  dates  only  from  1032,  as  is  known  from  the  Latin  in- 
scription that  may  still  be  read  on  the  facade  of  the  church.  The  edifice  was  par- 
tially rebuilt  in  12G2-65  and  again  in  the  XIV  century.  The  plan  is  externally 
a  rectangle,  but  internally  a  polygon,  from  three  of  whose  unequal  sides  diverge  radi- 
ating apses.  The  side  apses  are  in  thickness  of  the  wall,  but  the  central  one  projects. 
The  aisles  are  covered  with  ribbed  vaults,  probably  the  oldest  known,  and  the  com- 
pound piers  are  supplied  with  running  capitals.     (Rivoira.) 

S.  Andrea  is  assigned  by  Comm.  Rivoira  to  1032  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to 

232 


xMOMME.NTS   OF  THE  SECOND   CLASS 

S.  Flaviano.  'l"he  three  aisles  are  separated  by  four  massive  and  stubby  columns, 
and  were  originally  roofed  in  wood.  Transverse  arches  formerly  spanned  the  nave. 
In  the  facade  is  a  door  which  seems  to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Lombard  porch  — 
according  to  Comm.  Rivoira,  the  earliest  known  example  of  this  feature. 

CA^'AGNOLO,  (Monferrato),  Piedmont.  S.  Fcde  al  Po.  This  ancient  abbey 
church,  now  desecrated,  is  assigned  to  the  XII  century.  The  fa9ade  is  preceded  by 
a  Lombard  porch.  The  decoration  shows  clearly  French  influence,  the  billet  mould- 
ing, ringed  shafts,  and  other  foreign  ornaments  being  found.  Most  peculiar  is  the 
system  of  vaulting,  the  nave  being  barrel-vaulted,  with  transverse  ribs  and  a  logical 
system,  while  the  crossing  is  groin-vaulted.     (Dartein,  448;  Biscarra.) 

BONATO,  (near  Bergamo),  Lombardy.  Sta.  Giidiana  is  much  ruined,  having 
been  used  for  a  quarry  from  1745  to  1814.  The  nave  seems  to  have  been  four  bays 
long,  but  these  bays  are  of  unequal  length,  so  that  while  in  the  two  westernmost  the 
nave  is  oblong  in  its  compartments,  and  the  aisles  square,  in  the  two  easternmost 
the  case  is  reversed.  There  remains  no  trace  of  vaults  which  may  never  have 
been  built,  though  the  piers  are  compound  with  an  extra  order.  The  apse  is  exter- 
nally decorated  with  arched  corbel-tables  and  shafts.  The  general  character  of  the 
edifice  shows  undoubtedly  the  style  of  the  XII  century.' 

BRESCIA,  Lombardy.     Duomo  Vecchio.     See  p.  177. 

Sta.  Gittlia.  The  chapel  of  Sta.  Giulia,  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  S.  Sal- 
vatore,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  about  753,  but  was  certainly  rebuilt  in  the  Lom- 
bard period.  The  building  is  square  in  plan  (30'  X  30')  and  in  two  stories:  the  upper 
is  covered  with  a  Lombard  cloistered  dome;  the  lower  with  groin  vaults  supported 
by  a  central  pier.  From  the  east  side  of  the  church  open  three  equal  semicircular 
apses.     The  decoration  is  in  pilaster  strips  and  arched  corbel-tables. 

ALMEXNO,  (north  of  Bergamo),  Lombardy.  .S.  Giorgio.  This  basilica 
consists  of  a  wooden-roofed  nave  three  bays  long  flanked  by  two  side  aisles  and  ter- 
minating in  a  choir  whose  single  bay  is  rib-vaulted  and  supplied  with  groin-vaulted 
aisles.  There  is  a  single  apse.  The  piers  are  square  except  in  the  choir  where  they 
are  ([uatrefoiled.  The  choir  is  richly  ornamented  —  so  much  more  so  than  the  nave 
that  one  almost  suspects  that  the  apse  has  been  later  rebuilt.  Osten  assigns  the  church 
to  the  XI  century,  but  Dehio  is  certainly  correct  in  stating  that  "it  belongs  to  the  final 
period  of  the  Lombard  style." 

Madonna  del  Castcllo.  The  nave,  two  bays  long,  is  separated  from  each  side 
aisle  by  a  rectangular  pier,  and  is  covered  with  a  barrel  vault.  The  choir,  which 
owing  to  its  situation  is  deflected,  is  two  bays  long,  the  partition  wall  being  replaced 
bv  a  column  with  an  architrave,  the  latter  modern,  but  a  reproduction  of  the  original 
one.  This  choir  which  has  a  square  east  end  is  groin-vaulted.  There  is  no  clearstory. 
Mario  Lupo  cites  a  testament,  which  proves  that  in' 975  there  existe<l  at  Almenno  a 
church  dedicated  to  Sta.  Maria  e  S.  Salvatore,  and  in  consequence  Dartein  assumes 

'  If  in  Pavia,  tli»  iiioniimont  would  sprin  slifjlilly  anterior  to  S.  Piotro  in  Cit-l  li'  Oro  (1  l.SS). 
The  style  of  rural  edifices  was  so  harkward,  liowever,  that  I  should  hesitate  to  assign  this  ehureh 
of  Honato  to  a  date  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  XII  century.  Dartein  with  evident  error  as- 
eriljes  it  to  the  end  of  the  XI  century. 

233 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

that  the  present  edifice  is  anterior  to  the  year  97o.  The  style,  however,  certainly 
indicates  a  date  not  later  than   1000. 

S.  Tommaso  in  Limine.  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  history  of  this 
circular  church,  which  Dartein  rightly  assigns  to  the  XII  century.  The  octagonal 
nave  is  surrounded  by  circular  aisles  and  galleries,  and  is  crowned  by  a  dome.  To  the 
east  is  a  much  lengthened  choir  terminating  in  an  apse.  The  groin  vaults  of  the 
aisles  and  gallery  are  carried  around  the  circle  by  means  of  broken  groins.  The 
columns  of  the  gallery  have  stilt-blocks.  Externally  the  a{>se  is  adorned  with  a  double 
arched  corbel-table  on  shafts.     The  windows  are  small  and  in  many  orders.     (Osten.) 

ARSAGO,  (near  Somma,  between  Milan  and  Gallarate),  Lombardy.  S.  Vit- 
torc  is  a  simple  wooden-roofed  basilica,  whose  three  aisles  terminate  in  three  apses. 
The  system  is  alternate,  the  intermediate  supports  being  columns,  three  of  which 
are  furnished  with  pilfered  capitals.  The  fa9ade  is  preceded  by  a  sort  of  narthex 
roofed  in  wood.  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  the  building  which 
may  be  assigned  to  the  XI  century. 

Battistero.  There  is  no  documentary  evidence  for  the  date  of  this  monument 
which  is  correctly  assigned  to  the  XII  century  by  Dartein.  The  plan  is  peculiar.  On 
the  ground  floor  the  walls,  in  which  are  cut  great  niches,  are  of  fairly  Roman  massive- 
ness.  The  upper  story  is  as  light  in  construction  as  the  lower  is  heavy,  a  gallery  being 
cut  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  This  gallery  is  covered  with  broken  groin  vaults; 
the  central  area  is  vaulted  with  a  cloistered  dome.  The  system  consists  of  a  shaft 
engaged  on  the  piers,  carrying  an  arched  corbel-table  at  the  triforium  level.  The 
exterior  is  plain,  being  ornamented  only  with  arched  corbel-tables.     (Dartein,  395.) 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Class 

VAPRIO,  (on  the  Adda),  Lombardy.  «S.  Colombano  is  an  interesting  monu- 
ment which  has,  however,  much  suffered  from  neglect  and  restoration.  The  single 
nave,  spanned  by  a  great  transverse  arch,  is  nearly  square  in  plan,  and  adjoins  the 
choir,  which  consists  of  a  semicircidar  apse  flanked  by  two  square  chapels.  These 
chapels  are  groin-vaulted,  but  the  rest  of  the  church  is  roofed  with  wood.  The  piers 
of  the  choir  are  compound.  Externally  the  apse  is  decorated  with  arched  corbel- 
tables  supported  by  shafts.  Dartein  assigns  this  monument  to  the  XII  century; 
the  style,  however,  is  clearly  that  of  the  last  part  of  the  XI  century.     (Dartein,  380.) 

SCOZZOLA,  (near  Sesto  Calendo),  Lombardy.  S.  Donato  was  founded  in 
862  by  Luitard,  Bishop  of  Pavia.  The  present  edifice  consists  of  two  distinct  con- 
structions —  a  church,  and  a  very  much  extended  narthex.  The  church  seems  to 
date  from  early  in  the  XI  century,  and  is  anterior  to  the  narthex.'     It  consists  of  three 

'  Dartein  holds  the  opposite  view.  I  quote  his  argument  on  the  subject:  "I!  [le  porche] 
est  d'ailleurs  plus  ancien  que  celle-ci  [I'eglise].  La  preuve  en  est  dans  I'elargissement  donne 
a  ses  derniers  piliers  en  vue  d  'y  rattacher  les  premiers  supports  de  la  basilique.  Car  si  le  porche, 
construction  accessoire,  eut  ete  construit  apres  I'eglise,  I'on  eut  donne  d'emblee  aux  supports 
qui  le  separent  de  celle-ci  une  forme  analogue  a  celle  qu'ils  ont  recju  finalement  par  retouche." 
Of  the  value  of  this  argument  it  is  impossible  to  judge  without  an  examination  on  tlie  spot.  The 
style  of  the  two  parts  of  the  church,  however,  seems  to  contradict  it  absolutely. 

234 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE  THIRD   CLASS 

aisles,  as  many  apses,  a  cnj)!,  and  a  raised  choir,  and  is  entirely  roofed  in  wood  (ex- 
cept for  the  choir  and  the  crypt).  The  technique  is  remarkably  poor.  The  rectan- 
gular piers  resemble  those  of  the  ("arolingian  church  of  Agliate.  As  for  the  narthex, 
this  is  of  about  the  same  width  as  the  church,  is  two  bays  long,  and  is  divided  into 
three  nearly  equal  aisles  not  at  all  corresponding  to  the  aisles  of  the  basilica.  The 
groin  vaults  are  peculiar  in  being  supported  by  columns.     (Dartein,  383.) 

VKRTEMATE,  Lombardy.  >S.  Giovanni  Battista.  This  little  church,  situ- 
ated five  kilometers  south  of  Como  near  the  station  of  Cucciago,  was  built  about 
1084  b}'  a  monk  of  Milan,  named  Gerard,  and  consecrated  in  1107  by  Odo,  Bishop 
of  Imola.  Three  aisles  are  separated  from  as  many  apses  by  non-projecting  transepts. 
The  supports,  except  those  of  the  crossing  which  are  the  compound  piers,  are  plain 
columns.  The  nave  which  is  without  transverse  arches  is  roofed  in  wood,  but  the 
aisles  are  vaulted,  and  there  is  a  cloistered  dome  over  the  crossing. 

GRA\"EDOXA,  (Lake  of  Como),  Lombardy.  Sta.  Maria  del  Tiglio,  the  bap- 
tistery of  S.  Vincenzo,  is  assigned  by  Dartein  to  the  end  of  the  XII  century,  but  tlie 
style  is  clearly  that  of  the  late  XI  century.  This  Lombard  edifice  was  possibly  con- 
structed with  materials  coming  from  the  church  of  the  VI  century.  The  plan  is 
most  peculiar,  including  no  less  than  seven  apses.  The  central  square  area  opens 
on  three  sides  into  semicircular  apses.  In  the  walls  of  the  large  eastern  apse 
are  three  lesser  apses,  and  two  others,  also  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  are  placed  on 
either  side.  Above  the  clearstory  is  a  wooden  roof;  below,  on  two  sides,  there  is  a 
triforium  gallery  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  exterior  is  characterized  by  the 
campanile  which  rises  directly  over  the  portal  and  is  very  richly  decorated.  The 
baptistery  itself  is  ornamented  externally  with  arched  corbel-tables  resting  on  very 
slight   pilaster  strips.     (Dartein,   364.) 

S.  Vincenzo.  The  modern  single-aisled  church  preserves  the  exterior  walls 
and  the  crj'pt  of  the  ancient  three-aisled  Lombard  basilica.  These  debris  are 
evidently  of  the  XI  century,  and  hence  doubtless  formed  part  of  the  edifice  which, 
according  to  Tatti,  was  consecrated  in  1072.  The  Lombard  church,  which  had  a 
western  gallery  or  narthex  like  that  of  S.  Abondio,  seems  to  have  been  entirely 
roofed  in  wood.     (Dartein,  364.) 

SUSA,  Piedmont.  S.  Giusto,  the  cathedral,  is  an  unusual  building,  having  the 
plan  of  a  Greek  cross.  It  is  said  to  have  been  consecrated  in  1028.  The  campanile, 
which  dates  from  1026,  offers  the  earliest  example  of  the  abacus  of  a  column  splayed 
to  carry  the  thickness  of  the  wall.     (Rivoira,  299;  Biscarra.) 

Sta.  Maria  adjoins  S.  Giusto,  with  which  it  is  usually  believed  to  be  contempo- 
raneous. The  fafade  is  flanked  by  two  towers  —  one  of  the  earliest  instances  of  this 
arrangement  unusual  in  Italy.     (Rivoira.) 

VEZZOLAXO,  Piedmont.  Sta.  Maria  is  an  abbey  church  whose  cloister  is 
of  especial  interest.  There  is  a  tradition  that  this  monument  was  founded  by  Charle- 
magne and  rebuilt  in  the  XI  century  —  a  tradition  to  a  certain  extent  confirmed  by 
an  old  painting  in  the  cloister,  representing  Charlemagne  invoking  the  Madonna. 
The  monument  has   never  been  adequately  described.     (Biscarra.) 

BOLOGNA,   Emilia.     Sto.   Stefano  Rotondo.     This  abbey  was  founded  by  S. 

235 


LOMBARD    MONUMENTS 

Pelronio  who,  according  to  Sigonio,  was  bishop  of  Bologna  from  459  to  449.  In  903 
the  monastery  was  burnt  by  the  Hungarians;  it  was  rebuilt  in  1019.  In  1141  the 
walls  of  the  rotunda  were  torn  down  to  be  reconstructed  more  strongly,  and  in  1475 
other  alterations  were  carried  out  by  Niccolo  Sannuti,  whose  amis  (three  wings)  may 
be  seen  many  times  repeated  on  the  walls.  The  present  structure  includes  no  less 
than  seven  distinct  edifices  as  follows:  —  1.  S.  Sepolcro;  2.  Ss.  Pietro  e  Paolo;  3. 
Chie-sa  degli  Confess!;  4.  Chiesa  del  Santissimo  Crocefiso;  5.  Atrio  di  Pilato;  6.  Chiesa 
della  Sta.  Trinita;  7.  Cloister  of  Sto.  Stefano.  Of  these  only  the  two  first  need  occupy 
us  here.  S.  Sepolcro  consi.sts  of  a  duodecagonal  central  area  surrounded  by  a  side 
aisle.  Five  of  the  supports  are  cylindrical,  seven  are  formed  of  coupled  columns,  and 
all  carry  archivolts  in  several  orders.  The  nave  is  covered  with  a  cloistered  vault, 
the  aisles  with  irregular  groin  vaults;  but  the  galleries  are  roofed  in  wood.  Double 
arched  corbel-tables  supported  on  shafts  mask  the  springing  of  the  dome.  This 
church  evidently  dates  mainly  from  the  late  XI  century.  —  Ss.  Pietro  e  Paolo  is  a 
vaulted  basilica  five  bays  long,  with  three  apses.  The  nave  is  rib-vaulted  throughout, 
the  four  eastern  bays  on  an  alternate  system,  but  the  choir  is  groin-vaulted.  The  alter- 
nate piers  are  compound,  the  intermediate  have  pilfered  capitals;  the  archivolts  in 
two  orders  are  prolonged  to  the  ground.  Beneath  the  vaults  is  a  diminutive  clear- 
story.    (Osten  XXXVH-XL.) 

C.\SALE  MONFERRATO,  Piedmont.  Diiomn  S.  Erasio  was  founded  by 
Luitprand  in  741.  Pascal  II  consecrated  the  edifice  as  a  cathedral  on  January  4, 
1107,  and  the  present  building  doubtless  dates  from  this  time.  The  church  is  con- 
structed of  brick  and  stone  in  alternate  courses,  laid  with  excellent  technique.  Five 
aisles  terminate  in  three  apses,  and  are  preceded  by  a  most  strange  and  irregular  nar- 
thex.  The  structure  is  vaulted  throughout  principally  with  groin  vaults,  though  rib 
vaults  do  occur,  and  the  fourth  bay  of  the  nave  is  covered  by  a  Lombard  cujjola. 
These  vaults  are  reinforced  by  external  buttresses  of  slight  projection.  Northern 
influence  is  noticeable  everywhere,  but  especially  in  the  double  arcade  of  the  facade, 
and  in  the  capitals  of  the  compound  piers.  The  exterior  of  the  church  is  ornamented 
with  the  usual  arched  corbel-tables  and  pilaster  strips.     (Osten  II,  III,  IV.) 

BERGAMO,  Lombardy.  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore.  An  inscription  over  the  porch 
of  this  church  records  that  the  construction  was  commenced  in  1137  by  the  architect 
Alfred,  in  the  reign  of  Pope  Innocent  II,  when  were  living  the  archbishop  Roger  and 
the  king  Lothaire.  The  apse  is  richly  ornamented  with  galleries,  windows  in  many 
orders,  and  graceful  arcades.  This  ornament  —  and  indeed,  the  whole  composition, 
—  is  distinctly  Tuscan  in  style.  Rich  Lombard  porches  precede  the  portals,  and 
date  from  1349-50,  according  to  the  inscription.  The  interior  has  been  almost 
entirely  modernized,  but  the  original  plan  seems  to  have  included  transepts  and  five 
apses,  with  an  octagonal  dome  rising  over  the  crossing.     (Osten  XXXA'.) 

NOVARA,  Piedmont.  Dtiomo  is  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  a  complete  set  of 
side  chapels,  non-projecting  transepts,  and  a  much  prolonged  choir.  The  nave  is 
divided  into  three  compartments,  of  which  two  are  square  in  plan,  but  the  central 
one  is  oblong.  Each  is  covered  by  a  groin  vault  resting  on  compound  piers  (the  inter- 
mediate supports  being  columns),  and  the  aisles  are  vaulted  with  similar  groin  vaults 

^236 


MONUMENTS   OF  THE   THIRD   CLASS 

on  a  plan  obloiij;  in  the  longitudinal  sense.  A  cloistered  dome  surmounts  the  cross- 
ing: elliptical  domes,  the  transepts.  The  false  facade  is  flanked  by  two  campaniles, 
and  is  covered  with  a  composition  of  blind  arches,  arcades,  corbel-tables,  and  pilaster 
strips.  The  peculiar  form  of  the  interior  vaults  is  thought  to  show  that  an  old  basil- 
ica —  perhaps  the  original  Early  Christian  church  erected  about  390  —  has  been  re- 
modeled into  the  present  edifice,  considerable  parts  of  the  original  structure  being 
preserved.  There  is  record  of  a  partial  rebuilding  executed  about  1020,  but  in  its 
present  form  the  edifice  must  date  from  tlie  XII  century.  The  atrium  is  said  to 
have  been  built  in  1124,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  church  itself  was  re- 
constructed about  the  same  epoch.  A  restoration  was  carried  out  in  1862.  (Osten 
XIV-XVl.) 

AOST.V,  Piedmont.  Diiomo.  There  is  a  tradition  that  this  clmrch  was  founded 
by  Constantinc.  About  the  middle  of  the  VI  century  Goutran,  king  of  Burgundy, 
repaired  or  enlarged  it.'  The  style  of  the  present  nave,  however,  is  clearly  that  of 
the  early  years  of  the  XI  century;  the  aisles  arc  somewhat  later,  and  the  vault  is  an 
addition  of  the  Renaissance.  The  cloisters,  it  is  known,  were  erected  in  1540,  and 
the  facade  in  lo22.  The  three  aisles  of  the  XI  century  edifice  terminated  in  a  semi- 
circular apse,  which  was  remarkable  in  being  surrounded  by  an  ambulatory,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  side  aisles.  This  arrangement  finds  analogy  in  Italy  only  in 
Sto.  Stcfano  of  Verona.  The  apse  was  flanked  by  two  campaniles.  (Rivoira; 
Berard.) 

N.  Or.so  is  a  churcli  perhaps  of  the  XII  century  whose  interior  has  been  entirely 
modernized.  The  facade  has  a  late  Gothic  doorway,  but  the  cloister  is  Romanesque. 
(Longfellow.) 

PADUA,  Venetia.  Sfa.  Sofia.  This  church  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  very 
ancient,  but  Sig.  Orologi  has  discovered  a  manuscript  in  the  Archivio  Capitolare, 
which  seems  to  prove  that  the  construction  dates  from  the  XII  century.  This  manu- 
script mentions  that  in  1123  Bishop  Sinibaldo  gave  certain  revenues  to  the  canons  of 
Sta.  Sofia,  whose  church  was  then  in  course  of  construction,  in  order  that  they  might 
finish  the  work,  which  they  had  begun."  The  apse,  which  is  evidently  not  contempo- 
raneous with  the  rest  of  the  church,  is  probably  somewhat  earlier.  This  apse  oc- 
cupies the  entire  width  of  nave  and  side  aisles:  it  is  ornamented  externally  with  three 
rows  of  arcades,  of  which  the  upper  one  is  practicable;  internally,  with  sixteen  niches, 
which  are  separated  by  half-columns.  Tlie  three  aisles  are  covered  with  groin  vaults 
for  the  most  part  on  an  alternate  system,  though  the  design  is  very  irregular.  Accord- 
ing to  Ricci,  these  vaults  date  only  from  1240'  —  but  if  so,  it  is  probable  that 
thev  follow  the  original  lines  of  the  earlier  edifice.  The  facade  is  divided  into  three 
sections  which  correspond  to  the  internal  divisions,  but  the  design  is  otherwise  rather 

'  Bcrard  quotes  the  following  lines  from  one  of  the  ancient  niarlyrologies  of  tlie  cathedral: 
"Qninto  kl  Aprilis.  .  .  eoderj  die  apud  Cabilone  civitate  Galliani  deposito  oti  (ioutranni  regis 
fraiKoruin  instaiiraloris  liui  ecciie." 

=  Ricci,  171. 

^  In  support  of  this  Ricci  quotes  the  following  inscription:  "1240  ultimo  Maji  Do.  IV. 
Gerardinus  dc  Bononia  Prior  Sancta?  Sofia;  fe<-it  rheidificare  Magister  Desiderio  de  Padua 
Mararius  fecit." 

237 


LOMBARD   MONUMENTS 

Tuscan  than  Lombard.  The  ornament  includes  bhnd  arcades,  engaged  arches  fol- 
lowing the  rake  of  the  cornice,  horizontal  arched  corbel-tables,  and  string-courses. 
(Ricci,  171;  Cummings,  138.) 

ASTI,  Piedmont.  Battistcro,  which  may  be  assigned  to  the  late  XI  century, 
shows  unmistakable  Northern  influence.  The  side  aisle,  separated  from  the  octagonal 
domed  nave  by  eight  columns  with  cubic  capitals,  is  covered  with  groin  vaults  whose 
transverse  ribs  are  deeply  buttressed  externally.  There  is  no  gallery.  The  archi- 
volts  are  in  several  orders.  Externally  there  is  little  decoration  save  for  the  inevi- 
table arched  corbel-table.     (Osten  V-VI.) 

AGRATE-CONTURBIA,  Piedmont.  Battistero,  According  to  Sig.  Mella, 
the  lower  part  of  this  structure  is  Roman  ( ?),  the  remainder  of  the  XI  century.  It  is 
a  plain  building,  without  aisles  or  gallery,  circular  on  the  ground  floor,  octagonal  above. 
No  carving  occurs  on  the  capitals  which  are  of  the  block  variety.  The  cloistered 
dome  is  not  expressed  externally.  The  exterior  decoration  consists  of  arcades  with 
arched  corbel-tables  supported  by  pilaster  stri[)s.     (Dartein,  401 ;  Mella.) 

RANVERSO,  (near  Rivoli  and  Turin),  Piedmont.  S.  Aritonio.  This  church, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1156  by  the  monks  of  St.  Didier,  in  France, 
was  originally  constructed  between  1188  and  the  time  of  Humbert  III  of  Savo}',  as 
is  recorded  in  an  inscription  preserved  in  the  vestibule  of  the  church.  The  monu- 
ment is  Gothic,  rather  than  Romanesque,  in  style. 

CORTAZZONE  d'ASTI,  Piedmont.  .S.  Secondo.  This  little  church  (which 
measures  only  36.60  X  14.65  meters)  situated  about  twenty  kilometers  from  Asti, 
may  be  assigned  to  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century.  Apparently  all  the  vaults  which 
now  cover  the  church  are  modern,  since  the  absence  of  shafts  internally  and  of  but- 
tresses externally  implies  a  wooden  roof.  There  is  a  clearstory  whose  windows  are 
few  and  very  narrow,  but  there  is  no  gallery.  The  plan  consists  of  three  aisles  with- 
out transepts  ending  in  three  apses.  Square  piers  (one  of  somewhat  fancy  section) 
alternate  with  columns,  whose  capitals  are  crudely  carved  with  grotesques  and  sup- 
port archivolts  of  rectangular  section.  The  exterior  ornament  consists  of  arched  cor- 
bel-tables, pilaster  strips,  shafts,  and  a  most  elaborate  cornice.     (Mella.) 

CREJNIONA,  Lombardy.  Duomo.  Only  small  portions  of  the  Lombard  build- 
ing of  1129-90  have  survived  the  various  restorations  through  which  this  church 
has  passed.  The  Lombard  edifice  seems  to  have  had  three  aisles  and  transepts 
almost  as  long  as  the  nave,  furnished  with  side  aisles.  The  system  of  the  nave 
supports  is  at  present  alternate,  although  the  Gothic  vaults  are  oblong.  The  sup- 
ports of  the  transepts  are  all  cylindrical.     (Forster,  241;  Dehio,  taf.  162.) 

CHIARAVALLE,  Lombardy.  Certosa  was  commenced  in  1135,  although  the 
present  edifice  is  almost  entirely  Gothic.  The  supports  of  the  nave  are  alternately 
heavy  and  light,  but  the  piers  are  all  cylindrical  in  section.  There  is  no  gallery. 
The  vaults  are  all  supplied  with  ribs.     (CafB.) 


238 


OTHER  MONUMENTS 


Other  Moniimexts 


MONTIGLIO.  Piedmont.  iS.  Lorenzo.  The  nave  is  covered  with  a  barrel 
vault,  the  aisles  with  half  barrel  vaults  (now  partially  masked  by  the  transformation 
of  tliesc  aisles  into  chapels)  buttressing  the  vaults  of  the  nave.  This  system,  entirely 
foreign  to  the  Lombard  style,  was  doubtless  borrowed  directly  from  Auvergne.  (Dar- 
tein,  4-18.) 

SAGRA  S.  MICHELE.  Piedmont.  Abhazia.  Although  founded  in  the  XI 
century,  the  present  building  belongs  largely  to  the  Gothic  style,  of  which  it  is  an 
important  monument.     (Biscarra.) 

VICENZA,  Venetia.  S.  Lorenzo,  now  desecrated.  This  church,  erected  before 
1185.  was  remodeled  in  the  Gothic  style  about  1280.     (Arnaldi.) 

REGGIO,  Emilia.  Duomo.  Traces  of  the  XII  century  Lombard  church  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  present  Renaissance  structure.     (Willis.) 

AIMAVILLE,  Piedmont.  S.  Legero.  The  crypt  of  this  church  seems  to  be  of 
the  Lombard  period,  and  consists  of  two  aisles  and  a  semicircular  apse  with  four 
niches.     The  barrel  vault  is  sustained  by  three  compound  piers.     (Berard.) 

MONZA,  Lombardy.  Duomo.  Of  the  church  which,  according  to  Cattaneo, 
was  founded  by  Theodolinda  in  the  ^TI  century,  only  a  single  sculptured  slab  remains. 
The  edifice  was  reconstructed  in  the  XII  century,  and  again  entirely  rebuilt  in  the 
Gothic  period. 

]\L\NTUA,  Lombardy.  Duomo.  The  campanile  with  its  j>ilaster  strips  and 
arched  corbel-tables,  seems  to  be  Lombard  in  style,  although  the  arrangement  of  the 
window  openings  is  peculiar. 

MONTECHL\RO,  (near  Asti),  Piedmont.  S.  Nazaro.  Sig.  Biscarra  is  cer- 
tainly in  error  in  assigning  this  church  to  the  X  century.  The  monument,  which  has 
never  been  adequately  published,  is  interesting  for  its  sculpture. 

CUXEO,  Piedmont.  S.  Co.itanzo  is  an  ancient  Benedictine  abbey  that  has 
never  been  properly  described.     (Mella.) 

V.\RESE,  Lombardy.  Battistcro.  The  present  building  dates  mainly  from 
the  XIII  century.     (Dartein.) 

VILLAXUOVA,  Venetia.  S.  Pietro.  This  church  is  referred  to  by  Cattaneo 
as  a  monument  of  the  XII  century. 

OGGIOXO,  (near  Como),  Lombardy.     Battistcro.     Unpublished. 

MORBEGX'O,  (near  the  Lake  of  Como),  Lombardy.     S.  Martina. 

ALESSANDRIA,  Piedmont.     Sta.  Maria  in  Castello. 

LENNO,  (Lake  of  Como),  Lombardy.     S.  Benedetto. 

Battislero. 


239 


CHAPTER   YL 


NORMAX   ARCHITECTURE 


THE  school  of  architecture  which  grew  up  in  Normandy 
after  the  year  1000  differed  from  the  kindred  schools  which 
sprang  into  being  elsewhere  in  Europe  at  about  the  same  time, 
in  that  it  was  not  altogether  a  gradual  and  natural  development 
from  the  local  Carolingian  architecture  which  had  preceded  it. 
Norman  architecture  was  at  first  an  exotic  art,  imported  from 
abroad,  rather  than  a  spontaneous  growth  of  the  native  soil. 
This  fact  is  explained  by  the  peculiar  historical  and  economic 
conditions  of  Normandy  during  the  X  century. 

The  Norse  vikings,  who  in  the  IX  and  X  centuries  had  de- 
scended upon  the  distracted  Carolingian  Empire,  were  little 
better  than  pirates.  Believers  in  the  most  brutal  of  pagan 
religions,  lovers  of  destruction  for  destruction's  sake,  these  bar- 
barous Northmen,  wherever  they  penetrated  into  Europe, 
carried  with  them  only  devastation.  Above  all,  the  churches 
and  monasteries  suffered  from  their  attacks;  for  the  religious 
establishments  offered  richer  plunder  than  was  elsewhere  to 
be  found,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  heathen  demanded  the 
destruction  of  everything  pertaining  to  the  Christian  cult.  In 
the  contemporary  chronicles  the  dull  formula  is  repeated  over 
and  over  again;  on  such  and  such  a  date,  at  such  and  such  a 
place,  the  church  or  cathedral  or  monastery,  together  with  the 
surrounding  town,  was  burned  by  the  Northmen.  Thus  the 
vikings  were  the  enemies  of  Christianity  and  of  civilization; 
what  they  could  not  carry  off  as  plunder  they  destroyed. 

Nor  do  matters  seem  to  have  greatly  improved  when  the 
brigandage  of  the  pirates  became  in  a  sense  legalized,  and  when 
in  the  guise  of  a  fief  the  province  we  now  know  as  Normandy 
was  bestowed  by  the  powerless  emperor  on  the  conquering  Nor- 

240 


THE   NORMANS 

man  duke.  It  is  significant  that  not  a  vestige  of  architecture 
antedating  the  Norman  conquest  has  survived  in  Normandy  ' ; 
probably  well-nigh  every  churcli  in  the  land  was  wiped  out  by 


Iix.  120.  —  Plan  of  St.  Ceneri.     (,From  Ruprich-Roberl) 


the  savage  invaders.  Rollo,  it  is  true,  as  early  as  912,  embraced 
Christianity,  at  least  in  name.  This  move,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  purely  political  in  purpose,  and  to  have  modified 
not  in  the  least  either  the  morals  or  the  nature  of  the  king  and  his 


Except  the  Roman  ruins  at  Lillebonne,  etc. 
2U 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

people.  In  the  early  years  of  Richard  I  (the  Fearless,  942-996), 
the  country  again  relapsed  into  paganism.  Rouen  and  Evreux, 
alone  of  the  Norman  bishoprics,  preserved  unbroken  the  suc- 
cession of  their  bishops. 

But  the  peculiar  ability  of  the  Norse  race  to  adopt  itself  to 
changed  environment  and  to  absorb  the  civilization  of  other 
peoples,  has  always  been  one  of  its  most  happy  characteristics. 
Before  long,  European  civilization  and  European  Christianity 
commenced  to  find  their  way  within  the  borders  of  Normandy. 
In  961,  Richard  I  became  a  Christian  and  founded  the  first 
monasteries  —  St.  Michel,  Fecamp,  and  one  or  two  others. 
It  is  strange  to  find  with  what  enthusiasm  Christianity  was  re- 
ceived when  it  had  once  made  its  way.  The  same  fierce,  wild 
energy  that  had  been  turned  against  the  Church  in  the  IX  cen- 
tury, was  turned  to  her  service  at  the  end  of  the  X.  In  less 
than  a  hundred  years  the  Normans  were  transformed  from  the 
most  pagan  and  barbarous  people  of  Europe  into  the  most 
Christian  and  civilized. 

The  history  of  the  archbishopric  of  Rouen  illustrates  strik- 
ingly the  change  in  moral  tone  which  took  place  at  the  end  of 
the  X  century.  The  bishop  Hugo  (942-989),  though  a  nominal 
Christian,  was  a  thorough  viking.  He  was  married  and  a  war- 
rior; he  squandered  the  episcopal  revenues  in  a  conscienceless 
nepotic  policy.  His  successor  Robert,  a  son  of  Richard  I,  was 
one  of  the  most  worldly  of  prelates,  and  far  more  interested  in 
his  possessions  as  Count  of  Evreux  than  in  his  churchly  duties. 
Nevertheless  at  the  end  of  his  long  reign  he  repented  of  his  evil 
ways,  reformed  his  life,  and,  as  one  of  his  acts  of  penitence, 
rebuilt  his  cathedral  church.  Malger,  who  succeeded  in  1037, 
had  been  a  scholar  of  William  of  Dijon  at  Fecamp,  and  was  a 
whole-souled  partisan  of  the  Cluniac  movement.  From  this 
moment  the  archbishops  of  Rouen  were  men  of  unimpeachable 
character,  devoted  to  the  reform  and  purification  of  the  Church. • 

Similarly  over  all  Normandy,  about  the  year  1000,  there 
swept  a  great  wave  of  religious  enthusiasm.     The  founding  of 

>  Bohmer.  Kirche  und  Staat  in  England  und  der  Nomiandte  im  XI  und  XII  Jahrhundert. 
Leipzig,  1899.  8vo.  p.  11.  An  excellent  work  to  which  I  am  indebted  for  much  that 
follows. 

242 


111.   lil.  —  Juuiieges.      West  Facade 


RISE   OF   THE   MONASTERIES 

monasteries  became  almost  a  mania.  To  the  four  abbeys  which 
existed  before  the  year  1000,  there  were  added  before  1066  no 
less  than  twenty  great  monasteries  for  men  and  six  convents  for 
women.  So  many  were  the  monks,  that  the  edified  contempo- 
rary, William  of  Poitiers,  compared  the  country  to  Egypt  in  the 
IV  and  V  centuries. 

The  rise  of  the  monasteries  brought  about  a  great  revival  of 
learning,  whose  effects,  however,  came  to  be  fully  felt  only  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  XI  century.  The  schools  of  Normandy 
became  renowned  throughout  the  West;  students  flocked  from 
the  remotest  parts  of  Europe  to  listen  to  the  Norman  doctors. 
Not  even  Cluny  herself  could  rival  in  learning  the  fame  of  Bee, 
of  Fecamp,  or  of  Jumieges.  Normandy  became  the  recognized 
fountainhead  of  scholastic  theology,  in  which  was  summed  up 
the  intellectual  attainment  of  the  XI  century. 

All  this  resulted  in  breaking  down,  to  a  large  extent,  the 
isolation  in  which  Normandy  had  hitherto  stood  in  relation  to 
the  rest  of  Europe.  By  the  end  of  the  X  century  she  had  ceased 
to  be  a  nation  of  pirates  living  apart.  She  had  adopted  the 
Christianity  of  her  near  neighbors  and  with  it,  naturally  enough, 
their  civilization.  But  by  the  middle  of  the  XI  century,  Nor- 
mandy had  still  farther  broadened  her  vision;  she  had  become 
conscious  of  the  fact  that  she  was  playing  a  part,  and  a  leading 
part,  in  the  civilization  of  Europe.  Cluny,  the  great  force  of 
the  age,  found  in  Normandy  her  most  fertile  field  of  growth, 
and  Cluny  looked  with  steady,  undeviating  gaze,  over  the  Alps, 
to  the  broad  plains  of  Italy. 

As  Norman  civilization  was  thus  influenced  by  nations  farther 
and  ever  farther  removed  from  her  frontiers,  so  also  was  her 
architecture.  When,  at  the  end  of  the  X  century,  Normandy 
adopted  the  Christianity  of  her  next  door  neighbors,  she  natu- 
rally adopted  with  it  the  Carolingian  basilica,  which  these  neigh- 
bors used  for  the  celebration  of  the  Christian  cult.  But  when, 
about  the  middle  of  the  XI  century,  Normandy  became  con- 
scious of  a  world  destiny;  when  there  was  a  constant  interchange 
of  scholars  and  monks  between  the  Norman  schools  and  even 
the  most  remote  provinces  of  Europe;  when  Normandy  had 
become  the  favorite  child   of  the  great  world-power,  Cluny  — 

243 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

then  Normandy  perceived  and  imitated  the  architectural  progress 
of  nations  even  far  removed  beyond  her  own  borders.  At  this 
time  there  was  no  other  country  in  Europe  that  for  architectural 
attainment  could  compare  with  Lombardy.  Therefore  it  was 
chiefly  to  Lombardy  that  the  Normans  turned  for  inspiration 
for  their  own  buildings.  They  adopted  what  was  vital  in  the 
Lombard  style,  combined  this  with  what  they  had  already  bor- 
rowed from  their  French  neighbors,  and  added  besides  a  large 
element  of  their  own  strongly  national  character;  hence  arose 
those  magnificent  monuments  of  the  second  half  of  the  XI  cen- 
tury that  still  dot  the  plains  of  Calvados  and  of  the  lower  Seine. 

o  One  of  the  most  marked  peculiarities  of  this  architecture 
of  the  XI  century,  is  its  almost  exclusively  monastic  character. 
There  are,  it  is  true,  a  certain  number  of  parish  churches  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  but  the  important  monuments  are  always 
the  abbeys.  In  fact,  the  Norman  Church  in  the  XI  century 
seems  to  have  been  monastic  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
awakening  of  religious  enthusiasm  in  Normandy  happened  to 
coincide  exactly  in  point  of  time  with  the  spread  of  Cluniac  ideas 
in  Europe.  Thus  the  two  became  inseparably  united.  The 
monks  of  Cluny  stood  for  the  chastity  of  the  clergy,  the  abolition 
of  simony,  the  general  reform  of  the  Church;  the  lay  clergy 
stood  for  the  opposites.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  intense 
religion  of  the  Normans  preferred  monk  to  priest,  and  saw  in 
the  monastery  the  highest  ideal  of  the  religious  life.  The  lay 
clergy,  therefore,  however  envious  they  might  be  of  the  monastic 
orders,  were  forced  into  the  background.'  In  time  they  became 
almost  entirely  subjected  to  the  monasteries,  losing  all  semblance 
of  temporal  power.  Thus  the  Norman  church  in  the  XI  cen- 
tury was  entirely  under  the  influence  of  the  monastic  ideal  and 
that  the  ideal  of  Cluny. 

In  one  point  only  the  teaching  of  Cluny  failed  to  influence 
Normandy.  The  papal  claim  to  the  temporal  supremacy  of 
Christendom  was  never  recognized  by  the  Norman  church. 
Owing     partly    to   the    extraordinarily    cordial    relations    that 

'  The  duke  in  the  XI  century  made  and  unmade  abbots  at  his  will.  This  broke  at  once 
the  power  of  the  bishops,  whose  influence  became  positively  less  in  the  enthusiastically  religious 
XI  century,  than  it  had  been  in  the  half  pagan  X  century.     See  Bohmer,  op.  cit.,  p.  26  seq. 

244 


III.   \'i-i.  —  Juiiiiiw^-     I'riiiM  tin-  Ndrtli 


THE   NORMAN   CHURCH 

existed  between  William  the  Conqueror  and  the  Holy  See,  espe- 
cially during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  Vll  (1073-1085),  and 
partly  to  the  great  burst  of  national  pride  which  followed  the 
conquest  of  England  (1066),  the  Norman  Church  managed 
always  to  remain  independent  of  Rome.  The  right  of  inves- 
titure by  the  didve  was  never  seriously  disputed  at  a  time  when 
this  (juestion  was  distracting  the  Empire;  William  appointed 
abbot  and  bishop  at  his  will,  and  no  one  thought  of  "free  choice." 
Norman  bishops  could  go  to  Rome  or  to  a  council  only  with 
the  express  permission  of  the  duke;  papal  legates  but  seldom 
visited  the  land.  Thus  the  Norman  Church  was  earnest  and 
pure;  but  it  was  ruled  by  the  duke  and  not  by  the  pope. 

All  this  was  changed  after  the  death  of  William  the  Con- 
quei'or  (1087).  The  middle  of  the  XI  century  is  the  apogee  of 
the  order  of  Cluny.  Soon  after,  its  prestige  began  to  wane, 
and  signs  of  decadence  appeared.  The  rapidly  increasing  wealth 
of  the  abbey  enfeebled  its  fervor  and  caused  its  discipline  to  be 
relaxed.  The  work  of  reform  fell  to  fresher  and  more  energetic 
hands;  new  and  more  zealous  orders  superseded  the  old. 

A  natural  consequence  was  the  waning  of  religious  enthu- 
siasm in  Normandy.  This  was  perhaps  increased  by  the  quarrel 
between  the  Church  and  Robert,  eldest  son  of  the  Conqueror, 
to  whom  his  father  left  the  duchy  of  Normandy.  Robert  ap- 
propriated without  scruple  the  ecclesiastical  revenues,  and  so 
far  did  he  fail  to  safeguard  the  property  of  the  Church  from  the 
lawlessness  of  the  times,  that  the  clergy  were  obliged  at  the  coun- 
cil of  Rouen  in  1096  to  take  measures  for  their  own  military 
protection.'  Even  this,  however,  did  not  suffice,  especially 
against  the  rapaciousness  of  the  king,  who  continued  to  oppress 
and  rob  the  Church  without  mercy. 

That  an  ultramontane  party  did  not  immediately  spring 
up,  must  have  been  due  to  the  enduring  foundations  laid  by 
the  Conqueror  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  the  Norman  Church 
had  lost  its  zeal  for  reform.  The  Cluniac  movement  in  Nor- 
mandy had  s{)ent  its  force,  and  the  Church  had  already  settled 
back  into  worldly  ways,  with  hardly  a  trace  left  of  the  brief 
enthusiasm  that  had  seized  it  so  powerfully  a  century  before. 

'  Boluuer,  op.  cit.,  p.  Mi. 
245 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

In  short,  there  was  need  of  a  reformation,  but  this  was  not 
begun  before  about  1120. 

Far  different  forces  were  brought  into  play  when  this  cleans- 
ing of  the  Norman  Church  did  occur.  Normandy,  instead  of 
reforming  Europe,  was  now  reformed  by  Europe,  and  especially 
by  the  pope.  Cluny  had  been  supplanted  by  Clairvaux.  And 
most  important  of  all,  the  reform  carried  with  it  the  denational- 
ization of  the  Norman  Church.  The  reformers  were  all  strongly 
ultramontane;  they  strove  not  so  much  for  the  purity  of  the 
Church  as  for  the  temporal  interests  of  the  papacy.  Hence  be- 
gan that  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  king  and  Church  — 
a  struggle  whose  scene  of  action  centers  in  England,  but  which 
was  far  fi"om  leaving  Normandy  unaffected.  Commenced  by 
Henry  I  and  Anselm,  the  strife  passed  through  various  stages 
during  the  troubled  years  of  Stephen  and  Matilda,  until  it  cul- 
minated under  Thomas  a  Becket  and  Henry  II  in  the  defeat  of 
the  king  (1170).  During  this  long  struggle,  the  people  —  or  at 
least  the  upper  classes  —  sided  with  the  king;  and  while,  it  is 
true,  the  masses  never  forgot  their  religious  enthusiasm,  it  is 
perfectly  evident  that  the  national  character  of  the  Norman 
Church  had  been  lost.  This  Norman  Church  now  turned  for 
support,  no  longer  to  the  Norman  duke,  but  to  the  Roman  pope. 
Its  ideal  had  become  the  strongly  Gregorianized  church  organ- 
ization of  France;  and  to  France  it  looked  for  models  of 
administration  and  culture.  The  Norman  schools  had  long  since 
fallen  into  disrepute;  instead  of  the  foreign  scholars  who  for- 
merly thronged  to  Normandy  for  instruction,  Norman  scholars 
now  went  to  France.  Such  was  the  transformation  that  had 
been  wrought  in  the  character  of  the  Norman  Church  in  less 
than  a  century. 

This  transformation  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
relaxation  in  building  activity  in  Normandy  during  the  XII 
century.  There  were,  however,  other  causes  which  contributed 
to  this  result.  The  condition  of  the  country  was  much  unsettled 
after  the  death  of  the  Conqueror.  The  reign  of  Robert  (1087- 
1116)  was  a  period  of  wretchedness,  during  which  Normandy 
relapsed  into  feudal  violence  and  the  extreme  of  misery.  Soon 
after    (1135-54)   the  land  was  distracted    by  the  civil  wars  of 

246 


III.   l-2:i.   ~  ,hnuu:jj:r>.     Kl.\ali,,i,  ,,r  Sy>l.i.i.       Kroiii  Hiiprirli-RoLrrt^ 


f 


Ii,i..  1.24.  —  .Iiiiiii(-f;c.s.     E,\t<Tii)r  Bay  aiul  Sfction.      ^Froiu  Uiipricli-RolxTl) 


NORMANDY   AND    ENGLAND 

Stephen  and  Matilda.  Scarcely  was  this  unhappy  period  over, 
when  tlie  storm  cloiitls  commenced  to  gather  for  the  wars  of 
Capetian  and  Plantagenet;  wars  in  the  course  of  which  Nor- 
mandy, the  natural  battle-ground,  suffered  from  repeated  pillage 
and  ruin.  Hostilities  broke  out  in  1167,  and  lasted  until  1172; 
they  were  renewed  in  1188,  and  once  moi-e  from  1194-99. 
The  struggle  ended  only  when  Philippe-Auguste  conquered 
Normandy  and  united  it  to  the  French  crown  (1203-04). 

A  further  cause  for  the  decline  of  Norman  architecture  in 
the  XII  century  was  the  peculiar  position  Normandy  occupied 
in  regard  to  England.  In  1066  it  had  been  Normandy  that 
conquered  England;  the  lesser  power  overcame  the  greater. 
But  in  the  XII  century  this  condition  was  exactly  reversed. 
The  Conqueror  himself  had  entered  the  wedge  when  he  divided 
his  realm,  leaving  Normandy  to  Robert,  and  England  to  William 
II.  From  that  moment  England  became  the  main  seat  of  the 
Norman  kings,  and  when  the  two  realms  were  again  united  in 
1116,  Normandy  became  more  and  more  the  subject  province. 
Owing  to  the  great  power  of  assimilation  possessed  by  the  Nor- 
mans, the  conquerors  of  England  speedily  amalgamated  with 
the  Anglo-Saxons  to  form  a  new  nation,  —  a  nation  differenti- 
ated by  race,  customs,  and  language,  from  the  Normans  of  the 
continent,  who  tended  rather  to  assimilate  with  the  Fi-ench. 
Thus  the  English  kings  always  made  the  interests  of  Normandy 
subservient  to  those  of  England.  Normandy  was  robbed  of 
her  best  to  supply  the  island  kingdom.  We  find  no  more  in 
the  Normandy  of  the  XII  century,  the  great  men,  the  creative 
and  organizing  geniuses,  the  Lanfrancs,  the  Anselms,  the  Odos, 
who  had  thronged  the  court  of  the  Conqueror.  All  who  in  any 
way  rose  above  the  mass  at  once  followed  their  ambition  across 
the  Channel,  or  were  summoned  thither  by  the  king.  Nor- 
mandy furnished  England  with  a  regal  list  of  bishops,  abbots, 
scholars,  and  statesmen;  but  she  was  allowed  to  keep  none  for 
herself.  And  similarly  not  only  in  men,  but  in  wealth,  the  best 
of  Normandy  was  drained  into  England. 

All  these  causes  combined  to  produce  the  great  relaxation 
of  building  activity  that  took  place  in  Normandy  during  the  XII 
century,  a  relaxation  which  is  the  more  striking  in  that  it  occurred 

247 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

at  the  same  time  that  the  countries  around  Normandy  —  the 
many  provinces  of  France,  the  Rhineland,  and  England  —  were 
showing  unprecedented  activit]^  and  attainment  in  architec- 
tural lines.  Only  one  important  monument  of  the  XII  century 
—  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux  —  has  come  down  to  us  in  Normandy, 
and  this  was  never  fully  completed  until  the  Gothic  period. 
Unquestionably  many  buildings  of  this  epoch  have  been  lost, 
having  been  rebuilt  or  destroyed  in  later  times,  and  it  must 
always  be  remembered  that  we  have  many  parish  churches  of 
small  size,  but  often  of  exquisite  design.  Yet,  when  all  allow- 
ances have  been  made,  the  monumental  poverty  of  Normandy 
during  the  XII  century  is  most  marked. 

This  curious  relaxation  of  building  activity  after  the  early 
bloom  of  the  last  half  of  the  XI  century  is  strangely  parallel  to 
the  lapse  which  occurred  about  the  same  time  in  the  Lombard 
style.  Like  Lombardy,  Normandy  grasped  the  torch  of  archi- 
tectural progress  and  advanced  it  rapidly  for  a  moment,  only 
to  let  it  suddenly  fall.  In  one  point,  however,  the  two  styles 
are  in  striking  contrast.  Architecture  never  declined  in  Nor- 
mandy —  never,  indeed,  stood  still.  Important  buildings 
ceased  to  be  built,  and  Norman  architecture  never  reached  the 
goal  to  which  it  had  been  tending;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  pro- 
gress once  scored  was  never  relinquished.  Throughout  the  XII 
century,  detail  continued  to  be  elaborated  and  refined;  stone- 
cutting  and  technique  constantly  improved;  and,  in  at  least  one 
very  essential  direction,  structural  advancement  of  the  most 
notable  kind  was  made.  Thus  Norman  architecture  does  not 
leave  upon  the  mind  that  keen  feeling  of  disappointment  which 
is  experienced  in  studying  the  Lombard  buildings  of  the  same 
time;  and  we  shall  find  that  the  Norman  architectural  genius, 
far  from  being  dead,  was  ready  to  arise  to  new  triumphs  under 
the  more  favorable  conditions  of  the  XIII  century. 

This  architecture  of  the  XIII  century  was  distinctly  inspired 
by  the  Gothic  of  the  He  de  France.  Norman  art,  as  well  as 
the  Norman  nation,  had  become  French  long  before  the  French 
conquest.  If,  in  1204,  Philippe-Auguste  was  able  in  a  single 
campaign  to  add  to  his  realm  a  province  almost  as  large  as  his 
original   domain,  it  was  because  Normandy  had  already  been 

248 


lix.    1--V..  —  AI>l:ayr-:ui\-H(iiiiiiu-s,  (  ai-ii.     Int.-ri.ir  as  r.slomi  l>y  Hupncli-Uol.ert 


GENESIS   OF  NORMAN   ART 

conquered  by  French  influence.  The  main  causes  which  fostered 
this  French  affiUation — the  strong  ultramontane  tendencies  of  the 
Norman  church,  and  the  gradual  separation  of  Normandy  and 
England  —  have  already  been  touched  upon.  Even  before  the 
nation,  the  Norman  church  had  become  thoroughly  Gallic. 
Thus  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  Normandy  fell  under 
Gothic  influence  half  a  century  before  the  conquest  of  1204. 
As  early  as  1144,  the  Norman  prelates  who  journeyed  to  France 
to  take  pai't  in  the  consecration  of  St.  Denis,  —  "the  first  of 
the  Gothic  monuments" —  were  doubtless  vividly  impressed  with 
the  beauties  of  the  new  art;  at  all  events  only  a  few  years  later, 
part  of  the  cathedral  of  Rouen  was  rebuilt  in  the  style  of  the 
He  de  France.  Fecamp  and  the  Abl)aye  Blanche  of  Mortain  were 
soon  after  built  in  the  new  style,  and  after  1155  various  ele- 
ments of  the  He  de  France,  such  as  the  pointed  arch  or  the 
quadripartite  rib  vault,  occur  sporadically,  but  with  ever  in- 
creasing frequency,  in  the  rural  architecture  of  the  province. 
The  Norman  style,  however,  relinquished  but  very  slowly  its 
grip,  for  as  late  as  1220  '  certain  edifices  still  betray  Norman 
characteristics.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Gothic  style  became 
fully  established  in  Normandy  later  than  in  England  —  a 
curious  fact,  considering  the  propinquity  and  close  relations 
of  France  and  Normandy.  The  generally  backward  develop- 
ment of  Norman  architecture  at  this  period  doubtless  accounts 
for  this.  In  the  end,  however,  Normandy  did  accept  the 
Gothic  style,  and  modified  it  to  form  a  singularly  beautiful 
local  school.  This  school  may  conveniently  be  taken  to  be 
established,  and  consequently  the  Norman  style  to  end,  at  about 
the  time  of  the  French  conquest  in  1204. 

Norman  architecture,  as  has  been  said,  is  derived  from  three 
main  sources:  from  Carolingian  tradition,  from  the  Lombard 
style,  and  from  certain  original  elements  added  by  the  Normans 
themselves.^     We  know  from  literary  sources  that  churches  had 

'  e.  g.,  Bougy. 

^  M.  Ruprich-Robert  has  tried  to  show  that  these  Norman  elements  were  brought  by  the 
vikings  from  Scandinavia,  and  liad  eventually  come  from  the  Orient.  The  Scandinavian  wooden 
churches,  on  which  he  based  his  argument,  are,  however,  now  known  to  be  later  than,  and  in 
fact  derived  from,  the  Norman  buildings  of  the  continent.     The  strangely  oriental  character  of 

249 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

begun  to  be  erected  in  Normandy  in  the  X  century,  and  that  there 
was  considerable  building  activity  during  the  first  half  of  the 
XI  century.  Unfortunately,  however,  except  St.  Pierre  of 
Jumieges  nothing  of  the  X,'  and  but  very  little  of  the  first  half  of 
the  XI  century,  has  come  down  to  us.  Norman  art  at  this 
period  was  still  in  its  infancy;  and  its  productions  seemed  so 
crude  and  unworthy  to  later  ages  that  they  were  almost  without 
exception  torn  down  and  rebuilt.  From  what  does  survive 
from  the  early  XI  century,^  however,  the  conclusion  seems 
justified  that  at  first  the  Normans  merely  continued  Carolin- 
gian  tradition.  The  only  apparent  advance  over  such  types 
as  Montier-en-Der  (111.  100),  or  the  Basse  Oeuvre  of  Beau- 
vais,  was  the  occasional  doubling  of  the  orders  in  piers  and 
archivolts.  There  were,  however,  no  mouldings,  and  to  judge 
from  the  fragments  we  have  left,  even  the  rude  Carolingian 
ornament  was  omitted.  The  transepts  were  always  provided 
with  absidioles;  excepting  these  absidioles  and  the  main  apse, 
the  church  was  entirely  roofed  in  wood.  The  main  apse  was 
probably  in  some  cases  preceded  by  a  square  choir.  There  is 
no  authentic  instance  of  a  triforium  gallery.  In  general  the  walls 
were  inordinately  thick,  and  composed  of  rubble,  herring-bone, 
or  very  wide-jointed  masonry,  while  the  windows  were  often 
extremely  small. 

There  is  unfortunately  nothing  to  show  whether  or  not  the 
groin  vault  was  known  at  this  early  period.  We  have  seen 
that  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  this  vault  had  been  very  skilfully  em- 
ployed in  connection  with  transverse  ribs;  we  have  also  seen 
that  in  Lombardy,  a  century  and  a  half  later,  the  combination 
of  groin  vault  and  transverse  rib  had  apparently  been  quite 
forgotten  and  had  to  be  evolved  all  over  again.  Now  in  the 
second  half  of  the  XI  century,  there  appeared  in  Normandy 

certain  sculptures  in  the  spandrels  of  the  arches  at  Bayeux,  is  probably  only  a  remarkable 
example  of  artistic  coincidence. 

'  The  remains  at  Vieux-Pont  en-Auge  and  at  Querque%'ille  are  negligible. 

-  The  most  important  monument  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  centurj'  is  the  nave  of  Bemay, 
much  altered,  but  dating  in  its  original  construction  probably  from  1015—40.  Other  monu- 
ments, parts  of  which  may  be  assigned  nnth  more  or  less  (usually  less)  confidence  to  the  first 
half  of  the  XI  century  exist  at  Lery  ( ?),  Vaudreuil  ( ?),  -Aizier,  Ste.-Marie-du-Mont  { ?),  St.  Ceneri, 
Pont-Audemer,  Auguemy,  Roche-Mabile,  St.  Wandrille  (Chapelle  St.  Saturnin),  Montagne 
(Chapelle  St.  Santin). 

250 


U  !3P^ 


Bjrj'S'jr.rzF^jrj^s' 


'^Ji- 


-U.;-., 


Ii>t_  I-2(i.  —  Abbaye-aux-Hommes.Caen.      Extfrior  Kli-vatimi  ami  Section  Restored  In    Uuprich- 
HolH-rt 


GROIN   VAULTS 


precisely  this  same  arrangement  of  groin  vaults  with  transverse 
ribs.  It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  knowledge  of  this 
construction  had   lingered   on   in   the  North  since  the  days  of 


III.  127. — Plan  of  St.  George  de  Bochcrville.     (From  Ruprich-Robert) 


Charlemagne,  or  wlicther  it  was  newly  imported  from  Italy. 
No  groin  vaults  earlier  than  1050  have  come  down  to  us  in  Nor- 
mandy; but  it  may  very  possibly  be  that  they  were  employed. 

251 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

Much  the  same  uncertainty  surrounds  the  use  of  the  square 
east  end.  We  have  seen  that  this  feature  was  regularly  adopted 
in  Syria  as  early  as  the  VI  century.  It  occurs  occasionally 
throughout  Europe  during  the  Carolingian  period,  and  was 
thoroughly  established  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Saxon  England. 
From  the  second  half  of  the  XI  century  it  occurs  fi-equently  ' 
in  Normandy,  always,  however,  in  very  small  churches  where  it 
was  probably  employed  chiefly  from  reasons  of  economy.  While 
no  instance  of  its  use  in  the  early  XI  century  has  come  down 
to  us,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was  similarly  employed 
during  that  period. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century,  there 
seem  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Norman  style  two  new 
features.  These  are  shown  in  the  little  church  of  St.  Ceneri 
(111.  l'-20),  although  this  particular  edifice  may  possibly  be  later 
than  1050.  The  more  important  of  the  innovations  was  the 
central  lantern.  It  was  no  new  idea  to  erect  a  central  tower  over 
the  crossing  of  the  basilica,^  but  the  Normans  had  the  happy 
inspiration  of  leaving  the  interior  of  such  a  tower  open  to  the 
inside  of  the  church  one  or  more  stories  above  the  roof,  thus 
producing  a  new  motive  of  the  greatest  architectural  charm. 
Such  lanterns  became  characteristic  of  the  Norman  style,  and 
were  later  adopted  in  the  Gothic  architecture  not  only  of 
Normandy,  but  of  England,  and  even  of  the  lie  de  France. 

This  idea  so  striking  and  original  was  probably  directly 
derived  from  Carolingian  monuments  of  the  type  of  Germigny- 
les-Pres  (111.  89).  As  has  been  seen,  the  Lombard  cloistered 
dome  was  derived  from  the  same  prototype,  and  placed 
in  the  same  position.  Although  there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
Norman  lantern  owed  anything  directly  to  the  Lombard  dome, 
the  very  fact  that  such  a  feature  was  used  in  Italy  (and  copied 
thence  in  Burgundy,  Spain,  the  Rhineland,  and  elsewhere)  was 

'  Norman  churches  of  the  last  half  of  the  XI  century  with  square  east  ends  are  to  be  found 
at  Anisy,  Neuf-Marche,  Huppain,  St.  Arnoult,  and  perhaps  .\snieres.  Tamenille  and  Bieville 
date  from  c.  1100.     In  the  XII  century  the  feature  is  found  very  commonly. 

=  Central  towers  apparently  e>dsted  from  as  early  as  the  XI  centurj'  at  Nantes,  Narbonne, 
Bordeaux,  and  Paris,  thus  antedating  campaniles.  See  \.  St.  Paul,  Hist.  Mon.,  p.  60.  M.  St. 
Paul  uses  the  word  " tours-lantemes "  in  describing  these  towers;  as  far  as  I  know  there  is  no 
evidence  that  they  were  lanterns  or  more  than  simple  central  towers. 

252 


NORMAN   CONSTRUCTION    1000-1050 

probably  not  without  influence  in  causing  the  Normans  to 
retain  and  devehip  this  pecuHarlj  happy  motive. 

The  second  innovation  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century 
will  be  clear  upon  reference  to  the  plan  of  St.  Ceneri  (111.  120). 
The  westernmost  supports  of  the  central  tower  were  placed 
within  the  nave  walls,  and  a  passageway  was  thus  provided 
from  the  nave  into  the  transept  on  the  outside  of  these  piers. 
This  arrangement  is,  of  course,  possible  only  in  churches  of  a 
single  aisle  and  consequently  of  small  dimensions.  It  left  no 
lasting  imprint  on  the  general  course  of  architectural  develop- 
ment, though  it  is  found  in  widely  divergent  schools.  Beside 
St.  Ceneri,  this  peculiarity  occurs  in  Normandy,  I  believe,  only 
at  Neuf-Marche;  but  similar  plans  are  common  in  various  parts 
of  southern  France,  and  especially  in  the  school  of  Berry.  These 
plans  are  so  peculiar  and  distinctive,  that  it  can  hardly  be  as- 
sumed that  they  arose  in  such  widely  separated  localities  through 
coincidence;  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  other  evidence  of 
inter-influence  between  Normandy  and  Berry  at  this  epoch. 
Perhaps  both  schools  derived  this  feature  from  a  common 
Carolingian  prototype  now  lost. 

These  few  conjectures  are  about  all  that  it  is  possible  to 
deduce,  on  the  evidence  of  the  fragments  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  of  the  course  of  Norman  architecture  during  the  first  half 
of  the  XI  century.  It  seems  to  have  been  an  art  timid,  hesitat- 
ing, and  crude;  and  yet  the  fleeting  glimpses  of  progress  that 
we  catch  here  and  there  bear  witness  to  a  certain  amount  of 
development,  and  to  a  gradual  advance  from  the  blind  follow- 
ing of  Carolingian  tradition  to  the  formation  of  a  distinctly 
national  school.  This  progress,  however,  is  very  slight  and 
elusive;  it  is  necessary  rather  to  divine  its  existence  than  to 
trace  its  course  in  detail.  Certainly  in  this  early  period  there 
is  nothing  to  pave  the  way  for  the  surprising  series  of  monu- 
ments erected  during  the  next  half  century. 

Of  these  later  monuments,  the  first  in  point  of  time  as  well 
as  of  importance,  was  the  Abbey  of  Jumieges,  which  was  in 
construction  from  1048  to  1067.  The  majestic  ruins  of  this 
vast  pile  still  stand  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine  some  fifty 
miles  below  Rouen,  and  bear  witness  to  the  grandeur  and  dig- 

253 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

nity  of  the  original  design.  Time  has  doubtless  added  much 
to  the  picturesque  effect  of  this  beautiful  ruin:  it  has  softened 
the  angular  outlines,  clothed  the  bare  walls  with  vines  and  grasses, 
and  given  the  venerable  stones  that  mellow  color  that  comes  only 
from  long  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  destruction  of  the 
roof  has  opened  to  view  the  soaring  height  of  the  central  tower, 
which  forms  at  present  so  striking  a  feature.  But  Jumieges 
has  much  beside  its  picturesque  condition  of  ruin  to  lend  it 
artistic  interest.  For  all  its  crudeness  and  lack  of  finish,  this 
design  possesses  a  rugged  virility,  an  austere  grandeur,  that  give 
it  rank  at  once  as  one  of  the  masterworks  of  architectural  art 
(111.  121,  122,  123,  124). 

This  abbey  of  Jumieges  is  a  most  surprising  structure.  It 
is  almost  inconceivable  how  the  Normans,  the  timid  and  hesi- 
tating builders  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century,  learned  all 
at  once  to  build  a  monument  not  only  incomparably  superior  in 
design  to  any  contemporary  structures  in  Europe,  but  vaster 
in  scale  than  any  edifice  which  had  been  erected  in  the  West 
since  the  days  of  Constantine.  Many  features,  it  is  true,  were 
borrowed  from  Lombardy;  Montier-en-Der  had  indistinctly 
foreshadowed  the  way  which  the  builders  of  Jumieges  followed, 
—  yet,  w'hen  all  has  been  said,  the  originality  of  this  design, 
and  the  daring  of  its  execution  remain  indisputable.  It  seems 
as  if  the  Norman  builders  had  all  at  once  become  aware  of  their 
architectural  genius,  and  had  created  at  a  breath  a  new  and 
consistent  style. 

That  inexperienced  builders,  undertaking  a  project  so  am- 
bitious as  the  construction  of  a  monument  like  Jumieges,  should 
have  sought  far  and  wide  for  precedents  and  examples  is 
intrinsically  probable.  Considering,  therefore,  that  certain 
undoubtedly  Lombard  features  are  found  in  this  design,  it  seems 
altogether  probable  that  the  edifice  was  more  or  less  directly 
derived  from  Lombard  sources.  However,  this  theory  of  Lom- 
bard influence  at  Jumieges,  first  advanced  by  M.  Ruprich-Robert, 
has  been  seriously  disputed.  M.  Ruprich-Robert  based  his 
argument  on  the  assumption  that  the  nave  of  S.  Ambrogio  of 
INIilan  dated  from  the  IX  century.  This  nave  is  now  known 
to  be  contemporary  with,  or  even  later  than,  Jumieges.     Con- 

254 


III.  1-28.  —  Abbave-aux-Dames  of  Caen.     Interior  of  Xave 


LOMBARD   INFLUENCE 

sequently  if  there  be  direct  influence  between  the  two,  it  is  as 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  S.  Ambrogio  was  derived  from 
Jumieges,  as  that  Jumieges  was  derived  from  S.  Ambrogio. 
This  view  has  been  forcefully  presented  by  no  less  an  authority 
than  M.  Lefevre-Pontalis,  and  has  been  followed  by  most  of 
the  French  archieologists.  M.  Courajod  and  Mr.  Moore,  how- 
ever, courageously  continued  to  support  the  thesis  of  M.  Ruprich- 
Robert.  This  position  seems  to  me  far  stronger  than  that 
assumed  by  M.  Lefevre-Pontalis.  S.  Ambrogio  is  not  an  iso- 
lated monument,  as  I  have  tried  to  show  in  a  previous  chapter, 
and  Lombard  architecture  consists  of  much  more  than  this  one 
example.  S.  Ambrogio  is  rather  the  culmination  of  a  long 
series  of  monuments  (some  of  which,  indeed,  may  be  lost  to  us), 
which  show  a  perfectly  logical  and  consecutive  development. 
None  of  the  scholars  who  have  specialized  in  Lombard  archi- 
tecture —  neither  Cattaneo,  nor  Rivoira,  nor  Dartein,  nor  Ven- 
turi  —  has  failed  to  recognize  this  salient  point.  Thus  Avhile 
INI.  Lefevre-Pontalis  is  probably  right  in  contending  that  S. 
Ambrogio  is  later  than  Jumieges,  that  by  no  means  proves  that 
Jumieges  was  not  influenced  by  the  many  Lombard  buildings, 
predecessors  of  S.  Ambrogio;  in  fact,  it  even  strengthens  the  case 
in  favor  of  Lombard  influence,  since  it  explains  why  certain  of 
the  advances,  like  the  rib  vault,  made  at  S.  Ambrogio,  were 
not  imitated  at  Jumieges,  although  a  little  later  —  presumably 
soon  after  they  had  been  discovered  in  Lombardy  —  these  in- 
novations were  borrowed  not  only  by  Normandy,  but  by  Eng- 
land and  the  lie  de  France.  But  the  strongest  argument  of  all 
in  favor  of  the  Lombard  influence  at  Jumieges  is  the  internal 
evidence  of  the  monument  itself.  The  alternate  system  could 
hardly  have  been  evolved  by  chance  or  borrowed  elsewhere  than 
from  Lombardy.  And  later  in  the  chapter  we  shall  find  other 
motives,  both  structural  and  ornamental,  no  less  characteris- 
tically Lombard,  to  have  been  introduced  at  Jumieges  and  in 
other  Norman  buildings. 

The  alternate  system  is,  indeed,  the  most  striking  peculiarity 
of  the  design  of  Jumieges  (111.  123).  In  Lombardy,  this  system 
had  been  evolved  as  the  logical  consequence  of  the  transverse 
arch  thrown  across  the  nave  and  side  aisles.     At  Jumieges  the 

255 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

transverse  arches  were  omitted,  but  the  alternately  heavier  and 
lighter  supports  were  retained.  This  alternation  of  supports 
came  to  be  used  throughout  Europe  at  about  this  time.  It  can 
only  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the  Romanesque  builders 
had  not  yet  freed  themselves  from  the  traditional  Carolingian 
habit  of  working  by  rote  and  blindly  copying  precedents.  There- 
fore, although  the  transverse  arches  of  the  Lombards  were 
rejected,  the  alternate  system  which  has  logic  and  meaning  only 
in  connection  with  those  arches,  was  retained.  Later,  it  seems 
to  have  been  found  that  the  alternate  system  gave  a  sort  of 
rhythm  to  the  composition,  and  it  was  hence  often  employed 
for  purely  esthetic  reasons. 

Even  more  distinctly  Lombard  than  the  alternate  system, 
are  the  engaged  shafts  introduced  at  Jumieges.  As  may  be 
seen  in  the  (restored)  internal  elevation  (111.  123),  every  other 
pier  is  compound  and  supplied  with  a  shaft.  This  shaft  rises 
from  the  ground  and  reaches  uninterruptedly  to  the  roof.  There 
it  simply  terminates,  without  capital,  without  having  revealed  for 
itself  any  raison  d'etre.  This  feature,  so  peculiar,  so  inexplicable, 
was  repeated  after  Jumieges  by  the  Normans  in  building  after 
building,  and  became  one  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  the 
style.  It  occurs,  not  only  in  Normandy,  but  throughout  West- 
ern Europe,  from  Spain  to  the  He  de  France  and  Flanders. 
I  believe,  however,  that  Jumieges  is  the  earliest  example  of 
the  use  of  these  engaged  shafts,  and,  considering  the  international 
fame  and  importance  of  the  abbey,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  regard 
all  other  examples  as  thence  derived.  The  extraordinary  popu- 
larity of  so  fortuitous  and  illogical  an  idea  is  most  astonishing, 
and  of  all  the  forms  produced  by  medieval  architecture,  there 
is  none  which  has  more  puzzled  the  archaeologists.  The  most 
plausible  explanation  yet  advanced  sees  in  these  shafts  merely 
a  decorative  feature.  Their  use  increased  the  effect  of  rhythm 
given  by  the  alternate  piers;  they  served  to  mark  the  bays  inter- 
nally, and  to  accentuate  the  vertical  lines,  thus  giving  scale  in 
height  and  length  to  the  building;  they  appeared  to  offer  sup- 
port for  the  tie-beams  of  an  open  timber  roof;  and  finally  they 
bound  together  the  three  stories  of  arcade,  triforium,  and  clear- 
story,  otherwise   little   related   in   composition.     This   theory,  if 

256 


III.  1^9.  — Abbaye-aux-Ilommes  of  Caen.    Interior  of  Nave 


THE   SYSTEM 

there  is  little  positive  evidence  to  support  it,  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
entirely  po8sil)le.  The  engaged  shaft  certainly  did  answer  the 
purposes  claimed  for  it.  Yet,  in  medieval  art,  entii'ely  new 
features  were  never  evolved  in  this  way,  purely  for  decorative 
effect.  Such  an  invention  out  of  whole  cloth  would  be  contrary 
to  all  the  tendencies  of  the  time  and  an  event  absolutely  without 
parallel.  It  seems  far  more  probable  that  these  advantages 
shoidd  have  caused  the  engaged  shafts  to  be  retained  after  they 
had  originated  in  some  other  way,  than  that  they  should  have 
suggested  their  invention. 

The  alternative  explanation,  although  it  has  gained  wide 
acceptance,  and  has  been  advocated  by  Mr.  Moore,  seems  to 
me  to  be  on  its  face  improbable,  and  is  supported  by  no  serious 
evidence.  This  theory  considers  the  engaged  shafts  as  showing 
a  vague,  undefined  intention  on  the  part  of  the  builders  who 
commenced  the  construction  to  vault  the  edifice  —  an  intention 
which  those  who  built  the  clearstory  did  not  have  the  skill  or 
courage  to  carry  out.  All  this  is  assuming  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  the  Romanesque  builders  that  we  have  every  reason  to 
suppose  they  did  not  possess.  An  archaeologist  of  the  XX  cen- 
tury knows  that  these  engaged  shafts  of  the  Normans  bear  a 
striking  analogy  to  the  vaulting  shaft  later  employed  to  support 
Gothic  rib  vaulting.  But  in  1048  there  is  every  probability 
that  it  had  never  occurred  to  the  master  builders  to  vault  a  vast 
nave  like  Jumieges;  and  even  had  they  set  out  to  erect  such  a 
vault,  it  is  altogether  likely  that  they  would  have  used  a  groin 
vault  without  tranverse  ribs,  so  that  there  would  have  been  no 
use  for  an  engaged  shaft.  Furthermore,  I  strongly  suspect  that 
the  builders  of  Jumieges  were  quite  men  enough  not  only  to 
know  their  own  intentions,  but  to  carry  them  out.  In  this 
design  there  is  nothint;  fortuitous  or  unforeseen.  Architecture 
was  treading  a  new  way,  yet  as  far  as  she  went  she  planted  her 
foot  firmly. 

What  seems  to  me  the  true  explanation  of  the  Norman  en- 
gaged shaft  is  so  obvious  that  I  wonder  that  (at  least  as  far  as 
I  know)  it  has  never  been  advanced  before.  If  it  be  once 
granted  that  the  Iniilders  of  Jumieges  were  acquainted  with 
those   Lombard   basilicas   that   were   furnished   with   transverse 

257 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

arches,  the  whole  matter  becomes  clear.  At  the  time  that 
Jumieges  was  commenced  (1048),  vaulted  naves  were  unknown 
even  in  Lombardy,  but  transverse  arches  had  been  thrown 
across  the  nave  for  upwards  of-  half  a  century.^  In  seeking 
models  for  their  design,  the  builders  of  Jumieges  may  well  have 
studied  these  Lombard  churches  —  considering  the  constant 
intercommunication  between  Italy  and  Lombardy  at  this  period, 
it  is  almost  inevitable  that  they  should  have  been  acquainted 


III.  130.  —  Section  of  St.  Seriiiu  of  Toulouse.     (From  Dehio) 

with  them.  Now  the  system  of  transverse  arches  possessed 
great  advantages  in  unifying  and  relieving  the  design;  it  offered, 
however,  two  great  drawbacks  to  the  northern  builders:  in  the 
first  place,  it  destroyed  the  effect  of  the  lofty  clearstory,  thus 
dwarfing  the  height  of  the  nave;  secondly,  it  exerted  upon  the 
clearstory  walls  a  powerful  thrust,  which  the  inexperienced 
builders  of  the  North  were  probably  unable  to  meet.  At  Ju- 
mieges these  difiiculties  were  avoided  by  omitting  the  transverse 
arch,  while  the  advantages  of  the  Lombard  system  were  retained 
by  preserving  the  shaft  which  had  supported  it.  Surely  this 
was  neither  an  illogical  nor  an  incomprehensible  proceeding, 
and  the  precedent  for  the  engaged  shaft  is  thus  found  near  at 
hand.  How  entirely  successful  this  expedient  was  judged  to 
be  at  the  time,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  engaged  shafts  became 

'  At  S.  Zeno  of  Verona,  a  church  of  the  XII  century,  there  are  to  be  found  transverse  arches 
and  also  certain  shafts  eWdently  intended  to  support  arches  which  were  never  constructed.  These 
shafts  are  entirely  analogous  to  those  of  Jumieges.     (111.  111.) 

258 


:asai.s±i-a;Ksei!*42i  ">--<;-';i»)fy 


Ii.i,.    l.il.        S.-ctioii  ..r  Aliliayi-aux-Hoiiimfs  of  CacM.      i  From  Kiipricli-R.ilKTt) 


IlX.   l;W.  —  Traiisvi-rse  Section.  Al)l)ay.--aii\-l)aiii.-  .if  CiKii.       I'n.m  Huprii  Ii-UhIktI  ) 


NORMAN   CONSTRUCTION 

one  of  the  established  characteristics  of  the  Norman  style,  and 
that  their  use  rapidly  spread  over  all  Europe. 

A  confirmation  of  this  derivation  of  the  engaged  shaft,  and 
a  direct  proof  of  Lombard  influence  in  Normandy,  is  to  be  found 
in  the  transverse  arches  which  were  later  built  at  Cerisy-la-P^oret, 
Esquay,  and  just  across  the  Norman  bonier  at  the  church  of 
Notre-Dame-du-Pre  of  Le  jNIans.  No  one  doubts  that  trans- 
verse arches  are  thoroughly  and  characteristically  an  Italian 
feature.  Therefore  it  is  certain  that  the  Normans  were  ac- 
quainted with  this  peculiarity  of  Lombard  design  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  imitate  it. 

Outside  of  the  engaged  shafts  and  the  alternate  system,  the 
design  of  Jumieges  is  easily  comprehensible.  The  high  triforium 
galleries  may  have  been  derived  either  from  Carolingian  tra- 
dition, or  from  Lombardy,  since  they  are  common  to  both. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs 
that  covered  the  aisles  and  galleries,  although  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  Lombard  edifices  with  transverse  arches  across  the 
nave  usually  had  just  such  groin-vaulted  aisles  and  galleries. 
The  design  of  the  triforium  openings  is  strongly  reminiscent  of 
Montier-en-Der;  on  the  other  hand,  the  pilaster  strips  —  they 
can  hardly  be  called  buttresses  —  that  originally  marked  the 
bays  externally,  are  thoroughly  Italian.  Indeed,  buttresses 
were  always  treated  by  the  Normans  in  the  Italian  manner  —  i.e., 
as  ornamental  rather  than  as  structural  features. 

At  Jumieges  the  Norman  style  may  be  considered  as  formed. 
Hereafter  it  simply  developed  logically  the  ideas  which  the 
builders  of  Jumieges  had  originated.  Advance  proceeded  along 
perfectly  rational  lines,  by  short  and  easy,  but  none  the  less  sure, 
steps.  On  the  structural  side  nothing  further  was  borrowed 
from  Italy  —  for  the  time  being  —  but  the  ornament,  as  will  be 
shown  later  in  the  chapter,  proves  that  Lombardy  continued  to 
exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  Normg,n  art.  It  is  easy  to  follow 
the  history  of  Norman  architecture  during  the  last  half  of  the  XI 
century.  Before  Jumieges  had  been  completed,  the  two  great 
royal  abbeys  at  Caen  had  been  begun;  and  before  the  century 
was  out  the  church  of  St.  Nicolas  at  Caen,  and  the  abbey  of 
St.  Georges  de  Bocherville  near  Rouen   had   been   completed. 

259 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

Simultaneously  with  these  great  monuments  there  sprang  up 
all  over  Normandy  a  host  of  lesser  churches,  many  of  which,  in 
part  at  least,  have  come  down  to  us.  There  is,  accordingly, 
no  lack  of  data  for  tracing  the  progress  of  the  style. 

As  has  been  said,  the  idea  of  shafts  engaged  on  the  faces  of 
the  piers  was  received  with  enthusiasm  throughout  Normandy, 
though  a  few  churches,  generally  of  small  dimensions,  con- 
tinued up  to  the  close  of  the  Norman  period  to  be  built  without 
this  feature.  The  motive  was  in  certain  churches  '  used  with 
an  alternate  system,  precisely  as  at  Jumieges.  At  the  Abbaye- 
aux-Hommes  of  Caen,  however,  an  innovation  was  tried.  (Ill  125. 
The  right  hand  bay  shows  the  original  design.)  The  engaged 
shafts  seem  to  have  been  found  so  effective  from  a  decorative 
standpoint,  that  it  was  concluded  to  engage  a  shaft  on  every 
pier,  instead  of  on  every  other  pier.  But  the  idea  of  the  pro- 
priety of  an  alternate  system  had  become  so  firmly  embedded 
in  the  Norman  mind  that  the  builder  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes 
seemingly  did  not  dare  take  such  a  radical  step  as  to  make  every 
pier  alike.  Accordingly  the  piers  were  made  of  the  same  profile, 
but  the  intermediate  piers  and  their  shafts  were  made  slightly 
smaller.  But  in  the  almost  contemporary  Abbaye-aux-Dames 
(111.  128),  the  logical  step  of  making  all  the  piers  equal,  and  thus 
changing  the  system  from  alternate  to  uniform,  was  actually 
taken.  This  uniform  system  with  engaged  shaft  was  repeated 
at  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen  and  at  St.  Georges  de  Bocherville  (111. 
127),  and  thereafter  became  the  typical  Norman  design,  although 
the  alternate  system  occasionally  persisted  alongside  of  it. 

A  curious  variation  of  the  motive  of  the  engaged  shaft  occurs 
at  Notre-Dame-sur-l'Eau  of  Domfront,^  where  a  shaft,  engaged 
on  the  aisle  side  of  the  main  piers,  is  carried  up  along  the  out- 
side of  the  clearstory  wall  to  form  a  buttress.  Such  a  construc- 
tion seems  to  prove  that  the  Norman  builders,  at  least  in  the 
second  half  of  the  XI  century,  far  from  considering  the  engaged 
shaft  as  a  structural  feature  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
vault,  rather  regarded  it  as  a  purely  decorative  element  to  be 

'e.g.,  Graville-Ste.-Honorine  (c.  1100.) 

2  Probably  also  in  the  XII  century  church  of  Than.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  here  the 
aisles  (which  are  destroyed)  may  have  had  transverse  arches. 

260 


Jl.I..     I:;:;.  \M,:n.-MMx   1I..I ..  ..(  (   .,,-ii.       I^M'^1,1,- 


NORMAN   VAULTS 

used  as  fancy  suggested ;  —  quite  in  the  spirit  that  the  same 
feature  is  used  on  the  fa9ade  of  S.  Miehele  of  Pavia. 

Groin  vaults  were  employed  in  the  aisles  and  triforium  of 
Jumieges  (111.  124),  in  the  aisles  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes 
(111.  126),  and  in  fact  quite  regularly  in  the  aisles  of  all  the  larger 
Norman  churches.  However,  a  few  monuments  —  notably  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  at  Caen,  in  its  original  condition  —  were 
still  erected  with  wooden  roofs  throughout.  The  groin  vaults 
were  always  on  a  nearly  square  plan.  Before  the  end  of  the  XI 
century,  however,  the  Normans  had  learned  not  only  to  con- 
struct groin  vaults  on  an  oblong  plan,  but  even  to  erect  them 
over  the  great  choir  (111.  127).'  This  was  a  remarkable  advance. 
It  was  perhaps  easier  to  throw  a  vault  over  a  choir,  short  and 
well  abutted  by  the  hea\'y  piers  of  the  crossing  and  the  half- 
dome  of  the  apse,  than  to  groin-vault  an  entire  nave.  And  yet 
the  step  from  the  one  to  the  other  is  so  obvious  and  easy,  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  why  the  Normans  never  attempted  it. 
It  is  probable  that  the  unsettled  conditions  of  the  XII  century 
checked  for  a  time  all  architectural  advance;  and,  when  building 
activity  was  resumed,  there  were  at  hand  new  solutions  of  the 
vault  problem  that  made  the  groin  vault  unnecessary.  But, 
although  these  groin-vaulted  choirs  were  thus  destined  to  lead  to 
no  abiding  result,  the  Normans,  in  erecting  in  the  XI  century 
such  large  vaults,  accomplished  a  feat  unrivaled  by  any  other 
nation  of  Europe,  save  only  Lombardy. 

In  the  XI  century  the  Normans  do  not  seem  to  have  adopted 
the  Lombard  rib  vault.  In  the  following  century  they  did  so; 
and  even  in  the  XI  century  they  seem  to  have  been  conscious 
more  or  less  of  Lombard  constructive  methods,  for  certain  of 
their  groin  vaults,  instead  of  having  level  crowns  following  the 
old  Roman  and  Carolingian  tradition,  are  distinctly  domed  in 
the  Lombard  manner.^  Probably  the  Norman  builders  only 
partially  understood  the  advantages  of  the  Lombard  construc- 
tion and  preferred  to  work  out  their  own  solution  of  the  vault 
problem  without  the  use  of  ribs. 

'  Groiii-vaulte<l  choirs  occur  at  the  Ahhaye-aux-Daiiios  and  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen;  at  St. 
Georges  de  Bocliervillc,  Notre-Dame-sur-rEau  of  Domfroiit  and  in  the  cliurches  of  Secqueville- 
en-Bessin,  Autheuil,  Pont-Audemer  and  Savigny. 

'  A  notable  example  are  the  choir  vaults  of  St.  Georges  de  Bocher\'ille. 

-201 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  pecuHarities  of  Norman 
architecture  is  the  disposition  of  the  east  end.  The  ambulatory 
was  in  use  by  the  end  of  the  X  century  as  close  to  the  Norman 
border  as  Le  Mans ;  it  was  not  unusual  in  the  Norman  monuments 
of  England;  but  it  never  occurs  in  Normandy,  except  rarely  in 
the  late  XII  century  and  then  under  the  direct  inspiration  of 
the  school  of  the  He  de  France.  The  typical  Norman  choir 
(111.  127)  ends  in  a  semicircular  apse.  The  choir  itself  is 
regularly  two  bays  long,  and  is  flanked  by  two  aisles,  also  ter- 
minating in  apses  or  niches.  From  the  transept  generally  open 
two  more  absidioles  '  —  remnants  of  the  strangely  persistent 
Carolingian  tradition  —  making  five  apses  in  all. 

Another  marked  peculiarity  of  Norman  churches,  and,  I 
believe,  a  feature  without  analogy  elsewhere,  is  the  tribune  often 
placed  in  the  transept  end.  This  is  also  illustrated  in  the  plan 
of  St.  Georges  de  Bocherville  (111.  127).'  It  is  as  if  an  aisle 
had  been  built  at  the  end  of  the  transept,  but  placed  inside, 
instead  of  outside,  the  clearstory  wall.  Thus  is  formed  a  sort 
of  pavilion  in  two  stories.  The  tribune  is  regularly  two  bays 
long,  and  its  intermediate  pier  often  has  an  engaged  shaft  which 
terminates  in  the  air  in  a  most  inconsequential  fashion.  Per- 
haps because  of  this  tradition  of  tribunes,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  shut  off  the  transepts  as  chapels.  At  St.  Ceneri,  the  roof  of 
the  transepts  is  lower  than  that  of  the  nave. 

The  final  innovation  introduced  in  the  XI  century,  and  a 
highly  important  one,  was  the  system  of  interior  passageways 
in  the  walls.  This  was  distinctly  a  Norman  invention  and  was 
probably  first  tried  in  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  of  Caen.  In  an 
edifice  of  large  dimensions  it  becomes  of  importance  to  provide 
access  to  all  parts  of  the  building,  that  necessary  repairs  may  be 
executed  without  the  necessity  of  erecting  expensive  scaftolding, 
and  that  constant  watch  may  be  kept  on  the  conservation  of  the 
building.  Hence  stairways  were  managed  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  and  a  passageway,  also  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 

■  Examples  of  transeptal  absidioles  occur  at  Ste.  Trinite,  St.  fitienne,  and  St.  Nicolas  of 
Caen;  at  Mt.  St.  INIichel,  St.  George  de  Bocherville,  Cerisj'-la-Foret,  Notre-Dame-sur-l'Eau  of 
Domfront,  Audrien,  Authenil,  St.  Ceneri,  Pont-Audemer,  Montebourg,  Verson,  etc. 

2  Tribunes  occur  also  at  St.  fitienne  and  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen,  St.-Denis-sur-Sarthon  and  at 
Cerisy-la-Foret. 

262 


SEXPARTITE   VAULTS 

was  built  aloiifT  the  clearstory  level.  In  churches  where  there 
was  no  triforiuin  gallery  a  similar  passageway  was  constructed 
at  the  triforium  level.  The  character  of  such  passageways  may 
be  seen  in  the  section  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (111.  126). 

These  passageways  influenced  greatly  the  development  of 
Norman  art.  Being  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  thick  wall  they 
tended  to  divide  it  into  two  parts  and  thus  form  a  double  wall. 
Now,  when  a  window  or  an  arcade  was  opened  in  such  a  double 
wall,  the  builders  soon  discovered  that  an  entrancing  effect  could 
be  produced  by  giving  one  design  to  the  opening  in  the  inner 
wall,  and  another  design  to  the  opening  in  the  outer  wall  — 
thus  letting  the  eye  look  through  one  design  at  the  other.  An 
early  example  of  this  motive  is  the  clearstory  of  the  Abbaye-aux- 
Hommes  as  altered  towards  the  close  of  the  XI  century  (111. 
125,  the  left-hand  bay).  The  idea  became  one  of  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  Norman  school;  transmitted  to  the  Nor- 
man Gothic  it  gave  rise  to  those  peculiar  effects  of  double  tracery 
that  lend  so  much  charm  to  the  XIII  century  cathedrals  of 
Normandy. 

In  addition  to  such  notable  structural  advances,  Norman 
architecture  showed  a  great  improvement  in  technique.  Small 
and  herring-bone  masonry  persisted  occasionally  up  to  the  end 
of  the  XI  century,  and  even  later;  but  dressed  blocks  were 
more  and  more  used.  These  blocks  gradually  came  to  be  more 
skilfully  cut  and  fitted  together  with  finer  joints,  until  in  the  XII 
century  Normandy  rivaled  even  the  He  de  France  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  its  stone-cutting.  In  this  dressed  masonry  the  horizontal 
joints,  though  not  equally  spaced,  are  always  continuous  and 
run  for  the  entire  length  of  a  wall,  or  the  entire  diameter  of 
a  pier.     The  use  of  red  mortar  was  frequent. 

In  the  XII  century,  the  course  of  Norman  architecture  took 
a  most  peculiar  and  unexpected  turn.  It  has  been  seen  that  after 
the  year  1100  building  activity  declined.  No  structural  advance 
seems  to  have  been  made  for  some  time  after  this  date;  the  groin- 
vaulting  of  the  nave  that  seemed  so  near  at  hand  was  never 
reached.  Then  suddenly,  without  warning  or  preparation,  we 
find  a  series  of  churches  vaulted  with  the  sexpartite  rib  vault. 

Not  one  of  these  monuments  is  clearly  dated;  archteologists 

263 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

have  assigned  them  to  anywhere  from  the  first  quarter  '  to  the 
middle  of  the  XII  century.-  There  are  in  all  seven  rib-vaulted 
monuments  that  have  come  down  to  us,  all  except  one  (which 
is  the  latest  of  all),  in  the  departement  of  Calvados,  and  in,  or 
not  far  from,  the  city  of  Caen.^  By  a  comparison  of  the  technique 
and  details  of  these  various  vaults  it  seems  evident  that  the  vault 
of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  is  the  oldest;  that  the  Abbaye-aux- 
Dames  is  somewhat  later;  and  that  the  others  (all  about  con- 
temporary with  each  other)  are  later  still. 

The  date  of  these  churches  becomes  of  immense  importance, 
for,  about  the  same  time,  the  sexpartite  vault  appears  in  the 
He  de  France,  at  St.  Denis  (1140-44).  The  question  con- 
sequently arises,  whether  Normandy  borrowed  from  France,  or 
France  from  Normandy.  The  strong  trend  of  modern  opinion, 
under  the  capable  leadership  of  INI.  Lefevre-Pontalis,  inclines 
to  the  former  alternative;  but  no  less  weighty  voices  than  those 
of  Mr.  jNIoore,  of  M.  Louis  Regnier,  and  of  M.  Enlart  are  raised 
on  the  other  side,  while  M.  Anthyme  St.  Paul  is  frankly  un- 
decided. 

Before  discussing  the  question  of  its  origin,  it  is  necessary 
to  study  the  character  of  the  sexpartite  vault.  The  Norman 
examples  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  types.  The  simpler 
of  these  is  illustrated  in  the  vaults  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames 
(111.  128),  and  is  the  type  followed  at  Bernieres-sur-Mer,  at 
Ouistreham,  and  at  St.  Gabriel;  — that  is,  in  four  out  of  the  seven 
examples  of  sexpartite  Norman  vaults  that  have  come  down  to 
us.  These  vaults  are  in  their  essence  but  a  simple  quadripartite 
Lombard  rib  vault.  But  an  extra  transverse  arch  has  been 
constructed  through  the  intersection  of  the  diagonals,  and  this 
transverse  arch  has  been  loaded  with  a  perpendicular  wall  of 
masonry  reaching  up  to  the  surface  of  the  vault. 

The  second  type  of  sexpartite  vault,  which  was  used  in  the 
Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (111.  129),  and  which  is  also  found  at 
Creully  and  Petit-Quevilly,  employs  precisely  the  same  struc- 
ture of  ribs.     But  the  vault  surface  is  warped  to  the  intermediate 

'  Mr.  Moore.  '  M.  Lefevre-Pontalis. 

3  The  list  is  as  follows:  St.  Etienne  and  Ste.  Trinite  of  Caen;  Ouistreham,  Creully,  St.  Ga- 
briel, Bernieres-sur-Mer,  and  Petit-Que\-illy  (Seine-Inferieure). 


III.  13.>.  —  St.  (Jcorges  de  IWluTville.     JAi<,';ule 


SEXPAirriTE    \'AULTS 

transverse  rib,  which  therein-  aeqiiires  a  structural  function,  and 
instead  of  supporting  merely  a  loaded  vertical  wail,  supports 
its  portion  of  the  vault.  As  a  result,  the  vault  surfaces  become 
much  more  twisted  and  complex;  the  ridges  of  the  lateral  cells 
diverge  from  the  central  keystone  at  an  irregular  angle;  and  the 
vault  surface  intersects  the  wall,  not  in  a  quarter  of  a  semi- 
circle for  each  half  bay,  but  in  half  an  ellipsoid,  more  or  less 
iri'egular  in  trace,  according  to  the  skill  of  the  builders. 

Of  these  two  types,  that  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  would 
seem  to  be  the  more  primitive,  both  because  it  is  much  more 
simple  to  construct,  and  because  it  is  one  step  less  removed 
from  the  already  known  Lombard  rib  vault  on  a  square  plan. 
However,  the  existing  vaults  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  are 
unquestionably  the  earliest  sexpartite  vaults  extant  in  Nor- 
mandy; of  this  the  internal  evidence  of  the  monument  itself 
leaves  no  doubt.  Nevertheless,  it  is  always  possible,  and  I  believe 
probable,  that  the  type  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  is  the  more 
primitive  form  of  the  two,  since  it  might  easily  happen  that  all 
the  early  examples  of  the  type  should  have  been  destroyed. 

Now  if  this  possibility  be  once  granted,  the  Norman  sex- 
partite  vaults  become  at  once  more  comprehensible.  Vaults 
of  the  type  of  the  Al)baye-aux-Dames  might  easily  have  been 
evolved  from  the  Lombard  quadripartite  rib  vault.  These 
Lombard  vaults  had  by  this  time  reached  their  full  development 
in  Milan  and  Pavia;  they  had  also  made  their  way  into  the  He 
de  France.  From  either  of  these  sources  they  could  easily  enter 
Normandy.  But  very  shortly  after  this  time,  just  across  the 
Norman  border,  at  Le  ^lans,  the  nave  of  the  cathedral  was 
covered  with  quadripartite  rib  vaults  on  an  alternate  system, 
in  quite  the  Lombard  manner;  and  late  in  the  XII  century  in 
Normandy  itself,  the  church  of  La  Madeleine  at  Verneuil  is 
supplied  with  vaults  of  the  same  character.  It  would  there- 
fore not  be  surprising  to  find  the  Loml)ard  quadripartite  rib 
vault  introduced  into  Normandy  about  this  period.  If  a  vault 
of  this  character  should  be  erected  over  a  nave  like  that  of  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames,  where  every  support  was  supplied  with 
an  engaged  shaft,  it  is  obvious  that  certain  difficulties  of  adjust- 
ment   would    result.     The   alternate   shafts   would   support   the 

265 


NORM.\N   ARCHITECTURE 

ribs  of  the  vault  very  conveniently;  but  the  intermediate  shafts 
would  intersect  the  ridge  of  the  vault  in  a  most  unpleasant 
fashion.  In  Lombardy  (111.  92,  .lO^,  119)  such  intermediate 
shafts  had  been  awkwardly  managed,  having  been  made  to 
carry  the  corbel-tabel  of  the  triforium  string.  This  arrange- 
ment, however,  was  only  a  makeshift,  and  possessed  several 
disadvantages:  it  dragged  into  the  interior  an  ornament 
essentially  external  in  character;  and  it  furthermore  made  it 
necessary  to  stop  the  shaft  too  low  to  obtain  the  desired  effect 
of  vertical  line.  The  Normans,  confronted  with  this  problem, 
might  very  well  have  hit  upon  the  idea  of  continuing  the  inter- 
mediate shaft  to  support  a  transverse  arch.  This  arch  would 
have  been  connected  with  the  vault  by  a  wall  of  masonry,  and 
sexpartite  vaults,  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  Abbaye-aux- 
Dames  would  have  resulted. 

This  form  once  obtained,  the  supplementary  transverse  arch 
might  easily  have  been  made  a  true  rib  by  warping  the  vault 
surface  to  it,  instead  of  making  it  support  a  curtain  wall.  Such 
a  form,  however,  would  be  more  complicated  to  construct,  and 
the  old  type  might  well  have  continued  to  live  on,  side  by  side 
with  the  new.  This  hypothesis  would  explain  the  origin  of  the 
sexpartite   rib  vault   in   Normandy. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  account  for  the  origin 
of  the  sexpartite  vault  in  the  school  of  the  He  de  France.  There 
the  quadripartite  rib  vault  had  been  long  and  systematically 
developed.  It  was  progressing  along  perfectly  definite  and 
logical  lines,  when,  without  warning,  the  sexpartite  vault  appears 
at  St.  Denis  and  is  copied  in  a  certain  number  of  other  monu- 
ments without  ever  entirely  supplanting  the  older  form.  Further- 
more, the  sexpartite  vaults  of  the  He  de  France  are  always  of 
the  type  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes ;  vaults  of  the  type  of  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames,  which  seem  to  preserve  a  more  primitive 
form,  and  an  intermediate  stage  of  the  evolution,  are  never  found 
outside  of  Normandy.  This  fact  argues  strongly  that  the  sex- 
partite vault  must  have  originated  in  Normandy  rather  than 
in  the  He  de  France.' 

On  the  theory  tliat  the  sexpartite  vault  arose  in  the  De  de  France,  I  do  not  see  how  the 
curious  form  of  the  vaults  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  could  possibly  be  ex-plained. 

266 


ll.L.  136.  —Toner  of  St.  f'oiitest       i  From  Hiipriili-HolH-rt) 


ORIGIN   OF   THE   SEXPARTITE   VAULT 

Again,  it  is  clear  that  Norman  architecture  needed  the  rib 
vault  only  to  roof  the  naves.  The  aisles  and  choir  had  long  been 
covered  with  groin  vaults  with  perfect  success,  and  it  was 
natural  that  this  tradition  should  continue.  Now  it  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  the  sexpartite  vault  could  originate  only  in  the  nave, 
as  in  the  aisles  it  could  not  possibly  be  applied.  So  it  is 
not  so  surprising  that  the  Normans  should  have  devised  this  new 
form  to  meet  new  requirements.  In  the  lie  de  France,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  form  of  vault  perfectly  applicable  to  naves  had 
long  been  understood,  and  at  least  several  naves  had  already 
been  successfully  vaulted'  on  the  quadripartite  system.  Under 
these  circumstances  it  is  much  easier  to  imderstand  the  origin 
of  the  sexpartite  system  in  Normandy  than  in  the  He  de 
France. 

The  very  character  of  the  two  schools  is  an  argument  in  the 
same  direction.  In  the  He  de  France  there  is  steady  undeviating 
progress  towards  a  definite  goal.  Steps  are  taken  cautiously, 
with  hesitation;  but  progress  once  made  is  never  forgotten,  and 
a  principle  once  evolved  is  carried  inevitably  to  its  logical  con- 
clusion. Chance  plays  but  little  part  in  the  inexorable  logic  of 
the  naissant  Gothic;  there  is  never  any  striking  innovation;  per- 
fection is  reached  by  carrying  further  constructions  long  partly 
understood.  The  appearance  of  the  sexpartite  vault  in  this 
school,  suddenly,  without  previous  examples,  is  an  anomaly; 
it  can  be  credibly  explained  only  on  the  assumption  that  it  was 
imported  from  without. 

In  Normandy,  on  the  other  hand,  architectural  progress  is 
far  from  being  as  measured  as  in  the  He  de  France.  We  have 
seen  it  halt  at  the  beginning  of  the  XII  century.  When  it  came 
to  resume  its  way  it  is  not  unnatural  that  it  should  seek  new 
paths  by  which  to  keep  abreast  of  the  progress  of  its  neighbors. 
In  fact,  we  know  that  the  old  line  of  advance  of  the  XI  century 
had  been  definitely  laid  aside;  it  consequently  is  not  altogether 
unexpected  to  find  this  virile  school  striking  out  in  entirely  new, 
and  somewhat  erratic,  directions. 

It  is  inconceivable,  to  my  mind,  that  the  sexpartite  vault 
could  grow  up  apart  from  the  alternate  system.     This  is  the 

•  See  Vol.  II.  p.  76. 
267 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

very  basis  and  fundamental  element  of  its  existence;  with- 
out this  it  could  not  have  come  into  being.  This  fact  seems 
decisive,  for  in  the  He  de  France,  the  system,  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  the  sexpartite  vault,  was  consistently  uni- 
form; while  in  Normandy,  as  we  have  seen,  it  was  frequently 
alternate. 

In  view  of  these  considerations  I  do  not  hesitate  to  assign 
the  vaults  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  to  a  date  earlier  than  St. 
Denis,  or  to  c.  1135.  The  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  somewhat  later, 
may  be  placed  c.  1140;  and  the  other  examples  of  the  Norman 
sexpartite  vault  seem  to  belong  to  about  the  middle  of  the  XII 
century.  Comparison  of  the  details  of  these  monuments  with 
other  Norman  remains,  I  believe,  will  reveal  nothing  inconsistent 
with  this  chronology. 

The  extraordinary  popularity  which  the  sexpartite  vault 
attained,  is  one  of  the  strangest  facts  in  medieval  architectural 
history.  If  the  sexpartite  form  originated  before  the  rib  vault 
on  an  oblong  plan  was  understood,  it  survived  long  after;  and 
time  and  again  —  for  example  at  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  — 
the  two  constructions  appear  side  by  side  in  contemporary  work. 
Over  the  old  Lombard  vault,  the  sexpartite  form  possessed  the 
advantage  of  somewhat  relieving  the  thrusts  on  the  alternate 
piers,  since  some  strain  was  brought  upon  the  intermediate  pier 
by  the  extra  transverse  rib.  But  as  compared  with  the  quadri- 
partite vault  on  an  oblong  plan,  the  sexpartite  vault  with  its 
distorted  surfaces  and  its  strangely  twisted  lines,  was  both  more 
difficult  to  construct  and  less  beautiful.  In  Normandy,  the 
land  of  its  birth,  its  survival  for  a  time  against  imported  forms 
can  be  understood;  and  in  fact  it  yielded  before  so  very  long  to 
the  improved  methods  brought  from  France.  But  in  France 
itself,  why  was  it  ever  imported,  and  once  imported,  what  was 
the  secret  of  its  amazing  popularity  ?  —  But  that  is  a  question 
for  another  chapter. 

The  vaulted  nave  brought  in  its  train  the  serious  question  of 
how  to  provide  proper  abutment  for  the  vaults.  The  Lombards 
had  obtained  an  imperfect  system  of  buttressing  at  the  sacrifice 
of  the  clearstory,  by  making  the  vaults  of  the  triforium  gallery 
abut    those    of    the    nave.     The    Norman    builders,    however, 

268 


Iix.  i:iS.       T.m.T  lit'  Vcr.      iKn.ii,   liiipiirli-Holicrt) 


f— i>=r- 


lu..    IK).        j-availi-  i>t   roiitDiMMi.       From  Hupii<li-I{ol.crt) 


TOWERS   AND   SPIRES 

sort  of  transeptal  chapel.  Thus  the  Normans  varied  the  po- 
sition of  the  bell  towers  with  great  freedom,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  picturesque  exterior  design. 

As  for  the  towers  themselves,  their  development  was  gov- 
erned by  esthetic,  rather  than  by  structural  considerations. 
Norman  towers  may  be  divided  into  tw'o  broad  categories:  the 
one  consisting  of  those  of  many  stories,  and  the  other  of  those  of 
only  three.  M.  Ruprich-Robert '  considers  that  all  the  many 
storied  towers  are  of  early  date,  and  that  all  the  three-storied 
towers  are  late.  This  is  certainly  a  mistake,  as  is  shown  by 
the  details  of  ornament,  and  the  theory  has  led  the  learned 
archaeologist  into  several  serious  errors.  But  although  some 
three-storied  towers  are  clearly  early,  jNI.  Ruprich-Robert's 
thesis  generally  holds.  That  is,  the  general  progress  is  towards 
simplicity  and  restraint  in  design.  In  this  the  Norman  school 
show'ed  marked  superiority  over  its  Anglo-Norman  cousin. 
Nothing  more  simple,  more  dignified,  more  logical  than  the  XII 
century  tower  —  an  upper  story  with  open  windows  for  the 
belfry,  a  square  substructure,  and,  between  the  two,  to  manage 
the  transition,  a  story  of  blind  arches  (111.  136.  137). 

The  general  form  of  Norman  towers  is  square,  though  ex- 
amples of  octagonal  towers  are  not  wanting.-  These  usually 
rise  from  a  square  substruction.  At  Jumieges  (111.  121,  122), 
or  in  the  old  cathedral  of  Coutances,  the  octagonal  part  formed 
only  a  sort  of  termination  to  a  square  tower.  Towers  of  this 
type  became  one  of  the  distinctive  features  of  the  local  Gothic 
school  in  the  XIII  century. 

It  continued  to  be  customary  throughout  the  Norman  period 
to  terminate  the  towers  of  small  churches  "c»  batiere,"  or  with  a 
gable  roof.  Another  typical  termination  was  a  low  pyramidal 
roof  (111.  138).  In  early  times,  roofs  of  this  type  were  constructed 
of  wood,  as  in  the  church  of  Ryes,  whose  tower  dates  from  the 
XI  century.  In  time  this  wooden  roof  came  to  be  replaced  by 
a  precisely  similar  one  in  stone,  with  the  idea  of  making  the  con- 
struction more  durable  and  monumental.     Rut  the  stone  roof, 

■  Arch.  .Vorm.,  p.  IG-J. 

'  Examples  of  octac'""*!  towers  may  be  found  at  Tamerville,  Tordouet,  Touqiies,  Drubec, 
and  Trevieres  (in  part  of  the  XIII  century). 

271 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

in  order  that  it  might  not  offer  a  lodging  place  for  snow  and  rain- 
water and  hence  become  disintegrated,  required  a  steeper  pitch. 
The  stone  pyramid  was  therefore  raised  considerably  and  be- 
came a  conspicuous  external  feature.  The  blank  faces  of  its 
sides  were  relieved  by  dormers,  at  first  very  small  —  as  in  St. 
Contest  (111.  136)  —  but  soon  made  larger.  The  next  step  was 
to  make  the  pyramid  octagonal  instead  of  square,  and  the  spire 
had  come  into  existence. 

The  adjustment  of  octagonal  spire  to  square  tower  became 
one  of  the  great  problems  which  Gothic  architecture  had  to  face. 
There  were  later  found  many  solutions  and  partial  solutions. 
But  the  Norman  builders  seem  to  have  hit  at  once  upon  the 
most  successful  of  all.  Turrets  wei'e  added  in  the  unoccupied 
corners  of  the  square,  and  by  means  of  these  and  the  dormers 
the  transition  was  effected  (111.  137).  The  principle  was  early 
established,  but  there  was  need  of  long  years  of  experiment  and 
adjustment  before  perfection  of  design,  of  proportion,  and  of 
detail  could  be  reached.  This  perfection,  however,  was  finally 
attained  in  the  Gothic  period. 

The  evolution  of  the  spire  followed  precisely  the  same 
course  in  the  He  de  France  as  in  Normandy;  and  the  ab- 
sence of  surely  dated  monuments  in  Normandy '  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  decide  which  school  is  the  originator,  which  the  copyist. 
On  the  one  hand,  Normandy  was  freely  borrowing  other  archi- 
tectural features  from  France  at  precisely  this  period;  on  the 
other,  Normandy  always  had  been  and  continued  to  be  par 
excellence  the  land  of  towers.  The  Gothic  spire  never  reached 
such  perfection  in  France  as  it  did,  for  example,  at  St.  Pierre 
of  Caen.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  two  schools  may  have 
advanced  hand  in  hand,  each  aiding  the  other.  The  dormer 
was  probably  primarily  the  contribution  of  Normandy,  the  angle 
turret  that  of  the  He  de  France. 

In  addition  to  towers  and  spires,  turrets  came  into  general 
use  in  the  last  years  of  the  XII  century.  These  turrets  were 
usually  built  to  contain  spiral  staircases  leading  to  various  parts 
of  the  building.     They  were  useful,   however,   from   a   purely 

'  Elementary  spires  in  Normandy  occur  at  Aizier,  St.  Contest,  Colleville-sur-Mer,  Campigny 
(c.  1200),  Chambois,  St.  Michel  of  Vaucelles  (near  Caen),  Commes,  Ver. 

272 


% 

Il.l..    Ul.  —  DiMirway  i>l"  St.  Coiitfsl.        l-'r.Mii  Kiipriili-HolK-rt) 


]].!..    U-2.— Doorway  ul  {'licux.      iKn.iii   Kui.nVli-UoKiTt) 


DECLINE   OF   NORMAN   ART 

decorative  point  of  view.  By  their  aid  the  Normans  found  a 
new  solution  to  the  problem  of  the  design  of  the  western  fa9ade 
—  a  solution  of  which  St.  Georges  de  Bocherville  is  a  fine  ex- 
ample (111.  135).  Turrets  were  here  placed  flanking  the  central 
gable,  thus  relieving  the  awkward  basilica  section.  Turrets 
were  also  grouped  with  towers  to  produce  the  most  charming 
and  picturesc[ue  effects,  as  at  St.  Contest  (111.  136).  This  last 
motive  became  one  of  the  characteristics  of  Norman  Gothic, 
and  was  developed  into  such  lovely  compositions  as  the  spires 
of  the  Cathedral  of  Coutances  (111.  '■255). 

After  the  middle  of  the  XII  century,  Norman  architecture 
began  to  lose  its  individual  character.  The  sexpartite  vault 
and  concealed  flying  buttress  were  abandoned.  Little  by  little, 
the  style  of  the  He  de  France  came  to  be  adopted.  Portions  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Rouen,  the  Abbey  of  Fecamp  (1168),  and  the 
Abbaye  Blanche  of  Mortain  were  among  the  earliest  edifices 
designed  entirely  under  French  influence.  These  exotic  build- 
ings, however,  do  not  seem  to  have  immediately  given  rise  to  a 
school  in  conservative  Normandy;  especially  in  small  churches 
the  style  continued  long  almost  unchanged.  Then  gradually 
one  feature  after  another  of  the  new  style  of  building  made  its 
way. 

If  we  are  right  in  assigning  the  nave  walls  of  the  Abbaye- 
aux-I)ames  to  c.  1140,  the  western  bay  of  this  church  offers 
proliably  the  earliest  example  of  a  French  quadripartite  rib 
vault  in  Normandy.  Its  use  here  is  probably  explained  by  the 
fact  that,  since  the  bays  of  the  nave  were  of  unequal  number, 
it  was  impossible  to  vault  all  the  nave  with  sexpartite  vaults. 
Elsewhere,  these  French  vaults  were  only  reluctantly  adopted, 
and  it  was  the  last  quarter  of  the  XII  century  before  they  were 
well  established  in  Normandy.  About  1175  they  occur  in  the 
Abbey  of  Lessay,  at  La  Madeleine  of  Verneuil,  at  Barre-de- 
Semilly,  and  elsewhere. 

The  pointed  arch  also  made  its  way  but  slowly.  The  earliest 
extant  instance  of  its  use '  is,  I  believe,  the  church  of  Genets, 
which  was  consecrated  in  1157.  It  here  occurs  in  connection 
with  a  groin  vault,  and  is  not  used  for  any  structural  reason. 

'  Outside  the  three  exotic  edifices,  Rouen,  Mortain,  and  Fecamp. 
273 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

After  this  date  the  pointed  arch  occurred  with  increasing  fre- 
quency, but  was  always  used  in  a  purely  fanciful  and  decorative 
manner,  as  in  the  fa9ades  of  Maneglise  and  Pontorson  (111.  140). 

Simultaneously  with  the  French  vault  and  the  pointed  arch, 
the  ambulatory  began  to  make  its  appearance  in  Normandy. 
Unfortunately  not  a  single  example  is  dated,  but  the  ambula- 
tories of  Breteuil  and  Verneuil '  may  be  safely  assigned  to  the 
last  quarter  of  the  XII  century.  There  is  an  ambulatory  at 
Broglie  which  is  usually  said  to  be  of  the  XI  century.  I  have 
not  examined  this  on  the  spot,  and  I  do  not  know  how  far  the 
style  of  the  construction  justifies  this  tradition.  If  this  date  is 
authentic,  Broglie  is  the  only  extant  example  of  an  XI  century 
ambulatory  in  Normandy,  although,  strangely  enough,  ambula- 
tories frequently  occur  in  the  early  Norman  monuments  of 
England. 

Thus  one  feature  after  another  was  adopted  from  the  He  de 
France  by  the  Norman  builders,  who,  however,  never  ceased  to 
retain  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  their  own  style.  The  union 
of  these  two  elements  save  birth  to  the  Norman  school  of  Gothic. 


While  Norman  construction  thus  pursued  a  somewhat  vacil- 
lating course,  the  development  of  the  ornament  was  far  more 
uniform. 

The  monuments  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century  that  have 
come  down  to  us  show  but  little  ornament  and  that  so  sadly 
mutilated  as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable.  It  is  probable  that 
the  inexperience  of  the  early  builders  induced  them  to  avoid  the 
difficulties  of  executing  carved  ornament.  Later  Norman  decora- 
tion, however,  contained  motives  derived  from  three  sources: 
first,  motives  obviously  developed  from  Carolingian  prototypes, 
however  much  refined  and  developed;  secondly,  motives  de- 
rived from  Lombard  sources;  and,  lastly, original  motives  invented 
by  the  Normans  themselves.  The  last  two  classes  have  left  no 
trace  prior  to  the  building  of  Jumieges,  but  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  motives  of  the  first  class,  being  part  of  the  common 
Carolingian   tradition,   were   known   in    Normandy   during   the 

'  Church  of  Notre  Dame. 
274 


r  ? 


lu..    14.).  -  N..rlirrraii>i-pl  KihI,  ( inivilli-Slc.-l  lonoriiu-       (From  Hiipricli-HoKcrt) 


THE   CHEVRON 

first  half  of  the  XI  century,  although  no  actual  examples  earlier 
than  1030  have  survived. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  ornaments  belonging  to  this 
first  class  is  the  familiar  Carolingian  tiiangular  motive.  At  the 
end  of  the  third  quarter  of  the  XI  century  this  motive  took  on  a 
new  form  —  known  as  the  chevron'  (III.  140,  142),  which  assumed 
great  prominence  not  only  in  Normandy  but  throughout 
western  Europe.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  where 
the  chevron  was  first  developed ;  this,  however,  is  a  problem  that 
probably  can  never  be  solved.  Since  Normandy  is  near  the 
center  of  the  influence  of  this  ornament,  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
it  may  here  have  been  first  evolved.  At  all  events,  wherever 
its  origin,  the  chevron  became  par  excellence  the  typical  Norman 
ornament. 

It  would  require  a  special  monograph  to  describe  adequately 
the  various  forms  this  motive  assumed.  Sometimes  merely 
chipped  on  the  edge  of  a  square  member,^  sometimes  of  simple 
(111.  143),  sometimes  of  complicated  profile  (111.  14'2),  single, 
double,  triple,  or  quadruple,  it  was  endlessly  varied.  Generally 
speaking,  the  earlier  types  are  simple;  double  chevrons  hardly 
occur  before  the  XII  century,  and  it  is  only  at  the  end  of  that 
century  that  the  chevron  expands  into  all  its  exuberant  richness.' 

This  motive  came  to  be  especially  associated  with  the  orna- 
mentation of  arches.  No  other  decoration  was  as  effective  in 
enriching  the  heavily  ornamented  doorways  and  portals  so 
characteristic  of  the  Norman  style  (111.  140,  141,  142,  143). 
Thus  it  is  generally  on  voussoirs  that  the  chevron  is  to  be  found. 
It  is  noteworthy  that,  since  these  voussoirs  were  carved  before 
being  placed,  each  voussoir  contains  a  unit  of  the  pattern.  Now, 
as  each  voussoir  was  ordinarily  of  slightly  different  size  from  its 
neighbors,  there  resulted  a  strange  lack  of  regularity  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  ornament.  This  irregularity,  far  from  being  un- 
pleasant, is  full  of  charm,  and  lends  this  rather  barbarous  motive 
something  akin  to  refinement  (III.  W'i). 

'  Also  as  the  zig-zag  or  baton  rouipu. 

^  This  form  is  especially  popular  in  the  dcpartement  of  Afanche. 

'  Carolingian  triangular  ornament  survived  in  other  forms  in  various  scattered  monuments. 
Instances  may  be  found  on  the  towers  of  St.  fitienne,  or  on  the  fafade  of  Ste.  Trinite  of  Caen; 
at  Rothes,  and  in  England  at  the  catlietlral  of  Norwich,  etc. 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

Since  most  of  the  many  forms  assumed  by  the  chevron  are 
easily  recognized  on  sight,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  them  in 
detail.  Two  variants,  hov^ever,  are  of  such  importance  that  they 
might  almost  be  considered  as  independent  motives.  The  first, 
the  dog-tooth  or  star  ornament '  (111.  144),  departs  widely  from 
the  chevron  type,  and  may  possibly  be  derived  directly  from 
such  a  Carolingian  ornament  as  is  found  on  the  voussoir  of  the 
arches  of  the  Basse  Oeuvre  at  Beauvais  (111.  96,  Fig.  2). 

The  earliest  example  I  can  name  of  the  dog-tooth  occurs  in 
the  church  of  Rothes,  which  dates  certainly  from  the  XI  century. 
Throughout  the  XII  century  the  ornament  continued  to  be  com- 
mon in  Normandy,  but  died  out  in  the  Gothic  period.  It  spread  to 
England,  however,  where  it  became  the  most  characteristic  decora- 
tion of  the  XIII  century ;  and  its  use  was  not  unknown  in  France, 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Troyes  about  the  year  1170. 

The  second  peculiar  form  of  the  chevron  is  the  fret  or  me- 
ander (111.  143),  which,  strangely  enough,  reproduces  exactly 
an  old  classical  motive  (111.  3).  The  earliest  example  I  know 
occurs  upon  the  main  arcade  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  of 
Caen  (111.  128) ;  and  I  believe  that  it  is  never  found  before  the 
XII  century.  During  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century  it  constantly 
recurs  in  Norman  work. 

After  the  chevron,  the  most  important  decoration  which  the 
Normans  derived  from  Carolingian  sources  was  the  engaged 
arcade.  This  feature,  which  we  have  already  noticed  at  Ger- 
migny-les-Pres  (111.  89),  was  common  to  almost  all  western 
Europe,  although  the  Normans  developed  it  in  a  fashion  pecu- 
liarly their  own.  Engaged  arcades  were  employed  as  early  as 
1067  on  the  towers  of  Jumieges  (111.  121,  122);  the  original  clear- 
story of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  erected  soon  after,  was  prob- 
ably supplied  with  exterior  arcading  (111.  126);  and  the  towers 
of  this  monument  certainly  were  (111.  133).  However,  the  use 
of  the  engaged  arcade  was  exceptional  during  the  XI  century; 
it  was  only  in  the  XII  century  that  the  motive  came  into  its 
own  and  was  employed  constantly,  inside  and  outside,  every- 
where, upon  the  edifice.  This  ornament,  it  should  be  noticed,  is 
always  carved  into  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  never  applied  to  it. 

1  Also  called  the  pyramid-flower. 
276 


ll.I,.    UCi.  —  N..rMi;iri  Cni^t.-ils  and   liaM>.      yln.nt  Kiiprirli-Kohi-rt) 


»^a*\ 


ll.i..    117.  —  (;ril|•(•^.  (  :ipltaU  :iii.l  Oriuiiiiciit  ..I'  llir  Ml  ti-iitury.      ,  Fri)in  Uiipricli-Hnlicrt) 


CAPITALS 

Exclusively  Norman  '  was  the  idea  of  doubling  the  arcade  so 
as  to  let  the  archivolts  intersect.  The  earliest  example  of  this 
variation  occurs  at  Graville-Ste.-Honorine,  c.  1100  (111.  145). 
In  this  instance  the  archivolts  are  not  carried  on  colonnettes, 
but  these  were  soon  added.  Another  very  early  example  of 
double  arcades  is  to  be  found  at  Huppain,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
instances  of  the  fully  developed  form  with  colonnettes  occurs  at 
Allemagne,  near  Caen.  In  Normandy  the  use  of  this  motive 
was  always  restricted.  It  never  attained  the  popularity  nor 
ran  the  riot  of  extravagant  forms  that  fell  to  its  lot  in  Eng- 
land. 

In  contrast  to  the  varied  forms  assumed  by  the  che\Ton  and 
the  engaged  arcade,  the  Carolingian  billet  moulding  persisted 
throughout  the  Norman  period  without  change  except  that  it 
was  occasionally  enriched  by  doubling  or  tripling  the  rows  of 
teeth  (111.  142,  143,  144). 

Far  otherwise  was  it  with  the  Norman  capitals,  which  show 
the  most  diverse  forms  and  influences,  although  even  the  most 
divergent  types  always  bear  an  unmistakably  Norman  char- 
acter. The  cubic  capital  (III.  123)  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
and  was  probaljly  imported  directly  from  Lombardy.  The 
lobed  capital  (111.  147,  Fig.  9)  is  a  natural  embellishment  of  the 
cubic  type.  On  the  other  hand,  the  numerous  Corinthianesque 
types  (111.  146,  147)  are  dii-ectly  derived  from  Carolingian  tra- 
dition, being  merely  simplified  to  meet  Norman  requirements. 
The  endless  number  of  types  assumed  by  Norman  capitals 
makes  it  extremely  difficult  to  trace  any  chronological  develop- 
ment; it  is  the  exception  to  find  analogies  for  any  given  capital. 
Generally  speaking,  the  simpler  forms  seem  to  be  earlier,  the 
more  complicated  later.  The  technique  and  carving,  crude  in 
the  XI  century  (111.  146),  became  skilful  in  the  XII  (111.  147). 
In  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century,  elements  borrowed  from  the 
lie  de  France  commenced  to  make ,  their  appearance.  Occa- 
sionally in  the  XI  century  and  frequently  in  the  XII  the 
abaci  of  engaged  capitals  were  continued  to  form  string-courses. 

'  While  tin's  motive  rarely  occurs  outside  of  Xorinandy  and  England  (for  example,  at  Mor- 
nay-Berry,  Cher)  it  remains,  generally  speaking,  the  pecnliar  property  of  the  Norman  and  the 
Anglo-Norman  schools. 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

From  Carolingian  sources,  the  Normans  derived  the  idea 
of  ornamenting  the  blank  wall  spaces  of  the  interior  with  fres- 
coes. It  is  difficult  to  say  how  far  this  ornamentation  was  carried 
by  the  Normans,  since  only  a  very  few  examples  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  most  notable  is  at  St.  Ceneri;  other  fragments  of 
mural  decoration  also  survive  at  Petit-(^uevilly.  Savigny,  Pin- 
la-Garenne,  and  Charleval.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  inside 
walls  of  all  Norman  churches  were  originally  covered  with  colored 
decoration.  These  frescoes  included  not  only  figure  subjects, 
but  conventional  ornament  representing  imitation  stone  joints, 
interlaces,  and  other  patterns  of  a  similar  character. 

Such  were  the  Norman  ornaments  derived  from  Carolingian 
sources.  Less  numerous,  but  hardly  less  important,  were  those 
derived  from  Lombardy.  We  have  already  spoken  of  certain 
Norman  capitals  as  showing  Lombard  influence.  But  the  most 
characteristic  Lombard  motive  borrowed  by  the  Normans  was 
the  arched  corbel-table.  This  motive  that  we  have  already 
seen  invented  in  Italy  and  enjoying  such  popularity  there,  rapidly 
spread  over  all  Europe,  and  is  one  of  the  clearest  proofs  of  the 
influence  exerted  by  the  Lombard  school.  It  hardly  arrived  in 
Normandy  before  the  XII  century,  when,  however,  it  assumed 
a  great  variety  of  forms  (111.  141).  Curiously  enough, the  flat 
corbel-table  which,  we  found  reason  to  believe,  was  derived  from 
the  arched  form  in  Lombardy,  much  preceded  it  in  Normandy. 
This  fact  seems  to  lend  color  to  the  theory  which  sees  between 
the  tAvo  forms  of  the  corbel-table  no  connection,  and  derives  the 
flat  type  directly  from  the  modillion  of  the  classic  Corinthian 
order.  It  might,  however,  easily  be  that  the  Normans  borrowed 
the  latter  form  first,  as  being  of  simpler  execution. 

Also  of  Lombard  derivation  are  the  grotesques  that  adorn 
the  flat  corbel-tables,  the  voussoirs,  and  occasionally  the  capitals ; 
and  Lombard  are  the  beaks  of  birds  and  the  strange  heads  (111. 
141,  147),  rows  of  which  surround  the  rich  doorways  of  the  XII 
century.  Many  of  these  representations,  especially  on  the 
corbel-tables,  are  frankly  obscene,'  and  yet  such  carvings,  for 
all  their  coarseness,  often  possess  an  undeniable  charm  of  humor 

'  Examples  may  be  found  at  Notre-Dame-sur-l  'Eau  of  Domfront,  Cintheaux,  Beaumais 
Bie\-ille,  Montgaroult,  Brette\-ille-sm--Odon,  St.-Pierre-du-Mont,  Pierrepont. 

278 


BUTTRESSES 

and  naivete.  Thoroughly  Lombard,  too,  are  the  crude  attempts 
at  statuary  sometimes  found  in  the  tympana  of  XII  century  por- 
tals (111.  143).  It  is  only  necessary  to  compare  these  childish 
efforts  with  the  contemporary  work  in  the  He  de  France  to  realize 
that  the  Norman  school  was  exclusively  under  the  influence  of 
Lombardy  in  its  figure  sculpture. 

The  bases  of  Norman  piers  betray  Lombard  influence  in  the 
use  of  griffes  (111.  147),  —  a  device  as  characteristically  Italian 
as  the  arched  corbel-table.  The  profiles  of  these  bases  are  of 
two  general  types,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  reproductions  (111. 
146,  147) :  the  first  is  generally  conical  in  form,  each  moulding 
in  turn  receding  a  little  from  the  one  below  it;  the  second  is 
Attic  in  character.  Neither  of  these  types  of  base  was  appreci- 
ably modified,  except  in  technique,  until  the  arrival  of  influence 
from  the  He  de  France. 

Distinctly  Lombard  was  the  substitution  of  shafts  for  but- 
tresses in  certain  apses  of  Normandy.  Examples  of  this  may 
be  found  at  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen,  at  Cheux,  and  elsewhere.  The 
doubling  of  orders  was  probably  likewise  derived  from  a  Lom- 
bard source,  though  it  was  often  employed  in  connection  with 
the  Carolingian  motive  of  grouped  openings.  Such  grouped 
openings  in  two  orders  were  introduced  into  Normandy  even 
before  Jumieges,  and  were  regularly  employed  throughout  the 
last  half  of  the  XI  century.  In  the  XII  century,  the  orders  were 
often  tripled  or  quadrupled. 

Buttresses,  also  derived  from  Lombardy,  were  developed  in 
Normandy  in  a  purely  ornamental  manner.  Rarely,  if  ever,  is 
the  stability  of  the  walls  dependent  upon  them.  In  the  XI  cen- 
tury they  were  always  very  flat,'  and  while  perhaps  giving  a  cer- 
tain support  to  the  walls,  their  principal  function  was  to  express 
externally  the  internal  bays.  In  the  XII  century  certain  vaulted 
naves,  such  as  those  of  Than  or  Creully  were  erected  without 
any  external  buttresses  at  all;  in  other  cases,  such  as  Bieville  or 
Anisy,  the  buttresses  are  reinforced  with  a  second  order  doubt- 
less purely  ornamental  in  purpose,  since  these  naves  are  roofed 
in  wood.     In  just  such    a    purely    decorative    spirit    buttresses 

'  According  to  M.  Ruprich-Robert,  Arch.  Norm.,  p.  147,  their  projection  varies  from  0.15- 
O.'JO  meters  and  their  width  from  0.50-0.60. 

279 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

were  often  given  a  somewhat  pyramidal  form,  and  their  angles 
ornamented  with  slender  colonnettes. 

Of  the  ornaments  that  were  probably  evolved  by  the  Nor- 
mans, the  most  important  is  the  roll  moulding.  This  appeared 
almost  simultaneously  all  over  Europe,  but  may  well  have  been 
developed  independently  by  the  several  schools.  It  is  difficult 
to  state  with  precision  when  mouldings  first  appeared  in  Nor- 
mandy; several  of  what  might  naturally  be  supposed  to  be  the 
earliest  instances,  I  suspect  of  having  been  added  long  after  the 
buildings  were  constructed.'  At  all  events,  there  is  no  question 
that  they  were  occasionally  used  before  the  close  of  the  XI  cen- 
tury, as  at  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen  and  in  a  few  other  examples.  It 
was  only  in  the  XII  century,  however,  that  they  became  univer- 
sal. The  Normans  never  advanced  beyond  the  plain  roll  mould- 
ing. Large  and  clumsy  at  first,  it  became  fine  and  varied  by 
the  middle  of  the  XII  century,  after  it  had  been  modified  by 
influence  from  the  He  de  France.  However  fine  or  complicated 
it  might  become,  however,  throughout  the  Norman  period  it 
always  remained  a  roll  moulding;  —  that  is,  the  profile  was 
always  some  portion  of  the  segment  of  a  circle  (111.  143,  144). 

At  about  the  same  time  '  that  mouldings  came  into  use,  it 
became  customary  to  shaft  windows  and  doorways,  and  the 
angles  of  towers  and  buttresses.  The  square  edges  of  angles 
were  rounded  off  into  slender  engaged  colonnettes  usually  sup- 
plied with  capitals  and  bases.  In  windows  and  doorways  such 
colonnettes  supported  the  mouldings  or  extra  orders  of  the  arch. 
This  motive  soon  attained  popularity,  and  was  carried  to  great 
lengths.  Each  of  the  many  orders  of  the  rich  Norman  portals 
was  ordinarily  supported  by  a  shaft  placed  in  the  jamb.  This 
motive,  like  so  many  others  employed  by  the  Normans,  is  com- 
mon to  most  of  Romanesque  Europe,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to 
tell  when  or  where  it  first  came  into  being  (111.  140,  141,  142, 
143,   etc). 

Over  their  rich  doorways  (111.  141,  142,  143,  144),  the  Nor- 
mans occasionally,  as  at  Ifs,  built  out  a  sort  of  gable  with  a  tri- 

1  Notably  the  arcliivolts  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes. 

^  The  clearstory  of  Falaise  offers  the  earhest  example  of  shafted  windows  that  I  know. 
Shafted  doorways  were  used  much  earlier. 

280 


li.i..    U!l.-     I'laii  ut'  St.  KroTit  ol   IVH^'iicMS.      i  I-Vmtm  I  ).-lii..) 


Il.i..    l.)(l.  —  I'.T-pnliv.- ..r  SI.  I-'n.iit  '<<  ririt;m-ii\.      (Fnuii  Drliio) 


NORMAN   DESIGN 

angular  pediment.'  These  gables,  which  seem  to  have  replaced 
the  wooden  porches  commonly  placed  in  this  position  in  Nor- 
man edifices,  strangely  foreshadow  the  Gothic  open-work  gable. 
In  the  portal  itself,  l)eneatli  the  orders  of  the  arch  was  usually 
a  lintel,  or  sometimes,  as  at  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen,  a  flat  arch;  in 
the  XII  century  this  lintel  often  had  two  corbels  placed  under  its 
extremities.  A  few  examples  of  portals  with  segmental  arches 
are  found  .= 

Arches  of  horseshoe  form  occur  in  Norman  architecture 
at  Tamerville,  Quillebeuf,  and  Ste.  ]\Iere-Eglise.  They  seem, 
however,  always  to  have  been  a  freak  of  construction,  rather 
than  a  peculiarity  of  the  style.  Similarly  oculi,  or  small  round 
windows,  are  employed  occasionally  as  early  as  the  XI  century. 
At  Colleville  they  were  placed  high  in  the  tower.  Such  oculi, 
however,  are  seldom  or  never  found  on  fa9ades,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  see  here  the  germ  of  the  Gothic  rose  window. 

Diapered  spandrels '  occur  at  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux  and 
at  Secqueville-en-Bessin.  The  restraint  with  which  so  rich  an 
ornament  was  used,  is  characteristic  of  the  spirit  of  Norman 
decoration,  which  is  never  florid  nor  over  elaborate. 

Take  for  example,  such  a  typical  design  as  the  facade  of 
Ouistreham  (111.  139),  or  that  of  Pontorson  (111.  140).  Neither 
of  these  compositions  is,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  logical. 
The  master  builder  has  been  much  more  preoccuj^ied  with 
creating  a  pleasing  design  than  with  expressing  faithfully  struc- 
tural features.  Yet  there  is  nothing  about  these  fa9ades  that 
is  absolutely  false.  If  the  arcades,  the  blind  arches,  the  extra 
orders  are  simply  and  frankly  ornaments,  if  the  fa9ade  does  not 
proclaim  the  interior,  there  is  at  least  no  lie  told  about  it.  And 
all  this  ornament  is  applied  with  thoughtful  moderation  and 
often  with  the  most  exquisite  taste. 

As  a  study  in  pure  design,  the  Norman  architecture  of  the 

'  On  fliis  question  see  the  admirable  study  of  M.  Lefevrc-Pontalis  in  the  Bulletin  Monu- 
mental for  July,  1907. 

-  At  I^  Luzerne  and  Graye.  It  is  interesting  to  remark  in  this  connection  that  at  Ranville 
(Calvados)  there  is  a  curious  example  of  the  arcuatetl  lintel,  recalling  strangely  that  peculiarity 
in  the  churdies  of  Syria. 

'  \  spandrel  is  the  triangular  space  enclosetl  between  the  two  arches  of  an  arcade.  Diapered 
ornament  is  a  decoration  applied  to  all  parts  of  the  surface  —  an  all-over  pattern. 

281 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

XII  century  is  almost  always  charming.  If  it  lost  the  grim 
majesty  of  Jumieges,  and  the  somewhat  gloomy  grandeur  of 
the  abbeys  of  Caen,  yet  to  the  end  it  never  became  effeminate. 
The  Norman  artists  seem  always  to  have  felt  that  with  their 
imperfect  technique,  excessive  ornament  was  fatal  to  effect; that 
their  noble  and  dignified  style  became  ridiculous  the  moment 
it  disported  itself  in  a  riot  of  arcades  and  shaftings.  Accord- 
ingly, the  art  of  Normandy  never  fell  into  that  excess  of  florid 
ornament  that  characterized  at  times  the  Anglo-Norman  style. 

The  Normans  were  probably  saved  from  this  excess  of 
decoration  by  the  very  fact  of  Norman  provinciality  in  the  XII 
century.  Rich  ornament  was  expensive,  and  very  few  costly 
monuments  were  erected  in  Normandy  at  this  period.  Still  it 
must  in  fairness  be  admitted  that  in  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  — 
the  only  great  church  of  the  XII  century  that  has  come  down 
to  us  —  there  is  shown  a  taste,  a  sense  of  proportion,  far  superior 
to  the  best  contemporary  work  in  England.  When  the  splen- 
did achievements  of  the  Normans  in  the  XI  century  are  con- 
sidered, it  must  be  held  a  great  artistic  loss  that  so  little  has  come 
down  to  us  from  the  time  of  the  real  apogee  of  the  Norman 
style. 

Compared  with  contemporary  styles,  Norman  art  has  little 
to  fear.  In  the  XI  century  it  was  supreme  in  Europe;  and  even 
in  the  XII  century,  it  yields  neither  in  delicacy  of  design,  charm 
of  ornament,  nor  virility  of  conception,  to  any  other  architec- 
ture save  only  to  that  of  the  He  de  France. 


Before  studying  in  the  He  de  France  the  final  solution  of 
the  problem  of  the  vaulted  basilica,  it  is  necessary  to  cast  a  super- 
ficial glance  at  certain  of  the  Romanesque  schools  that  flourished 
during  the  XI  and  XII  centuries,  especially  in  the  south  of 
France.  Nothing  could  illustrate  more  clearly  the  extraordinary 
vitality  and  versatility  of  medieval  architecture  at  this  period 
than  the  fact  that  to  a  problem  of  such  difficulty  it  was  able  to 
propose  so  many  different  answers,  none  of  which  was  without 
striking  merit.  The  very  ingenuity  of  these  other  solutions 
make  patent  the  perfection  of  Gothic  architecture. 

282 


THE   VAULTED   BASILICA 

Of  all  forms  of  vault,  the  barrel  vault  was  the  most  popular 
in  the  south  of  France.  Its  use  was  confined  to  no  particular 
school  or  group  of  schools,  but  was  characteristic  equally  of 
Burgundy,  of  Auvergne,  of  Berry,  of  Provence,  and  of  Languedoc. 
The  great  difficulty  which  it  oll'ered  was  the  enormous  and  con- 
tinuous thrust  exercised  by  a  l)arrel  vault  of  the  size  necessary 
to  cover  even  a  small  nave.  To  minimize  this  thrust  the  pointed 
arch  was  employed  in  some  instances  at  least  as  early  as  the  last 
decade  of  the  XI  century.  But  even  so,  in  large  monuments  the 
stal)ility  of  the  vault  could  be  assured  only  by  continuous  buttress- 
ing; and  continuous  buttressing  could  be  secured  only  at  the 
expense  of  the  clearstory.  This  sacrifice  the  French  builders, 
always  logical,  did  not  hesitate  to  make.  The  aisles  or  the  tri- 
forium  galleries  were  raised  high  enough  that  their  barrel  vaults 
might  buttress  those  of  the  nave,  or  even  better,  the  barrel  vaidts 
of  the  aisles  or  galleries  were  replaced  by  half  barrel  vaults,  which 
much  more  adequately  performed  this  function.  (See  St.  Sernin 
of  Toulouse,  111.  130.) 

Although  this  solution  was  logical  and  perfectly  structural, 
it  eliminated  one  of  the  loveliest  features  of  the  Christian  church, 
the  clearstory.  In  order  to  preserve  the  clearstory  the  designers 
of  the  abbey  church  of  Tournus  (111.  148)  tried  a  new  plan,  full 
of  ingenuity.  The  barrel  vaults  were  built  across  the  nave  in 
the  transverse,  instead  of  in  the  longitudinal  sense,  being  sup- 
ported by  a  series  of  transverse  arches.  Thus  each  vault  but- 
tressed its  neighbor,  there  was  no  thrust  exercised  on  the  lateral 
walls,  and  the  clearstory  was  preserved.  This  solution,  the  most 
ingenious  and  logical  of  all,  seems  never  to  have  been  copied, 
probably  because  the  esthetic  effect  was  not  happy,  the  upper 
portions  of  the  church  being  broken  up  into  a  series  of  restless 
undulations. 

A  totally  different  solution  was  found  in  a  special  school 
which  flourished  in  Perigord,  Poitou,  and  Anjou,  especially  along 
the  banks  of  the  Charente.  This  school  adopted  the  Byzantine 
plan  and  construction.  However  the  idea  came,  whether  from 
Constantinople  direct,  or  by  way  of  Cypress  or  Italy,  St.  Front 
of  Perigueux  (111.  149,  150)  reproduced  in  everything  except 
ornament  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  of  Constantinople,  built 

as,-] 


NORMAN   ARCHITECTURE 

by  Justinian  and  now  unfortunately  destroyed.  Many  other 
examples  of  this  same  school  of  the  Charente  have  come  down 
to  us,  all  notable  for  three  or  more  domes  on  pendentives.  This 
school  often  employed  the  pointed  arch.  The  churches  of  the 
Charente  reached  greater  artistic  perfection  than  any  other 
Romanesque  structures,  except  the  monuments  of  Normandy; 
and  after  the  He  de  France,  this  school  must  be  credited  with 
the  most  successful  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  vaulted 
basilica. 

In  Italy,  with  S.  Marco  of  Venice  as  its  fountain-head,  there 
grew  up  another  Byzantine  school,  similar  to  that  of  the  Charente, 
but  even  more  thoroughly  Oriental  in  character.  Here  the 
ornament  as  well  as  the  structure  was  Eastern;  the  arches  were 
round,  and  the  walls,  instead  of  being  built  of  finely  dressed 
masonry,  were  constructed  in  the  old  Roman  manner  of  rubble 
coated  with  marble  and  mosaics.  At  Padua,  this  school  com- 
menced to  take  on  a  certain  local  and  individual  character,  but 
simultaneously  lost  most  of  its  charm. 

At  Notre  Dame  du  Puy,  the  Byzantine  domes  of  the  school  of 
the  Charente  seem  to  have  been  adopted,  but  modified  by  a 
combination  of  motives  derived  from  Tournus  and  Lombardy. 
The  roof  was  formed  by  a  series  of  Lombard  cloistered  domes 
on  squinches,  supported  by  transverse  arches.  The  idea  was 
ingenious  and  original,  but  it  never  attained  great  popularity 
(111.  151). 

Still  another  variant  of  the  Byzantine  designs  of  the  Charente 
was  tried  at  St.  Ours  of  Loches.  Here  the  dome  was  replaced 
by  a  hollow  stone  pyramid,  forming  a  sort  of  spire  externally 
(111.  152). 

The  groin  vault,  though  known  in  France  and  Normandy, 
as  well  as  in  certain  churches  of  Burgundy,  like  Vezelay  or 
Avallon,  found  its  most  consistent  application  without  the  French 
border,  in  the  school  of  the  Rhine  valley,  whose  masterpieces  are 
the  great  cathedral  churches  at  Mainz,  Speyer,  and  ^^'orms. 
The  structure  of  these  monuments  was  essentially  Lombard 
(111.  153),  except  that  for  the  rib  vault  the  groin  vault  was  sub- 
stituted. The  groin  vault  lacks  both  the  structural  utility  and 
pliability  of  the  rib  vault,  and  the  absence  of  strongly  marked 


III.   153.  —  Section  of  Dmn,  S(><\vir.      iKnuii  MeytT-S(  liwartaii) 


CAEN 

lines  is  a  distinct  esthetic  disadvantage.  Yet  these  Rhenish 
monuments  are  among  the  most  impressive  achievements  of 
medieval  architecture. 

Such  were  the  principal  answers  proposed  by  the  Romanesque 
builders  to  the  problem  of  the  vaulted  basilica. 

NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

Monuments  of  the  First  Importance 

CAEN,  Calvados.  St.  Etienne,  or  L'Abhaye-Aux-Hommes.  (111.  125,  126,  131, 
132,  133.)  This  important  monument  presents  more  than  one  difficulty  of  chronol- 
ogy. It  is  known  from  ancient  documents  that  the  abbey  was  founded  by  William 
the  Conqueror  as  a  penance  imposed  by  the  pope,  as  Ste.  Trinite  was  founded  by  his 
wife  Matilda.'  Ruprich-Robert  states,  on  what  authority  does  not  appear,  that  works 
were  begun  in  1064;  at  all  events  the  consecration  took  place  in  1077,  for  it  is  recorded 
in  the  chronicle  of  Orderic  Vitalis  that  "in  this  year  [1077]  the  abbey  church  at  Caen 
was  dedicated  in  honor  of  St.  Stephen,  the  proto-martyr."  "  This  date  is  further- 
more confirmed  by  the  following  passage  in  Mabillon:  "Matilda,  the  wife  of  Duke 
William,  no  less  hberal  than  her  husband,  founded  a  convent  for  nuns.  This  abbey 
seems  to  have  been  finished  before  the  monastery  of  St.  Stephen,  since  the  latter  was 
consecrated  in  1077,  while  the  former  is  said  to  have  been  dedicated  in  1066  [sic]." 
The  fa9ade  appears  to  be  the  oldest  part  of  the  existing  monument,  and  it  is  therefore 
probable  that  for  some  reason  the  usual  procedure  of  buikling  was  reversed,  the  west 
end  of  the  building  being  constructed  first.  With  the  exception  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  towers  and  the  spires  —  the  latter  an  addition  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century,  — 
this  part  of  the  monument  is  thoroughly  primitive  in  style.  The  style  of  the  nave, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  much  more  advanced  than  would  be  expected  in  an  edifice  dedi- 
cated in  1077.  Although  the  mouldings  on  the  archivolts  must  certainly  have  been 
added  after  this  date,  —  perhaps  at  the  same  time  that  the  nave  vaults  were  executed 
—  the  original  archivolts  must  have  been  in  two  orders,  and  six  engaged  colonnettes 
beside  the  shaft  of  the  system  must  have  been  engaged  on  the  piers  —  both  most 
extraordinary  features  for  the  XI  century.  The  .system  is  alternate,  but  shafts  are 
engaged  on  all  the  piers,  intermediate  as  well  as  alternate.  The  present  triforium 
balustrade  was  added  in  the  Gothic  period,  perhaps  in  the  XIV  century.  There 
can  be  no  (juestion  that  the  nave  was  originally  roofed  in  timber;  when  the  present 

'  VVillelmi  Gemmeticensis,  Historiae  NormanoKum,  lib.  VII,  cap.  XXII,  p.  278;  Gesia, 
Guillchiio  Pictavensi  eontemporaneo  scripfa,  p.  211. 

^  "  1077.  Eodem  qiioque  anno  coeiiobialis  Ba.silica  in  honore  Sancti  Stefani  Protomartyris, 
apud  Cadomum  dedicata  est."  —  Order.  Vital,  lib.  V,  p.  548,  cit.  Inkersley. 

'  Matliildis  Willelmi  ducis  conjux  non  minus  liberalis  fuit  in  condendo  \'irginum  monastcrio. 
Perfectum  fuisse  videtur  istud  ante  Sancti  Stephani  monasterium,  cujus  basilicae  dedicatio  lonj;- 
e  serins  facta  est,  anno  scilicet  MLXXVII,  cum  alterius  anno  MLXVI  facta  memoretur.  —  Annal. 
Benedic.  lib.  LXVI,  Vol.  IV,  p.  645. 

285 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

vaults  were  erected,  the  shafts  were  cut  down  to  the  level  of  the  clearstory  string, 
the  present  capitals  added,  and  a  half  barrel  vault  was  thrown  across  the  triforium 
in  an  unavailing  attempt  to  buttress  the  main  vaults.  The  date  at  which  this  all- 
important  alteration  was  executed  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  and 
has  been  variously  assigned  by  archaeologists  to  anywhere  from  the  first  quarter  ' 
to  the  last  half  ^  of  the  XII  century.  The  capitals,  which  obviously  belong  to  this 
reconstruction,  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  earlier  portions  of  the  monument, 
and  seem  to  imply  an  early  date;  on  the  other  hand,  the  profile  of  the  ribs  is 
advanced.  These  two  facts  may  perhaps  be  best  reconciled  by  assigning  the  vaults 
to  c.  1135,  a  date  which  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  broader  tendencies  of  the 
architecture  of  the  period.  The  crossing  is  marked  by  a  lantern.  The  transepts 
end  in  tribunes,  like  the  aisles,  groin-vaulted,  and  to  the  eastward  an  absidiole 
opens  off  each  arm.  Externally  the  Norman  church  is  remarkable  for  tlie  blind 
arcade  at  the  clearstory  level  and  for  certain  shafted  windows,  both,  however, 
features  which  may  well  have  been  added  in  the  XII  century.  There  is  no  docu- 
mentary evidence  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  choir,  but  this  must  have  taken 
place  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  XIII  century.  The  chevet  —  one  of  the  master- 
works  of  Norman  Gothic  —  is  divided  into  seven  bays;  the  point  where  it  joins  the 
choir  is  marked  externally  by  turrets,  internally  by  heavier  piers.  The  design  con- 
forms to  that  of  the  Romanesque  nave  to  a  remarkable  degree.  In  general  the 
buttresses  are  of  the  same  type  as  those  of  Noyon,  but  the  system  of  the  rectangu- 
lar portion  of  the  choir  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  chevet. 

Ste.  Trinite  or  L'Abbaije-mix-Dames.  (111.  128,  13^2,  134.)  The  epitaph  of 
Matilda  still  preserved  in  this  abbey  reads  as  follows:  "This  tomb  of  remarkable 
beautv  covers  Matilda,  a  royal  scion,  noble  in  character.  The  Duke  of  Flanders  was 
her  father,  Adele  her  mother,  Adele,  daughter  of  Robert,  king  of  tlie  people  of  the 
Franks,  and  sister  of  Henry,  possessor  of  a  royal  throne.  She  was  married  to  the 
maoTiificent  king,  William,  and  lately  built  this  church  which  she  piously  endowed 
and  consecrated.  She  was  the  consoler  of  the  needy,  a  lover  of  piety,  a  woman  who 
having  lavished  her  treasures  in  good  works  was  poor  to  herself,  but  rich  to  the  un- 
fortunate. Thus  she  sought  the  fellowship  of  eternal  life  on  the  second  day  of  Novem- 
ber [1083]."  '     According  to  Ruprich-Robert,  the  construction  of  the  abbey  church  was 

1  Moore.  ^  Lefevre-Pontalis. 

'  Egregie  pulchri  tegit  haec  structura  sepulchri 
Moribiis  insignem,  germen  regale,  ^lathildem. 
Dux  Flanditra  pater  huic  extitit,  Adala  mater, 
Francorum  gentis  Robert!  filia  regis 
Et  soror  Henrici,  regali  sede  potiti. 
Regi  magnifico  Willehno  juncta  marito, 
Praesentem  sedem  recenter  fecit  et  aedem, 
Tam  niultis  terris  quam  multis  rebus  honestis 
A  se  ditatam,  se  procurante  dicatam. 
Haec  consolatrix  inopum,  pietatis  amatrix, 
Gazis  dispersis,  pauper  sibi,  dives  egenis. 
Sic  infinitae  petiit  consortia  \atae. 
In  prima  meusis,  post  primam,  hice  novembis. 


CAEN 

commenced  in  10C2,  and  the  consecration  took  place  ten  years  later.  The  monument, 
which  presents  many  points  of  contact  with  St.  fitienne,  is  of  even  greater  interest 
than  tiie  rival  abbey,  because  the  ciioir  is  preserved  together  with  the  original  groin 
vaults  of  the  XI  century.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  style  of  the  architecture 
seems  remarkably  advanced  for  an  edifice  consecrated  in  1072,  Ruprich-Ilobert 
believes  that  much  of  the  present  bm'Iding  belongs  to  an  earlier  church  which  was 
but  jjartially  rebuilt  in  the  time  of  Matilda,  and  that,  in  fact,  the  only  portions  of  the 
existing  structure  dating  from  10(J2-72  are  the  crypt,  the  walls  of  the  aisles,  the  lower 
part  of  the  three  towers,  and  certain  other  fragments.  He  believes  that  the  aisles 
and  the  clioir  were  roofed  in  wood  both  in  the  church  of  Matilda  and  in  the  earlier 
edifice,  the  present  groin  vaults  having  been  added  afterwards,  but  still  before  the 
close  of  the  XI  century.  This  theory  probably  minimizes  unduly  the  extent  of  the 
reconstruction  by  Matilda:  however,  the  divergent  architectural  forms  of  the  monu- 
ment, some  of  which  seem  earlier,  and  others  later  than  10C2-72,  can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  supposing  that  the  church  was  thrice  rebuilt  during  the  last  half  of  the  XI 
century.  Notwithstanding  all  these  alterations,  the  edifice  was  again  remodeled  in 
the  XII  century  —  probably  c.  11-10,  —  when  the  present  sexpartite  vaults  were 
erected.  At  this  time  the  nave  was  entirely  rebuilt  above  the  ground  story  piers; 
even  the  lower  orders  of  the  archivolts  were  reconstructed.  The  fa9ade  also  prob- 
ably dates  mainly  from  this  time.  The  Abbaye-aux-Dames  as  it  stands  to-day  is 
a  church  of  three  aisles.  The  system  is  uniform,  but  the  vault  of  the  nave  is  se.x- 
jiartite  with  the  exception  of  the  westernmost  bay  which  is  quadripartite.  Instead  of 
supporting  a  portion  of  the  vault  surface  as  in  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  the  inter- 
mediate transverse  ribs  merely  carry  a  loaded  vertical  wall,  rising  to  meet  the  crown 
of  the  vault  at  a  sharp  angle.  The  piers  are  square  with  four  engaged  colonnettes. 
There  is  no  gallery;  the  triforium  consists  of  a  continuous  arcade.  The  aisle  vaults 
have  no  transverse  arches  or  responds;  above  the  aisles  under  the  triforium  roof  are 
thrown  half  arches,  forming  in  fact  concealed  flying  buttresses.  Eastern  absidioles 
open  off  the  transepts.  The  choir  is  flanked  by  side  aisles  ending  in  semicircular 
apses.  The  tower  over  the  central  lantern  was  finished  only  in  the  XIII  century,  and 
the  tops  of  the  western  towers  are  an  addition  of  the  Renaissance. 

St.  Nicolas  is  a  magnificent  monument  of  Norman  art,  which  has  been  some- 
what unduly  neglected,  doubtless  because  the  church  is  now  desecrated  and  access 
to  the  interior  —  the  most  interesting  part  —  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  obtain.  Ac- 
cording to  Ruprich-Robert,  who  as  usual  cites  no  authority,  this  church  was  in  con- 
struction from  1070  to  1083,  and  was  consecrated  in  1093.  I  have  been  unable  to 
verify  these  dates,  which,  however,  seem  to  be  generally  accepted.  The  monument 
of  the  XI  century  was  a  basilica  of  three  aisles  with  transepts.  The  nave,  of  which 
the  system  was  uniform  with  engaged  shafts,  was  covered  with  timber,  but  the  aisles 
were  groin-vaulted,  and  supplied  with  transverse  ribs.  Four  colonnettes  were 
engaged  on  each  of  the  square  piers.  The  triforium  consisted  of  four  equal  arcades 
in  each  bay,  each  pierced  b}'  an  arch.  The  archivolts  of  the  main  arcades  were  in 
two  orders,  and  certain  ones  were  moulded.  Two  towers,  only  one  of  which,  how- 
ever, has   been   completed   and   that   in   the  flamboyant  style,   flanked    the   facade; 

287 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

between  the  towers  was  placed  a  groin-vaulted  narthex,  opening  on  the  street  by 
three  arches.  The  exterior  of  the  nave  was  characterized  by  blind  arches  placed 
between  the  clearstory  windows,  and  by  buttresses  of  two  orders.  The  transepts 
originally  ended  in  groin-vaulted  tribunes  with  eastern  absidioles;  these  absidioles, 
like  the  main  apse,  were  covered  externally  with  curious  conical  spires  evidently  of 
much  later  date.'  Side  aisles  terminating  in  absidioles  masked  externally  flanked 
the  choir  which  was  covered  by  groin  vaults  on  an  oblong  plan  and  with  transverse 
ribs.  The  windows  of  the  apse  were  in  several  orders  and  decorated  with  mould- 
ings.    (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert ;  Moore,  45;  De  Caumont;  etc.) 

St.  Michel  de  Vaucelles.  The  only  part  of  this  church  belonging  to  the  Norman 
period  is  the  tower  placed  to  the  south  of  the  choir.  This  tower,  which  is  assigned 
by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1150,  is  crowned  by  a  stone  spire  of  the  XIV  century,  and 
is  supplied  with  a  stair  turret  in  one  corner.  The  decoration  unites  with  extraordi- 
nary success  richness  and  restraint,  and,  indeed,  this  tower  is  one  of  the  finest  even 
of  Normandy,  the  land  of  towers.  The  church  itself  is  of  slight  interest:  the  square 
choir  and  its  side  aisles  are  of  the  XV  century,  the  nave  is  of  the  XVI.  (Ru])rich- 
Robert  CXXXVII;  De  la  Balle.) 

St.  Gillcs  is  of  interest  principally  for  the  XII  century  nave,  which  still  survives, 
although  it  has  been  much  altered  in  the  flamboyant  period.  The  choir  was  demol- 
ished in  1862.     The  exterior  of  the  monument  dates  entirely  from  the  flamboyant  era. 

St.  Georges  dti  Chateau.  This  desecrated  building,  which  it  is  possible  never 
was  a  church  at  all,  dates  from  the  XII  century,  but  was  rebuilt  in  the  XV  century. 
(De  Caumont,  37;  Cotman.) 

Eglise  du  Sepulcre  is  modern,  except  for  the  Romanesque  portal  with  frets, 
which  dates  from  the  XII  century.     (De  Caumont,  39.) 

BAYEUX,  Calvados.  Eglise  Cathedralc  Notre  Dame.  "In  the  year  of  our 
Lord  1076,  the  14th  indiction,  several  churches  in  Normandy  were  dedicated  with 
great  pomp.  Notably  the  cathedral  churches  of  Bayeux  and  Evreux  were  conse- 
crated in  honor  of  the  holy  mother  of  God,  the  Virgin  Mary."^  An  entry  of  the 
year  1087  in  the  same  chronicle  further  states  that  "Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  began 
from  the  foundations  the  church  of  the  blessed  mother  of  God,  Mary,  and  finished 
it  in  splendid  style,  and  endowed  it  abundantly  with  many  riches  and  ornaments."  ^ 
Now,  since  Odo  became  bishop  of  Bayeux  in  1049  and  died  in  1097,  he  might  well 
have  consecrated  in  1076  the  church  which  he  had  begun  in  the  early  part  of  his  epis- 
copacy. Of  this  cathedral  of  Odo  only  the  crypt  survives,  the  remainder  having  per- 
ished in  1105,  as  is  inferred  from  a  third  passage  in  Orderic  Vitalis:  "In  the  same 
year,  1106  (lege  1105)  King  Henry  crossed  into  Neustria  to  besiege  Bayeux.     Accord- 

'  Perhaps  of  the  XIII  century.  Analogous  constructions  are  found,  I  believe,  only  at  Nor- 
rey  and  Audrien. 

^  Anno  ab  incarnatione  Domini  MLXXVI,  indicatione  XIV,  basilicae  plures  in  Norman- 
nia  cum  ingenti  tripudio  detlicatae  .sunt.  Matrices  eoclesiae  Baiocensis,  Ebroicensis  episcopatus 
dedicatae  sunt  in  honore  sanctae  Dei  genitricis  et  perpetuae  virginis  Mariae.  —  Order.  Vital, 
lib.  V,  p.  548. 

'  Odo  Baiocensis  episcopus  ecclesiam  sanctae  Dei  genitricis  Mariae  a  fundamentis  coepit, 
eleganter  consummavit,  multisque  gazis  et  ornamentis  affatim  ditauit.  —  Ibid.,  lib.  VIII,  p.  665. 

288 


BAYEUX 

ingly  the  King  stormed  the  city  forthwith,  and,  having  thrown  fire  within,  he  burned 
it."'  Du  Mouhn  explicitly  states  that  the  cathedral  perished  in  this  conflagration: 
"Nevertheless  the  king  besieged  Bayeux.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  first  assault, 
and  burned  together  with  the  church  (which  the  king  afterwards  caused  to  be  re- 
built)."^ In  1855  works  of  restoration  necessitated  the  demolition  of  the  piers  of 
the  crossing.  Embedded  within  these  piers  were  found  other  piers,  which  doubtless 
belonged  to  the  building  erected  after  1105.  The  remarkable  figure  sculptures  of 
these  capitals  can  be  paralleled  in  Normandy  only  at  Ilucqueville.  It  is  probable 
that  the  existing  towers  are  other  remnants  of  the  same  building,  although  they  must 
date  from  much  later  than  1105  —  perhaps  from  about  11-10.  This  church  of  King 
Henry  cannot  have  stood  for  more  than  half  a  century,  for  a  text  of  the  year  1159 
states:  "The  church  of  Bayeux  was  burned  with  fire.  Bishop  Philip  labored  man- 
fully in  its  restoration."'  Du  Moulin  again  gives  fuller  details.  "1159.  — The 
first  day  of  the  year  a  great  earthquake  shook  all  the  Cotentin,  and  was  followed  by 
the  fire  of  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  which  good  Bishop  Philip  rebuilt  at  great  e.x- 
pense."  ^  Two  passages  in  "Gallia  Christiana"  confirm  these  texts.  The  first, 
speaking  of  Philip,  bishop  from  1142-64,  reads  as  follows:  "Philip  is  said  in  the  black 
chartulary  of  the  chapter  to  have  restored  his  cathedral  burnt  by  fire  in  1159."  ^  The 
second  passage,  referring  to  the  year  1183,  states:  "he  [Henry  II]  agreed  with  the 
canons  that  the  revenues  from  the  prebends  of  those  canons  who  had  died  up  to  that 
year,  should  be  appropriated  for  rebuilding  the  church."  "  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  the  cathedral  was  restored  —  it  is  noticeable  all  the  texts  say  "restored,"  not 
"rebuilt"  —  after  1159;  and  that  in  1183  works  were  still  unfinished.  Furthermore, 
there  is  a  well-authenticated  tradition,  that  the  consecration  took  place  only  in  1231. 
On  the  basis  of  these  facts  there  is  some  difficulty  in  determining  the  dates  of  the 
various  portions  of  the  existing  edifice.  The  first  impulse  is  to  call  the  nave  arcades 
part  of  the  church  anterior  to  1151,  and  to  see  in  the  clearstory,  transepts,  and  choir 
the  restoration  of  1159-1231.  But  a  casual  inspection  suffices  to  show  that  the  Gothic 
portions  of  the  building  are  in  the  style,  not  of  the  XII,  but  of  the  XIII,  century;  and 
the  Norman  arcades  of  the  nave  with  their  rich  mouldings,  their  many-shafted  piers, 
their  elaborate  ornaments  and  diaperings,  belong  much  rather  to  the  second  than  the 

'  1106.  Eodera  anno  Henricus  rex,  vere  in  Neustriam  nauigauit  Baiocesiiiaque  obsedit. 
Protiiuis  igitur  rex  urbe  expugnavit,  et,  iniecto  igne  penitus,  cobussit.  —  Ibid.,  lib.  XI,  p.  818. 

-  Neantmoins  le  Roy  assiege  Bayeux;  elle  fut  emportee  des  le  premier  assaut  et  bruslee 
avec  le  Temple  (que  le  Roy  fit  refaire  par  apres).  —  Du  Moulin,  Ilistoire  Genhale  de  Normandie, 
ed.  IG.SI,  p.  285. 

^11.59.  Ecclesia  Baiocensis  igne  combusta.  Philippus  episcopus  in  eius  restauratione 
itcrum  virilitcr  laboravit.  —  Chron.  Nornianniae,  p.  997.     See  also  Chron.  Sigiberti,  p.  130. 

*  .\niio  1159.  Le  premier  jour  de  I'an  uii  grand  tremble-terre  esbranla  tout  le  Costentiii 
et  fut  suive  de  I'incendie  de  I'eglise  cathedrale  de  Bayeux,  laquelle  le  bon  Euesque  Philippus 
fit  rehatir  ii  grands  frais.  —  Du  Moulin,  Hist.  Gen.  de  Normandie,  p.  377. 

^  Pliillipus  1142-64.  Cathedralem  suam  incendio  concrematara  restaurasse  legitur  Phil- 
ippus, ill  cliartuiario  nigro  Capituli  Baiocensis  ad  annum  1159  inquunt.  —  Gall.  Chris.  Vol.  XI, 
col.  365. 

°  Henricus  II,  1183.  Statuit  cum  canonicis,  reditus  praebendarum  canonicorum  decedeii- 
tium  usque  ad  aiiiiuni,  ad  retiricndam  ccclcsiaiii  dcputandos.  .  .  .  Ibid.  col.  366. 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

first  half  of  the  XII  century.  We  must,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  work  of  recon- 
struction of  1159  began  with  the  building  anew  of  these  arcades.  When  they  had 
been  completed,  works  must  have  been  interrupted  for  a  period  of  unknown  length. 
When  building  was  at  last  resumed  early  in  the  XIII  century,  the  cathedral  was 
completed  in  the  Gothic  style.  Towards  the  end  of  the  XIII  century,  in  consequence 
of  the  introduction  of  heavy  bells,  the  western  towers  threatened  ruin,  and  their 
lower  parts  were  reinforced  with  buttresses  and  extra  masonry.  About  the  same  time 
the  existing  spires  were  added,  and  the  present  portals  built  before  the  facade.  The 
central  lantern  was  finished  only  in  1425-27.  —  The  arcades  of  the  nave  form  the 
richest  as  well  as  the  most  important  example  of  late  Norman  architecture  extant. 
Of  equal  interest  are  the  Gothic  portions  of  the  monument  with  their  multiple  mould- 
ings, their  almost  over-rich  decoration,  their  turrets,  and  their  double  walls.  In  the 
nave  the  triforium  is  reduced  to  a  balustrade  running  along  below  the  clearstory  win- 
dows; in  the  earlier  choir,  however,  there  is  a  high  triforium  gallery.  The  ambula- 
tory vaults  have  broken  ribs;  the  chevet  chapels  are  vaulted  as  at  Amiens,  except 
that  two  extra  ribs  extend  from  the  transverse  arch  to  the  main  keystone.  The  chevet 
is  semicircular,  not  polygonal,  in  plan;  the  supports  consist  of  columns  coupled  in 
the  longitudinal  sense.  The  transepts  are  without  side  aisles,  and  the  ambulatory  is 
single.  The  system  in  the  rectangular  portion  of  the  choir  is  logical  and  continuous, 
except  that  the  wall  rib  rests  upon  the  triforium  string-course.  (De  la  Balle; 
Ruprich-Robert,  100;  Inkersley.) 

St.  Loup.  The  tower,  placed  to  the  south  between  the  nave  and  the  choir,  is 
the  most  interesting  part  of  this  church,  and  indeed  a  veritable  masterpiece  of  design. 
Ruprich-Robert  assigns  this  portion  of  the  edifice  to  c.  1180;  the  spire  was  added 
in  the  first  years  of  the  XIII  century,  and  combines  with  the  tower  to  form  a  compo- 
sition remarkable  for  richness  of  ornament,  beauty  of  proportion,  and  harmony  of 
design.  Of  the  church  itself,  the  nave  of  the  XII  century  has  been  much  altered, 
while  the  rectangular  choir  is  Gothic.     (Ruprich-Robert,  CXXXIX;  De  la  Balle.) 

JUMIEGES,  Seine-Inferieure.  Abbaye.  (111.  121,  122,  123,  124.)  William 
Long-Sword,  son  of  Rollo,  raised  this  monastery  from  its  ruins  in  930.  The  build- 
ings erected  at  this  time  were  probably  crude;  at  all  events  a  reconstruction  was  in 
progress  a  century  later,  as  is  evident  from  the  following  passage  in  Mabillon :  "  Wil- 
liam, Abbot  of  Jumieges,  being  dead,  in  his  place  was  elected  Robert,  second  of  that 
name,  who  built  the  new  church  of  St.  Mary  from  its  foundations.  .  .  .  Therefore 
Robert  returned  into  France,  that  is  to  the  Abbey  of  Jumieges,  where  in  the  year  1040 
he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  new  church  of  St.  Mary."'  Ruprich-Robert"  states, 
as  ever  without  quoting  his  authority,  that  Robert  II  continued  to  direct  the  works 
until  1043,  when  he  was  called  to  England  by  Edward  the  Confessor;  that  his  suc- 
cessor Godfrey  continued  the  construction,  but  died  May  14,  1048  before  finishing 

'  1040.  Mortuo  Willelmo  Gemeticensi  abbate,  in  locum  ejus  subrogatus  est  Rotbertus, 
eo  nomine  secundus,  qui  novam  Sanctae  Mariae  basilicam  a  fundamentis  exlruxit.  .  .  .  Quam 
ob  rem  Rotbertus  in  Galliam,  id  est  ad  Gemeticense  monasterium,  reversus  est,  ubi  novae  Sanctae 
Mariae  ecclesiae  anno  MXL  fundamenta  jecit.  —  Annates  Ordinis  S.  Benedicti,  lib.  LVIl,  vol. 
IV,  p.  418.     See  also  Neustria  Pia,  p.  386. 

^  Arch.  Norm.,  p.  78. 

290 


MONUMENTS   OF   THE    FIRST   IMPORTANCE 

the  abbey  which  still  remained  "without  windows  or  nave"  (sans  vitraux  ni  nef). 
At  all  events  the  consecration  took  place  in  1067:  "Thence  a  little  later  he  [the  abbot] 
returned  to  Normandy,  and  ordered  the  church  of  St.  Mary  in  Jumieges  to  be  con- 
secrated with  great  pomp.  This  dedication  was  celebrated  with  great  spiritual  joy 
on  the  first  day  of  July  in  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  1067  by  Maurille 
arclibishop  of  Rouen,  and  Baldwin  bishop  of  Evreux.'  If  Ruprich-Robert  may  be 
relied  upon,  therefore,  the  portions  of  the  Norman  church  which  have  come  down  to 
us  dale  from  1048-67.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  abbey  is  of  less  interest.  The 
nave  and  the  transepts  were  reconstructed  in  the  rayonnant  period,  and  at  the  same 
lime  the  nave  vaulted;  the  little  church  of  St.  Pierre  was  remodeled  in  1330-33."  Not- 
withstanding its  present  ruined  condition  the  nave,  which  is  all  that  remains  of  the 
XI  century  church,  is  of  the  greatest  interest,  both  as  one  of  the  earliest  extant  ex- 
amples of  Norman  architecture,  and  as  one  of  the  most  imposing  ruins  that  the  Middle 
Ages  have  left  us.  The  system  is  alternate,  with  a  continuous  shaft,  although  the 
original  roof  was  in  timber.  The  main  arcades  are  in  two  orders.  The  triforium 
gallery  opens  on  the  nave  by  arcades  consisting  of  three  grouped  arches.  Like  the 
side  aisles  the  triforium  is  covered  with  groin  vaults  reinforced  by  transverse  ribs. 
The  fafade,  flanked  by  two  majestic  towers,  is  preceded  by  a  narthex  thoroughly 
Cluniac  in  style.  There  is  remarkably  little  ornament;  the  aisle  walls,  however,  are 
decorated  externally  with  arched  billet  mouldings,  and  the  towers  with  blind  arcading 
and  shafted  windows. 

MT.-ST.-MICHEL,  Manche.  Ahhaijc.  "In  the  year  1022  the  new  church  of 
St.  Michael  in  Mt.  Tombe  was  begun  by  Richard  II,  duke  of  the  Normans  and  by 
Ilildebert  II,  abbot  of  the  monastery.  The  latter  died  this  same  year."  ^  Owing 
to  the  great  works  of  substruction  which  the  difficulties  of  the  site  necessitated,  the 
buihling  progressed  slowly.  "Raoul  of  Beaumont  became  abbot  of  St.  Michel  in 
lO-tS.  The  substructions  of  the  church  which  Duke  Richard  II  had  commenced, 
he  continued  and  completed.  He  died  in  1058.  .  .  .  Ranulph  I  [1058-8-1]  began 
to  construct  the  nave  of  the  church  which  Richard  had  commenced.  He  erected 
tlie  northern  arcade  with  its  arches."  *  According  to  M.  Gout,°  who  quotes  Dom 
Huynes  without  explicit  reference,  the  four  piers  of  the  crossing  were  built  in  1058. 
At  all  events  it  seems  clear  that  the  works  of  the  first  half  of  the  XI  century  were  con- 

'  1067.  Dehinc  vero  pauIo  post  in  Normanniam  regres.sus  ecclesiam  Sanctae  Mariae  in 
Geninietico  cum  hoiiore  magno  dedicare  jussit.  Quam  dedicationem  hi  episcopi  cum  spiritiiali 
jucuiuiitate  MLXVII  Dominicae  incarnationis  anno  Kal.  Julij  compleuerunt:  Maurilius  scilicet 
archiepiscopus  Rotoraagensis,  et  IJalduinus  Ebroicensis.  —  Guil.  Gemmef.,  lib.  VII,  p.  '288. 
See  also  Order.  Vital.,  lib.  IV,  p.  .507,  cit.  Inkersley. 

2  GaU.  Chris.,  Vol.  XI,  col.  197. 

^  .\nno  10'2'J.  Inchoata  est  hoc  anno  nova  Basilica  beati  Michaelis  in  Monte  Tumba  a 
Richardo  secundo  comite  Nortraannorum  et  Hildeberto  secundo  abbate;  qui  abbas  obiit  eodein 
anno.  —  Annal.  Bened.,  lib.  LV,  Vol.  IV,  p.  285. 

*  Radulfus  I  de  Beaumont  fit  abljas  S.  Michaelis  anno  MXLVIII.  Ecclesiae  fundamenta 
quae  posuerat  dux  Richardus  II  continuavit  absolvitque.  Occubuit  1058.  .  .  .  Ranulfus  I 
imprimis  sollicitus  fuit  nanm  ecclesiae  quam  dux  Richardus  inchoaverat  absolvere.  Extruxit 
etiam  jxjrticus  arcis  a  septentrione.  —  GaU.  Chris.,  Vol.  XI,  col.  515. 

^  L'llist.  ct  Arch.  Franc,  au  Ml.-St.-ilichel,  p.  35. 
291 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

fined  to  the  now-lost  choir,  and  that  no  fragments  of  the  existing  edifice  (unless  pos- 
sibly some  of  the  substructions)  can  be  earlier  than  10.58.  Ruprich-Robert,  quoting 
no  authority,  states  that  "Roger,  abbot  of  Mt. -St. -Michel,  rebuilt  a  great  part  of  the 
nave  in  10S5,  others  say  in  109-1"  {d'autres  disent  en  1094),  and  that  in  1103  the  nave 
fell  and  was  repaired.  At  all  events  it  is  certain  that  the  abbey  was  much  damaged 
shortly  after  this  date,  for  it  is  recorded:  "In  the  year  of  our  Lord  1112,  the  church 
of  St.  Michael-in-Peril-of-the-Sea  was  struck  by  lightning  and  burned,  together  with 
the  dependent  buildings."  '  There  is  extant  also  a  text  referring  to  the  repairs  ex- 
ecuted after  this  disaster:  "1123.  In  the  abbey  of  St.  INIichael  of  the  Mountain, 
Roger  the  abbot  died.  Of  him,  in  the  manuscript  chronicle  of  St.  Michael's,  I  read 
as  follows:  'he  made  many  improvements  in  the  buildings  and  the  ornaments,  and 
he  repaired  all  those  portions  which  had  been  burnt.  Above  the  arcade  of  the 
cloister  he  rebuilt  in  stone  what  before  had  been  of  wood,  and  underneath  the  same 
he  constructed  a  stone  hall  and  chambers,  and  on  the  third  level  a  stable  for  the 
horses,  and  he  arranged  arches  above  in  wonderful  fashion."^  No  mention  is  made 
in  this  passage  of  repairs  carried  on  in  the  church  itself,  which  seems  to  have 
remained  in  a  slate  of  semi-ruin  until  the  abbot  Bernard  (1131-49)  undertook  its 
restoration.  "He  restored  the  buildings  and  secured  the  patched  roofs,  and  was  the 
first  to  rebuild  that  portion  of  the  north  side  of  the  nave  of  the  church,  which  had 
been  destroyed  thirty-three  years  before."  ^  Such  is  the  documentary  evidence  for 
the  building  dates  of  the  Norman  church  at  Mt.-St.-INIichel.  It  is  clear  that  the  nave 
of  the  existing  edifice  is  essentially  a  work  of  the  last  half  of  the  XI  century  and 
though  modified  by  repeated  restorations,  this  portion  of  the  monument  still  pre- 
serves for  the  most  part  its  original  characteristics.  The  plaster  vaults,  of  course, 
are  modern;  the  nave,  like  the  transepts,  was  originally  covered  with  wood.  The 
system  is  uniform;  the  piers  are  square  with  a  colonnette  engaged  on  each  face;  the 
archivolts  in  two  orders  are  unmoulded.  Groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs  cover 
the  aisles.  The  triforium  gallery,  however,  is  roofed  in  limber,  and  opens  upon 
the  nave  by  means  of  two  groups  of  two  coupled  arches  pierced  in  each  bay.  The 
clearstory  windows  are  shafted.  Eastern  absidioles  open  off  the  transepts.  In  1421 
the  old  Norman  choir  collapsed,  and  in  1450  the  construction  of  the  present  chevet* 
—  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  flamboyant  style  —  was  begun.  This  chevet, 
which  is  supplied  with  an  ambulatory  and  radiating  chapels,  shows  all  the  charac- 

'  Anno  Domini  1112  ecclesia  sancti  Michaelis  de  periculo  maris  fuigurata  diuinitus  arsit 
cum  edificiis  appendentibus  siiji.  —  Chronicon  Sigibcrti,  p.  134.  Cf.  also  Besly,  Hist,  des  Comfes 
du  Poiiou,  ex  Chronico  ilallcac,  p.  448,  {lege  548). 

^  In  monasterio  S.  Micliaiilis  de  Monte,  Roge[ius  abbas  mortuus  est.  De  eo  in  manuscripto 
Chronico  S.  Michaelis  haec  lego:  Iste  fecit  multa  bona  in  aedificiis  et  ornamentis  omnes  officinas 
quae  combiistae  fuerant  reparavit.  Insuper  arcam  claustri  quae  primus  erat  lignca  lapidem 
fecit,  et  suljtus  ipsam,  aulam  et  cameras  lapideas,  et  in  tertio  ordine  stabula  equorum,  fornicibus 
super  fornices  libratis  mirabiliter  adaptavit.  —  Annal.  Bettedic,  lib.  LXXIV,  Vol.  VI,  p.  101. 

^  Bernardus  1131^9.  Aedificia  restituit  et  sarta  tecta  tuitus  est,  imprimisque  na\is  ec- 
clesiae  latus  septentrionale,  quod  ante  anno  trigenta  Ires  corruerat,  refecit.  —  Gall.  Chris.,  Vol. 
XI,  col.  517. 

*  Gout,  L'llist.  et  Ar.  au  ilt.  St.  M.,  p.  139. 

292 


MONUMENTS   OF   THE    FIRST   IMPORTANCE 

teristics  of  the  stylo  of  tlie  XV  century:  the  tiii'oriuiii  is  glazed;  capitals  are 
omitted;  the  system  rises  from  the  triforium  string-course.  The  double  flying  but- 
tresses and  pinnacles  of  the  exterior  are  hardly  to  be  equaled  for  delicacy  and 
charm,  while  the  windows  are  filled  with  the  most  exquisite  flamboyant  tracery. 
The  cloisters  and  conventual  buildings  of  Mt. -St. -Michel,  dating  principally  from 
the  Gothic  period,  are  among  the  most  interesting  architectural  remains  in  Europe. 

Eglise.  This  Norman  monument  has  been  much  altered  in  the  XV  century. 
There  is  a  single  side  aisle,  and  the  choir  is  raised  over  an  archway,  beneath  which 
passes  the  street. 

BOCIIERVILLE,  (Boscherville),  Seine-Inferieure.  St.  George  (111.  127,  135). 
A  charter  preserved  by  Mabillon  is  generally  believed  to  refer  to  this  monument. 
This  charter  is  undated,  but  since  William  is  referred  to  as  "duke"  and  not  as  "king" 
it  is  thought  to  be  earlier  than  lOGC.  The  passage  taken  as  referring  to  St.  George 
de  Bocherville  reads  as  follows:  "Radulph,  my  {i.e.,  William's)  officer  .  .  .  com- 
menced to  rebuild  from  its  foundations  the  church  of  the  said  martyr  George,  and 
at  his  own  expense  finished  the  same  in  the  form  of  a  cross."  '  Unfortunately  it  is 
not  certain  that  Mabillon  is  correct  in  identifying  the  church  of  St.  George  men- 
tioned in  the  charter  with  the  monastery  of  St.  George  de  Bocherville.  Archaeol- 
ogists are  agreed  that  the  architectural  forms  of  the  existing  monument  must  be  later 
than  1066,  and  usually  maintain  that  the  church  was  reconstructed  in  the  XII  cen- 
tury; however,  M.  Besnard,  whose  arguments  seem  to  me  to  be  most  convincing 
assigns  the  construction  to  some  time  between  107.5  and  1090  —  a  date  not  entirely 
irreconcilable  with  the  charter  if  we  grant  that  William  might  be  styled  duke  in  Nor- 
mandy after  he  had  become  king  in  England.  The  charter  might  then  be  as  late  as 
1083,  the  year  of  the  death  of  Matilda.  Since,  as  M.  Besnard  has  pointed  out,  the 
church  shows  every  indication  of  having  been  built  rapidly  in  the  course  of  six  or 
seven  years,  it  seems  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  it  may  have  been  finislied  by 
1083.  —  The  existing  edifice  consists  of  three  aisles.  The  vaults  of  the  nave  were 
added  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  XIII  century,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  walls 
are  of  sufficient  thickness  to  resist  the  thrusts  without  the  aid  of  flying  buttresses. 
The  aisles  are  groin-vaulted  with  transverse  arches.  As  in  St.  Nicolas  and  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  of  Caen,  the  system  is  uniform,  and  the  square  piers  are  supplied 
with  four  engaged  colonnettcs.     The  archivolts  are  moulded,  but  these  mouldings 

'  This  passage  more  at  lenijtli  is  as  follows:  Qui  superioribus  litteris  inter  proceres  sub- 
scrip.sit  Radulfus  Willclmi  camerarius,  idcn  ejus  magister  dicitur  in  diplomale  quo  Willehnus 
necdum  rex,  conditani  a  Radulfo  Saiicti  Georgi  de  IJaucherivilla  ecclesiam  cum  reljus  suis  con- 
firmat,  sitam  in  page  Rotomagensi  ad  Sequanum;  sic  enim  Willelmiis  in  illo  diplomate  loquitur: 
—  "Radulfus  raeus  magister  aiilaeque  et  camerae  meae  princeps,  instiiictu  divine  tactiis,  eccles- 
iam supra  dicti  martyris  Georgii,  quae  erat  par%a,  reaedificare  a  fumlamentis  inchoavit,  et  ex 
proprio  in  niodum  crucis  consuniniavit,  officinasque  ibidem  Christo  famulantibus  necessarias 
fabricari  fecit,  qui,  ut  se  ipsum  teniplura  sanctum  Domino  consecraret,  eamdem  ecclesiam  dedi- 
cari  fecit,  et  liaec  in  dedicatione,  uxore,  ejus  et  filiis  ejus  Radulfo  et  Rabello  coram  ad.stantibus, 
ad  stipondiuin  ecclesiae  atque  canoniconun  habenda  assigna\nt,  scilicet  in  \nlla,  quae  dicitur 
Abefot,  ecclesiam  cum  tola  decima,  etc.  ..."  Caret  notis  chronicis  hoc  diploma,  cui  appos- 
ita  sunt  signa  Willclmi  duels  Normanorum,  Mathildis  uxoris  ejus,  Radulfi  camerari,  etc.  —  Aniud. 
Benedic.,  lib.     LXII,  Vol.  IV,  p.  675,  cit.  Inkersley. 

293 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

are  possibly  later  additions.  There  is  no  triforium  gallery,  a  continuous  arcade  — 
similar  to  that  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  —  occupying  the  space  between  the  clear- 
story and  the  main  arches.  The  gable  of  the  fa9ade  is  flanked  by  two  turrets  crowned 
by  little  Gothic  spires.  The  exterior  of  the  nave  is  characterized  in  general  by  shafted 
windows  and  buttresses.  The  transepts  have  groin-vaulted  tribunes  and  absidioles. 
Groin  vaults  on  an  oblong  plan  with  transverse  ribs  also  cover  the  choir  which  ends 
in  a  semicircular  apse,  and  is  flanked  by  groin-vaulted  aisles  ending  in  niches.  (Rup- 
rich-Robert  XCIII-XCIV;  De  la  BaUe:  Besnard:  Cloquet.) 

MoXniENTS    OF   THE    SeCOND    ClASS 

OUISTREHAM,  (Oystreham),  Calvados.  Eglise  (111.  139)  is  of  exceptional 
interest  for  the  sexpartite  rib  vaults  of  the  nave,  which  have  been  restored  to  their 
original  form.  The  nave  itself,  which  may  be  assigned  to  c.  1160  on  the  ground  of 
its  very  rich  and  beautiful  ornament  and  elaborate  mouldings,  is  three  double  bays 
long.  The  aisle  vaults,  curiously  enough,  are  erected  on  plans  oblong  in  the  longi- 
tudinal sense.  Thoroughly  logical  is  the  system  of  alternately  three  and  five  shafts. 
The  clearstory  consists  of  three  lancets  of  which  the  central  one  is  highly  stilted.  The 
beautiful  facade  is  rich  in  ornament,  and  displays  a  charming  lack  of  sjTnmetry.  The 
choir  of  the  XIII  century  is  without  side  aisles,  and  consists  of  two  bays  (one  of  which 
is  square  and  the  other  oblong),  terminating  in  a  semicircular  apse  whose  vaulting 
ribs  converge  on  the  transverse  arch.     (Ruprich-Robert  LVI,  LXXIX,  CIX.) 

CREULLY,  Calvados.  Si.  Martin  dates  in  the  main  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  XII  century,  although  the  choir  was  altered  in  the  XIII  century,  and  the  tower 
is  a  work  of  the  Renaissance.  The  nave  is  entirely  covered  with  sexpartite  rib  vaults 
except  for  the  western  bay,  whose  vault  is  quadripartite.  The  aisle  vaults,  oblong 
longitudinally,  show  a  strange  combination  of  groin  and  barrel  vaults.'  Since  there 
are  no  wall  ribs,  the  system  consists  of  alternately  three  and  one  shafts.  The  deco- 
ration, especially  on  the  outer  order  of  the  archivolts,  is  extraordinarily  rich.  There 
is  no  triforium;  the  clearstory  windows  are  small,  and  externally  form  part  of  an  ar- 
cade. The  buttresses  are  in  two  orders.  The  choir  ends  in  a  square  east  wall;  a 
side  aisle  was  added  to  the  north  in  the  XV  century.  (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert; 
De  Caumont.) 

BERNAY,  Eure.  Abbaye.  "When  in  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord 
996,  Richard  the  elder  died,  his  son  Richard  succeeded  him,  and  held  the  dukedom 
of  the  Normans  for  thirty  years.  And  his  wife  Judith  founded  the  monastery  of 
Bemay  in  honor  of  Mary,  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God."  "  Ruprich-Robert,'  states 
that  it  was  between  1013  and  1019  that  this  foundation  took  place,  and  that  the  church 

'  So  Ruprich-Robert,  Arch.  Norm.  pi.  LXXXMII,  although  the  plan  published  by  De 
Caumont,  Statistique  Hon.  du  Calvados,  p.  379,  shows  square  ribbed  vaults. 

^  Deinde  anno  incar.  D.  DCCCCXCVI  defuncto  Ricardo  seniore,  Ricardus  filius  ejus 
successit  et  ducatum  Nomianniae  triginta  annis  tenuit.  Judith  uxor  ejus  coenobium  apud  Ber- 
naicum  in  honore,  sanctae  Dei  genitricis  Mariae  condidit.  —  Orderici  Vitalis,  Ecclesiasticae 
Historiae,  lib.  Ill,  p.  459.     See  also  Gall.  Chris.,  Vol.  XI,  col.  830,  cit.  Inkersley. 

'  Citing  as  authority  Robert  Cornalis  without  explicit  reference. 
294 


MONUMENTS   OF   THE   SECOND   CLASS 

was  finished  about  1050  by  ^Yilliam  the  Conqueror.  The  nave  of  the  existing  edifice, 
notwithstanding  various  later  alterations  —  the  two  extra  orders  of  the  archivolts 
are  evidently  an  addition,  and  the  groin  vaults  of  the  aisles  were  not  part  of  the  orig- 
inal building  —  is  consequently  an  authentically  dated  monument  of  the  first  half 
of  the  XI  century,  and,  as  such,  of  extraordinary  interest.  The  triforium  consists 
of  a  series  of  coupled  arches,  interrupted  on  the  axes  of  the  piers  by  larger  blind  arches. 
There  is  no  system;  what  little  advance  there  is  over  such  Carolingian  monuments 
as  Montier-en-Der  or  the  Basse  Oeuvre  of  Beauvais  being  purely  decorative.  The 
present  transepts,  central  tower,  and  choir  are  evidently  works  of  the  last  half  of  the 
XI  century  or  even  later. 

FALAISE,  Calvados.  St.  Gervais.  According  to  Benoist '  a  consecration  of 
this  church  took  place  in  113-t.  The  nave,  however,  is  evidently  of  the  third  quarter 
of  the  XI  century,  although  it  has  been  assigned  to  such  early  dates  as  1040  by  Ruprich- 
Robert  and  to  lOoO  by  Mr.  Moore.  In  its  present  form  the  church  consists  of  three 
aisles,  a  complete  set  of  side  chapels,  transepts,  and  a  choir  with  ambulatory.  The 
southern  arcades  of  the  nave  are  Romanesque,  but  the  north  side  has  been  rebuilt  in 
the  XIII  century,  and  at  the  same  time  the  existing  vaults  were  constructed.  The 
system  of  the  Norman  portions  is  uniform:  the  archivolts  and  buttresses  are  in  two 
orders:  there  are  no  mouldings;  the  clearstory  windows  are  shafted:  and  there  is  no 
triforium.  The  choir  of  the  XVI  century,  which  has  suffered  much  from  restoration, 
is  roofed  in  timber.  With  the  exception  of  the  XV  century  chapel  which  has  replaced 
the  west  portal,  the  fafade  is  of  the  XI  century.  The  tower  and  the  clearstory  walls, 
on  the  other  hand,  show  all  the  characteristics  of  the  late  Norman  style.  (De  la 
Balle:  Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist:  Moore.) 

Eglise  de  Gtiilray.  This  monument  consists  of  three  aisles,  transepts,  a  choir 
two  bays  long  flanked  by  two  side  aisles,  and  three  semicircular  apses.  The  whole 
is  now  covered  with  a  modem  plaster  barrel  vault.  This  church  is  said  to  have  been 
begun  about  1076,  and  the  existing  south  absidiole  may  well  date  from  the  end  of  the 
XI  century.  The  principal  apse  is  of  the  early  XII  century;  the  choir  and  the  tran- 
septs were  totally  rebuilt  in  1771;  and  the  nave,  which  clearly  shows  influence  from 
the  He  de  France  in  its  pointed  arches  and  other  transitional  features,  belongs  to  the 
last  years  of  the  XII  century.  The  system  of  this  nave  is  uniform:  the  piers  are 
square  with  four  engaged  colonnettes.  A  porch  of  the  XIII  century  precedes  the  facade, 
but  the  tower  and  flying  buttresses  are  of  the  early  flamboyant  period.  (De  la  Balle; 
Ruprich-Robert:  Benoist   III,  78.) 

St.  Laurent.  This  church,  which  has  been  much  modernized,  seems  to  have 
been  originally  rectangular  in  plan.  The  most  ancient  part  of  the  present  edifice, 
the  nave,  is  said  to  be  of  the  XI  century. 

St.  Pierre.  The  portal  of  the  XII  century,  though  in  only  two  orders,  contains 
mouldings  of  unusual  delicacy  and  refinement,  and  is  ornamented  with  billets  and  an 
elementary  dog-tooth.     There  is  only  a  single  shaft  and  no  hntel.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

Chapelle  St.  Xicolas  dii  Chateau  is  a  structure  of  the  XII  century  with  small 
moulded  windows.     (De  la  Balle.) 

'  La  Xormattdie  lUiuitree,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  78. 
295 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

LESSAY,  Manche.  Ahhaye  is  said  to  have  been  finished  about  1130,  and  con- 
secrated in  1178.  The  aisle  walls  of  the  existing  structure  appear  to  belong  to  the 
XI  century,  but  the  remainder  of  the  church  is  in  the  late  Norman  style.  The  edi- 
fice consists  of  three  aisles,  a  central  tower,  transepts  (originally  with  eastern  absidioles), 
and  a  choir  two  bays  long  which  terminates  in  a  semicircular  apse  and  which  is  flanked 
by  side  aisles  ending  in  niches.  Quadripartite  Gothic  vaults  with  a  full  set  of  ribs 
cover  the  nave;  the  aisles  are  surmounted  by  groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs.  The 
uniform  system  is  peculiar  in  that  the  transverse  shaft  is  replaced  by  a  shallow  pil- 
aster strip.  The  triforium  gallery,  which  is  vaulted  with  slightly  domed  groin  vaults, 
opens  upon  the  nave  by  means  of  two  shafted  arches  pierced  in  each  bay.  Mouldings 
of  simple  character  adorn  certain  of  the  archivolts  which  are  in  two  orders.  Exter- 
nally the  clearstory  windows  are  in  two  orders,  shafted,  and  moulded;  the  buttresses 
are  shallow,  and  there  are  no  flying  buttresses.  This  church  preserves  some  fine 
glass  of  the  XII  century.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich -Robert.) 

ST.  GABRIEL,  Calvados.  Prieure.  Only  the  choir  of  this  very  interesting 
monument  remains,  the  central  tower,  the  transepts  with  their  eastern  absidioles,  the 
nave  (which  was  at  least  six  bays  long),  and  the  side  aisles  all  having  been  destroyed. 
This  choir,  which  consists  of  two  bays  covered  by  a  single  sexpartite  rib  vault,  termi- 
nates in  a  semicircular  apse,  and  is  flanked  by  two  aisles  ending  in  niches.  Groin 
vaults  with  transverse  ribs  cover  these  side  aisles.  St.  Gabriel,  which  is  justly  con- 
sidered the  finest  extant  example  of  Norman  art  at  its  very  apogee,  evidently  dates 
from  c.  1150,  the  moment  of  the  fullest  development  of  the  style.  Many  evident 
analogies  with  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames  of  Caen  give  reason  to  suppose  that  the  priory 
was  directly  modeled  upon  this  abbey.  The  ornament  throughout,  although  rich 
and  exuberant,  is  always  well  proportioned  and  in  good  taste.  Across  the  triforium 
are  thrown  concealed  flying  buttresses.  The  triforium  and  main  arcade  are  carried 
around  the  apse  as  blind  arcades,  an  arrangement  which  gives  almost  the  effect  of 
an  ambulatory.  Corbels  support  the  diagonal  ribs  of  the  vault.  The  archivolts  are 
very  richly  ornamented  with  frets,  etc.  The  exterior  is  characterized  by  the  elaborate 
shafting  of  the  apse,  and  by  the  clearstory  arcade,  in  which  windows  are  pierced. 
(Ruprich-Robert,  LXXX-LXXXIII.) 

Eglise  contains  some  fragments  of  Norman  architecture.     (Benoist.) 

BERNIERES-SUR-MER,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame.  This  church  is  of  in- 
terest and  importance  because  of  its  sexpartite  vaults.  The  edifice  is  assigned  by 
Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1150;  the  late  profiles  of  the  eastern  bays  of  the  nave  indicate 
a  date  at  least  as  late  as  this,  and  the  western  bays  which  are  evidently  later  than  the 
eastern  bays,  must  be  assigned  to  the  close  of  the  XII  century.  The  church  consists 
of  three  aisles  without  transepts  terminating  in  a  choir  of  the  XV  century.  A  logical 
system  and  archivolts  with  rich  frets  on  their  second  order  characterize  the  interior 
of  the  nave.  Externally,  the  clearstory  windows  form  part  of  an  arcade,  and  the 
buttresses  are  but  slightly  developed.  The  XIII  century  tower  and  spire,  placed  to 
the  west  of  the  church  over  a  sort  of  narthex,  are  veritable  masterpieces  of  Gothic 
design,  and  form  one  of  the  most  famous  clochers  of  all  Normandy. 

PETIT-QUEVILLY,  Seine-Inferieure.    Eglise  is  at  present  covered  by  a  wooden 


MONUMENTS   OF   THE   THIRD    CLASS 

barrel  vault,  which  replaces,  however,  the  original  sexpartite  rib  vaults,  whose  dis- 
positions may  still  be  traced.  The  church  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1183  by 
Henry  H;  but  Ruprich-Ilobert  is  clearly  correct  in  holding  that  the  style  of  the  archi- 
tecture indicates  a  date  of  c.  lloo.  The  monument  consists  of  a  single  aisle  terminat- 
ing in  a  semicircular  apse.  There  were  two  complete  bays  of  sexpartite  vaulting  and 
a  half  bay  at  the  western  end,  including  only  half  a  sexpartite  vault.  The  system  was 
logical  but  somewhat  amplified.  The  half-dome  of  the  apse  was  supplied  with  three 
ribs,  to  which,  however,  its  surface  was  only  slightly  warped.  Small  windows  placed 
above  an  arcade  are  pierced  in  the  thick  walls.  The  profiles  of  the  vaulting  ribs  are 
advanced  in  character.  The  church  contains  frescoes  which  are  among  the  best 
extant  examples  of  XH  century  mural  painting.  The  fa9ade  has  been  much  mod- 
ernized.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

CERISY-LA-FORET,  Manche.  Eglisc,  which  is  interesting  as  almost  the 
only  Norman  church  supplied  with  transverse  arches  '  that  has  come  down  to  us, 
is  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  lloO,  though  I  should  place  it  about  twenty 
years  earlier.  The  plan  includes  three  aisles,  transepts  with  tribunes  and  eastern 
absidioles,  and  a  choir  two  bays  long  which  ends  in  a  semicircular  apse  and  which 
is  flanked  by  side  aisles.  Although  the  transverse  arches  spanning  the  nave  were 
attached  to  only  every  other  pier,  the  system  of  the  nave  is  uniform.  Flying  but- 
tresses concealed  beneath  the  triforium  roof  were  projected  and  in  part  executed. 
Groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs  cover  the  side  aisles;  the  piers  are  rectangular  with 
four  engaged  colonnettes.  The  clearstory  windows  are  flanked  on  either  side  by 
blind  arches,  thus  forming  a  continuous  arcade.  The  apse  is  lighted  by  three 
stories  of  windows,  between  which  there  is  a  passage  concealed  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall.  When  in  the  XHI  century  the  choir  was  vaulted,  the  existing  buttresses, 
turrets,  tracery,  and  pointed  arches  were  added  to  the  exterior.  (Ruprich-Robert; 
De  la  Balle.) 

Monuments  of  the  Third  Class 

DOMFRONT,  Orne.  Notre  Dame-sur-VEau.  Ruprich-Robert  believes  that 
this  monument  is  a  homogeneous  structure  dating  from  c.  IOjO.  This  is  certainly 
an  error;  the  style  of  the  choir  indicates  a  date  at  least  as  late  as  c.  1100,  while  the 
nave,  although  somewhat  earlier,  must  still  have  been  erected  during  the  last  half  of 
the  XI  century.  This  exquisite  example  of  the  pure  Norman  style  was  horribly 
mutilated  in  1825,  when  the  side  aisles  and  the  three  western  bays  of  the  nave  were 
destroyed.  There  remain  three  bays  of  the  nave  together  with  the  transepts  (fur- 
nished with  eastern  absidioles)  and  a  choir  of  one  bay,  ending  in  a  semicircular  apse. 
The  apses  are  covered  with  half-domes,  and  the, choir  is  groin-vaulted;  the  remainder 
of  the  church  was  roofed  in  timber.  The  uniform  system  is  peculiar  in  that  shafts 
are  attached  to  the  inside,  as  well  as  to  the  outside,  faces  of  the  main  piers.  The 
apse  is  decorated  with  a  double  row  of  arcades,  and  the  windows  are  shafted;  the 
nave,   on  the   other   hand,   is   much   less   ornate:   the   archivolts   in   two  orders  are 

'  The  only  otlior  example,  I  believe,  is  at  Esquay  (Calvados).     Vide  infra,  p.  .312. 

297 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

unmoulded,  the  clearstory  windows  are  plain.  The  central  tower  is  decorated  with 
arcades.  A  sculpture  upon  a  stone  embedded  in  the  wall  of  the  north  transept,  above 
the  main  windows,  represents  a  man  in  a  singularly  indecent  posture.  (De  la  Balle; 
Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist  IV,  27.) 

ST.-PIERRE-SUR-DIVES,  Calvados.  Ahbaye  Notre  Dame  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  as  a  nunnery  c.  1012;  Benedictine  monks,  however,  were  installed  in 
1046.  In  1067  the  more  important  buildings  of  tlie  abbey  had  been  completed  and 
the  church  was  consecrated  by  Maurille,  archbishop  of  Rouen.  The  epitaph  of  Ain- 
ard  (t  1078),  the  first  abbot,  is  preserved  by  Orderic  Vitalis  and  contains  a  reference 
to  this  building:  "Here  lies  Ainard,  sweet  smelling  as  the  nard  because  of  his  many 
flowers  of  virtue  and  merit,  by  whom  was  founded  and  built  this  place.  .  .  .  "  ' 
In  1105  the  abbot  Robert  beguiled  Henry  I  to  St.-Pierre-sur-Dives  to  deliver  him 
over  to  his  brother  Robert  Courte-Heuse.  Perceiving  the  treason,  the  king  caused 
the  walls  of  the  cloister  to  be  broken  down,  and  set  fire  to  the  monastery.  The  fire 
completely  destroyed  the  church  and  its  tower;  there  remained  standing  only  black- 
ened and  tottering  walls.  By  order  of  the  king  a  new  church  was  rebuilt  on  the  ruins 
of  the  old.  Ha}ino,"  who  became  abbot  about  IHO,  has  recorded  interesting  details 
of  the  zeal  of  the  people  who  aided  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  abbey.  However, 
the  church  of  HajTao  can  not  have  stood  for  long,  for  Eudes  Rigaud,  archbishop  of 
Rouen,  remarks  that  when  he  visited  the  abbey  in  1255  the  monks  could  not  exactly 
observe  the  rule  because  of  the  workmen  who  filled  the  church  and  the  monastery. 
Numerous  reparations  and  additions  were  executed  in  the  course  of  the  XIV  and  XV 
centuries.  In  1562  the  abbey  was  pillaged  by  the  Protestants.  The  only  portions 
of  the  Norman  structure  which  survive  are  the  row  of  round  arches  near  the  north 
transept  and  the  southern  tower  of  the  XII  century.  Of  the  rayonnant  period  are 
the  northern  tower  and  the  fa9ade.  The  lower  parts  of  the  nave,  including  the  tri- 
forium,  are  of  the  XIII  century,  though  remodeled  by  Jacques  de  Silly  (1501-30), 
whose  arms  may  be  seen  in  several  places.  The  choir  and  the  ambulatory  are 
also  of  the  early  Gothic  period,  but  none  of  the  high  vaults  are  anterior  to  the  XIV 
century.     Of  especial  interest  is  the  fine  pavement  of  enameled  bricks  of  the  choir. 

'  The  epitaph  in  toto  is  as  follows : 

Hie  jacet  Ainardus  reddens  ut  pistica  nardus, 

Virtutum  multis  floribus  et  meritis, 
A  quo  fundatus  locus  est  hie  aedificatus 

Ingente  studio,  nee  niodico  pretio. 
Vir  fuit  hie  magnus  probitate  sua\Tis  ut  agnus, 

Vita  conspicuus,  dogmate  praecipuiis. 
Sobrius  et  castus,  prudens  semper  et  honestus. 

Pollens  consilio,  clarus  in  officio. 
Mentis  huic  gravitas  inerat  et  niaturior  aetas 

Canaque  caesaries,  et  tenuis  facies. 
Quem  nonas  decimas  Felirio  promente  Calendras 

Abstulit  ultima  sors,  et  rapuit  cita  mors. 
Pro  quo  qui  transis,  supplex  orare  memor  sis 

Ut  sis  ei  saties,  clara  Dei  facies.     Amen. 
'  Tliis  important  text  is  cited  below,  p.  151  seq.,  Vol.  II. 
298 


MONUMENTS   OF   THE   THIRD   CLASS 

A  well-preserved  chapter  house  of  the  XIII  century  adjoins  the  church.  Notwith- 
standing its  vast  dimensions,  this  abbey  is  of  little  artistic  or  archaeological  interest. 
(I)e  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

VERXKUIL,  Eure.  La  Madeleine  is  justly  famous  for  its  tower,  one  of  the 
superlative  masterworks  of  fianiboyant  desijjn.  This  tower  is  said  to  have  been 
built  between  150C-30  '  —  dates  which  correspond  well  with  the  style  of  the  archi- 
tecture. The  nave  together  with  the  two  side  aisles  and  the  south  transept  appears 
to  date  from  the  end  of  the  XII  century.  The  pointed  arches  of  the  main  arcades 
are  carrietl  by  monocylindrical  piers.  These  piers  are  included  two  by  two  in  larger 
semicircular  arches  in  the  center  of  each  of  whicli  formerly  opened  a  window.  Against 
those  columns  which  support  this  enclosing  arch  is  engaged  a  shaft  rising  towards 
the  roof,  and  it  is  probable  that  rib  vaults  were  projected  since  one  was  actually  exe- 
cuted in  the  south  transept.  The  present  vault  is  modem,  and  the  choir  is  of  the 
XV  and  XVI  centuries.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

Notre  Dame.  The  original  construction  of  the  XII  century  comprised  a  long 
nave,  a  central  tower,  and  a  choir  of  a  single  bay  ending  in  an  apse  adorned  with 
pointed  arcading.  The  choir  and  the  square  bay  beneath  the  tower  were  supplied 
with  vaults  similar  to  those  which  characterize  the  churches  of  Anjou.  Ribs,  com- 
posed of  two  tori,  crossed  beneath  a  high  dome,  whose  joints  were  horizontal  and 
concentric.  The  aisles  which  were  continued  to  form  an  ambulatory  were  covered 
with  groin  vaults.  In  the  XV  century  two  chapels  were  added  to  the  right  and  left 
of  the  choir;  in  the  XVI  century  a  transept  was  added  between  two  bays  of  the  nave. 
The  vaults  of  this  transept  are  sujiplied  with  rich  pendants.     (De  la  Balle.) 

St.  Nicolas.  The  nave  of  the  XII  century  has  been  disfigured,  but  the  XV  cen- 
tury choir  is  well  preser\"ed.     (De  la  Balle.) 

St.  Laurent  is  desecrated.  The  choir  exists  no  longer,  but  the  portal  of  the  XV 
and  XVI  centuries  is  of  some  slight  interest.     (De  la  Balle.) 

AIZIER,  Eure.  Eglise  is  of  interest  as  one  of  the  earliest  extant  examples  of 
Norman  architecture.  The  existing  edifice  consists  of  a  single-aisled  nave,  a  choir  sur- 
mounted by  a  central  tower,  and  an  apse.  The  square  archivolts  rest  on  square  piers. 
The  south  wall  of  the  nave  has  preserved  the  masonry  of  the  XI  century.  On  this 
side  there  was  originally  a  side  aisle  which  has  been  destroyed.  On  the  north  side 
the  old  Norman  aisle  was  evidently  replaced  in  the  XV  century  by  a  Gothic  construction 
wliich,  however,  has  also  been  demolished  and  the  pointed  arcades  walled  up. 
The  apse  and  tower  preserve  their  original  character,  and  may  be  assigned  to  c. 
1040.  The  stepped  pyramidal  roof  which  was  added  to  the  tower  in  the  XII  century 
is  of  great  interest.     (De  la  Balle.) 

THAN,  (Thaon),  Calvados.  St.  Sam.^nn.  The  date  of  this  beautiful  little 
monument  has  been  much  discussed.  Ruprich-Robert  assigns  the  central  tower  to 
c.  1050;  this,  however,  is  certainly  an  error,  for  the  entire  monument  except  the 
choir,  seems  to  be  a  homogeneous  structure  of  c.  1135.  The  church  had  originally 
three  aisles,  but  the  side  aisles  have  been  demolished,  and  the  arcades  walled  up.  A 
shaft  is  engaged  on  the  outer  faces  of   the  piers,  which  looks  as  if  transverse  arches 

'  Guihneth,  Histoire  de  Verneuil,  '2nd  edition,  1836.     8vo.     p.  31. 
299 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

might  have  been  thrown  across  the  aisles.  Timber  roofs  covered  the  entire  build- 
ing except  that  bay  of  the  Gothic  choir  which  is  under  the  central  tower;  this  bay  is 
supplied  with  a  rib  vault.  The  nave  has  no  system,  but  is  richly  ornamented  inter- 
nally and  externally  with  arched  corbel-tables,  double  chevrons,  diapering,  billets, 
frets,  pilaster  strips,  and  arcading.  The  tower  is  one  of  the  finest  of  all  Normandy; 
the  design  is  characterized  by  grouped  windows  of  several  richly  moulded  orders  with 
angle  shafts,  grotesques,  etc.  A  stair  turret  is  added  in  one  corner.  The  whole 
terminated  in  a  cornice  consisting  of  an  arched  corbel-table,  surmounted  by  a  low 
pyramidal  roof.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert  LXVIII,  LV.) 

HAMBYE,  (Hambie),  Manche.  Abhaye  was  founded  about  1145.  The  nave, 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  ruins  of  Normandy,  was  commenced  soon  after,  but  was 
finished  only  in  the  XIII  century.  It  is  thus  an  important  example  of  Norman 
transitional  architecture.  This  nave,  which  consisted  of  only  a  single  aisle,  was 
lighted  by  long  lancet  windows  between  which  rose  the  five  shafts  of  the  vaulting 
system.  The  choir,  which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  XIII,  or  beginning  of  the  XIV, 
century,  is  provided  with  an  ambulatory.  The  supports  of  the  chevet  were  mono- 
lithic, and  the  triforium  is  remarkable  for  its  square  openings.  Earlier  than  the  choir, 
and  probably  about  contemporary  with  the  nave,  is  the  tower.  (De  la  Balle;  Benoist 
V,  54.) 

AUDRIEN,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  plan  of  this  church  forms  a  perfect  Latin 
cross,  the  east  end  being  square.  The  choir  is  of  the  XIII  or  early  XIV  century,  but 
the  transepts  with  their  eastern  absidioles  are  of  the  XII  century.  These  absidioles 
are  crowned  by  conical  roofs,  added,  like  those  of  St.  Nicolas  of  Caen,  in  the  Gothic 
period.  The  transepts  are  further  remarkable  for  the  rich  portals  pierced  in  the 
western  walls,  and  for  the  cornice,  consisting  of  a  pointed  arched  corbel-table.  The 
superb  but  unfinished  central  tower  is  of  the  XIV  century,  and  the  nave  also  dates 
from  the  same  period.     (Ruprich-Robert  CXI;  De  la  Balle:  Benoist.) 

SEQUEVILLE-EN-BESSIN,  (Secqueville),  Calvados.  St.  Sidpice.  Robert 
Wace  states  that  this  church  was  burned  by  the  troops  of  Henry  I  king  of  England,  in 
1105,  while  that  monarch  was  besieging  Bayeux.  Robert  Fitz  Haimon,  commander 
of  the  troops  of  Duke  Robert,  being  pursued  by  the  royal  forces,  was  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  the  tower;  but  the  soldiers  of  the  king  set  the  church  on  fire,  and  thus  forced 
him  to  surrender.'  Since  the  traces  of  this  fire  may  still  be  seen  in  the  nave  and  on 
the  west  face  of  the  tower,  it  is  probable  that  the  church  was  merely  repaired  after 
1105,  but  not  entirely  rebuilt,  what  remained  of  the  XI  century  structure  being  entirely 
overlaid  with  rich  ornament.  The  existing  edifice  consists  of  a  nave  four  bays  long 
flanked  by  side  aisles,  transepts,  a  lengthened  and  vaulted  choir  of  a  single  aisle,  and 

'  Robert  s  'embatit  el  mostier 
Sur  en  laton  tres  hal  clochier 
Mais  il  ni  pent  gaires  atendre 
Volsit  u  non  I'estut  descendre 
Kar  ci  feu  i  fu  aportez 
Dune  li  mostier  fu  alumez  .  .  . 
Roljert  fu  pris  e  bien  gardez 
Et  a  Baienes  fu  menez,  etc. 
300 


MONUMENTS   OF    THE    rillllD    CLASS 

three  apses.  There  is  no  system.  The  main  archivolts  are  in  two  unmoulded  orders, 
but  tlie  clearstory  windows  are  shafted,  and  tlie  spandrels  are  covered  with  rich  diap- 
ering. Externally  the  bays  are  marked  by  buttresses,  and  the  ornament  consists 
of  arched  and  flat  corbel-tables  and  blind  arcades  —  the  arcade  of  the  clearstory 
being  remarkable  for  its  coupled  shafts.  The  tower  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt 
in  its  upper  parts  after  1105,  since  the  decoration  comprises  arches  in  several  orders 
and  buttresses.  This  tower  was  crowned  by  a  majestic  spire  in  the  XIII  century, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  nave  was  vaulted.  The  present  choir  is  a  work  of  the  XVII 
century.     (Ruprich-Robert  XX;  De  la  Balle.) 

STE.-MARIE-DU-MONT,  Manche.  Egllse.  The  enlargement  of  the  prim- 
itive structure  of  the  XI  century  was  begun  towards  the  end  of  that  century,  but  was 
completed  only  in  the  XII  century.  At  this  time  the  side  aisles  were  added,  the  exist- 
ing arcades  being  pierced  in  the  primitive  walls  of  the  nave.  The  archivolts  of  these 
arcades  are  in  two  orders,  but  there  is  no  system.  The  choir  and  the  transept  which 
were  added  later  in  the  XII  century  show  the  influence  of  the  style  of  the  He  de  France. 
The  choir  was  vaulted  in  the  XVI  century,  and  at  the  same  time  the  existing  tower  — 
a  construction  of  the  most  decadent  style  —  was  erected.  (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich- 
Robert;  Benoist  V,  63.) 

AUTHEUIL,  Orne.  Ecjlise,  dating  from  about  the  middle  of  the  XII  century, 
has  been  much  rebuilt  in  modern  times.  The  plan  includes  a  single  aisle,  transepts 
with  eastern  absidioles,  a  lengthened  choir,  and  an  apse.  Choir  and  crossing  are 
groin-vaulted;  the  rest  of  the  church,  however,  is  roofed  in  timber.  The  windows 
are  shafted  and  in  two  orders;  the  apse  is  decorated  with  shafts  and  buttresses 
employed  in  a  purely  decorative  manner.     (Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle.) 

ST.  CENERI,  Orne.  Eglise.  (III.  120.)  This  interesting  little  monument 
is  of  great  importance  for  its  frescoes  —  the  best  extant  examples  of  Romanesque 
])olychrome  mural  decoration,  although  they  have  unfortunately  been  somewhat 
restored.  The  church  itself,  which  consists  of  a  single  aisle,  transepts  with  eastern 
absidioles,  a  choir,  and  a  semicircular  apse,  except  for  the  half-domes  over  the  apses, 
is  entirely  covered  with  wood.  There  is  a  central  tower,  which,  being  narrower 
than  the  nave,  rests  on  piers  falling  within  the  latter,  and  there  is  thus  left  a  little  pas- 
sage opening  from  the  nave  directly  into  the  transepts.  This  disposition,  common 
in  the  school  of  Berry,  is  rare  in  Normandy.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

St.  Leonard  contains  some  fragments  of  Norman  architecture.     (De  la  Balle.) 

Chapelle  Notre  Dame  de  Pitie. 

MORTAIN,  Manche.  Abbaye  Blanclie  ("La  Blanche,"  "Prieure-Blanc-lez- 
Mortaing").  This  abbey,  one  of  the  earliest  .structures  of  Normandy  to  show  influence 
from  thellede  France, is  a  characteristic  example  of  a  Cistercian  church.  Consequently, 
since  the  abbey  was  affiliated  with  the  Cistercians  only  in  1147,  it  is  evident  that 
the  present  structure  must  be  a  work  of  the  second  half  of  the  XII  century,  and 
not,  as  has  been  claimed,  the  church  erected  11  "20.  It  is  known,  in  fact,  that  a 
consecration  of  this  church  was  celebrated  in  l'20(i,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  con- 
struction was  in  progress  during  the  entire  second  half  of  the  XII  century.  The  plan 
includes  a  single  nave,  a  vast  transept  to  the  east  of  which  open  square  chapels,  a 

301 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

square  east  end,  and  a  bell  tower  of  wood.  The  nave  system  was  probably  origi- 
nally continuous,  but  the  shafts  have  been  cut  off,  and  are  now  carried  on  corbels. 
The  pointed  and  highly  domed  rib  vault  is  erected  on  a  square  plan.  Only  one  arcade 
now  remains  of  the  cloister  which  formerly  adjoined  the  church;  this,  however,  is 
of  extraordinary  interest  as  almost  the  only  surviving  example  of  a  Norman  cloister. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

St.  Evrouh,  erroneously  said  to  have  been  built  in  1082,  is  a  curious  monument, 
full  of  the  local  characteristics  of  the  strange  country  in  which  it  is  placed.  The  church 
is  supplied  with  side  aisles,  but  there  are  no  transepts.  Round  and  pointed  arches 
are  both  employed  in  the  windows  and  doorways.  The  peculiar,  yet  withal  effective 
tower  is  of  the  XV  century. 

MONTIVILLIERS,  Seine-Inferieure.  Ahbatjc.  "1035.  Montivilliers  having 
come  into  his  possession,  Robert  undertook  soon  after  to  found  there  a  convent  for 
women.  And  the  first  abbess  was  Beatrice,  a  friend  of  Duke  Robert;  the  second 
was  Elizabeth"'  —  "Elizabeth  I  succeeded  Beatrice  before  the  year  1066.  She 
acquired  much  property  at  Lillebonne,  and  ceased  to  exercise  her  office  before  the 
year  1116  or  1117.  She  is  believed  to  have  built  from  the  foundations  the  church 
of  her  monastery,  which  survives  to  this  day."  ^  Ruprich-Robert,  however,  refuses 
to  accept  this  date,  "except  for  the  central  tower  and  other  portions  of  the  edifice"; 
and,  indeed,  the  style  of  the  main  body  of  the  structure  would  seem  to  indicate  the 
middle  rather  than  the  commencement  of  the  XII  century.  The  system  is  uniform 
with  a  single  shaft ;  the  clearstory  widows  are  shafted ;  the  archivolts  are  in  two  orders 
and  moulded.  The  decoration  throughout  is  extraordinarily  rich.  The  south  tran- 
sept is  remarkable  for  its  quadripartite  rib  vaulting.  In  the  XVI  century  a  parallel 
nave  with  six  lateral  chapels  was  added  to  the  north  to  serve  as  a  parish  church.  It 
is  probably  to  this  nave  that  the  historians  refer,  when  they  mention  a  dedication  of 
the  church  of  Montivilliers  in  1513.  A  noble  Norman  tower  rises  at  the  northwest 
angle  of  the  existing  fafade,  and  is  crowned  by  a  simple  spire  of  the  XIII  century  with 
angle  turrets.  The  central  tower  is  also  fine.  The  principal  western  portal  is  a 
superb  example  of  rich  Norman  ornament;  it  is  surmounted  by  a  Gothic  rose  window 
with  fine  rayonnant  tracery.     (Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle;  Cotman;  Benoist.) 

GRAVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Ste.  Honorine  (111.  145)  is  assigned  to  c.  1080 
by  Ruprich-Robert,  but  can  hardly  be  earlier  than  c.  1100.  Even  so,  the  intersecting 
arcade  of  the  north  transept  is  the  earliest  extant  instance  of  this  feature,  and  as  such 
is  of  great  interest.  The  choir  with  its  square  east  end  and  clearstory  of  oculi  is  a 
work  of  the  XIII  century;  the  Norman  portions  of  the  edifice  include  the  transepts, 
the  fine  central  tower,  the  nave,  the  side  aisles,  and  the  ruined  tower  adjoining  the 
church  to  the  northwest.     The  system  of  the  nave  is  alternate,  and  the  intermediate 

•  1035.  Recepto  Monasterio  Villari  in  suam  potestatem,  Rothbertus,  monasterium  puel- 
larum  ibidem  mox  instaurare  coepit.  Prima  ejus  loci  abbatissa  fuit  Beatrix,  Rotberti  ducis 
amita;  secunda  Elizabeth.  — Annal.  Benedie.,  lib.  LVII,  Vol.  IV,  p.  400.  See  also  te.xt  cited 
infra,  p.  303,  under  St.  Taurin  of  Evreux. 

^  Elizabeth  I  Beatricem  excepit  ante  annum  10G6.  Plurima  acquisivit  apud  Elaebonnam 
sen  Juliobonam,  fatis  functa  ante  annum  1116  sen  1117.  Creditur  basilicam  monasterii  sui, 
quae  adhuc  superest,  a  fundamentis  excitasse.  —  Gatl.  Chris.,   Vol.  XI,  col.  28'2,  cit.  Inkersley. 

302 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

supports  have  no  shaft.  Billet  mouldings  surmount  the  main  archivolts,  which  are 
of  two  orders.  The  clearstory  windows  are  small.  Externally  the  buttresses  are 
well  developed,  although  there  are  no  vaults;  the  cornice  consists  of  a  fine  set  of  flat 
corbel -tables.     (Ue  la  Balle;  Ruprich-llobert.) 

Other  Monuments 

LONLAI,  (Lonlay),  Orne.  Abbaye  consists  of  transepts  dating  perhaps  from 
the  end  of  the  XI  century,  a  Gothic  choir  of  the  XIII  century  flanked  by  side  aisles, 
and  a  central  tower  without  much  character.  The  place  of  the  nave,  which  seems 
never  to  have  been  constructed,  is  occupied  by  a  little  porch.  The  transepts  are 
roofed  in  timber;  the  choir,  however,  is  supplied  with  a  lofty  vault.  The  walls  of 
the  transepts  are  ornamented  internally  by  an  arcade  with  coupled  shafts,  of  which 
the  simple  abaci  are  often  not  continued  as  string-courses.  The  supports  of  the  choir 
are  columns  crowned  by  capitals  with  polygonal  abaci,  just  above  which  the  single 
shaft  rests  on  a  corbel.  Although  the  clearstory  is  high,  there  are  no  flying  buttresses. 
(De  la  Balle;  Benoist  V,  29;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

EVREUX,  Eure.  5/.  Taurin.  "Richard  II  [duke  of  Normandy  996-1026]  is 
said  by  Robert  du  Mont  to  have  jiartially  restored  the  monastery  of  St.  Taurin  at 
Evreux,  which  Richard  his  father  had  begun  to  rebuild."'  —  "Concerning  the  res- 
toration of  the  nunnery  at  IMontivilliers,  built  not  far  from  the  town  of  Harfleur,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Seine  .  .  .  there  is  extant  a  charter  of  the  beginning  of  the  year  1035. 
This  place  Richard  II  had  given  to  the  monks  of  Fecamp,  but  Robert  wishing  to 
change  it  into  a  priory,  asked  abbot  John  to  take  in  exchange  St.  Taurin  of  Evreux."^ 
From  these  texts  it  is  evident  that  the  abbey  of  St.  Taurin  was  rebuilt  in  the  first 
half  of  the  XI  century.  However,  the  Norman  fragments  contained  in  the  present 
edifice  can  not  have  belonged  to  this  church,  since  the  style  is  that  of  a  much  later 
epoch  —  c.  1140.  In  1194  the  church  was  burned:  —  "The  king  Philippe-Auguste, 
...  as  soon  as  he  had  sacked  the  city  of  Evreux,  ruined  it  in  blind  rage,  nor  did  he 
spare  the  church  of  St.  Taurin  very  famous  in  those  regions.  For  when  he  ordered 
this  to  be  burned,  and  no  one  in  all  the  great  army  was  so  untouched  by  fear  of  God  as 
to  be  willing  to  execute  this  impious  command,  the  king  himself,  it  is  said,  with  cer- 
tain lost  men  of  the  kind  who  are  called  'Ribaldi,'  entered  the  holy  edifice  and  set 
it  on  fire."  ^     The  church  was  reconstructed  after  this  fire  and  of  this  reconstruction 

'  Richardo  secundo  tribuitur  a  Roberto  de  Monte  restauratio  ex  parte  monasterii  sancti 
Tauriiii  Ebroicensis,  quod  Ricliardus  ejus  pater  reficere  coeperat.  —  Annul.  Benedic,  lib.  LV, 
Vol.  IV,  p.  .'51!),  cit.  Inker-sley. 

^  Iiieunte  anno  MXXXV  .  .  .  actum  de  instaurando  puellari  Monasterio-Villari,  baud 
procul  ab  opido  Harfleto,  prope  ostia  Sequanae  constructo.  Hunc  locum  Richardus  secundus 
Fiscannensibus  monachis  contulerat,  et  Robertus  locum  ietum  in  priorem  statum  restituere  volens, 
Johanneni  al)batum  roga\it,  ut  ipsi  eum  concedcret,  date  in  commutationem  monasterio  Sancti 
Tauriiii  apud  Eliroas.  — /feW.,  lib.  LVII,  Vol.  IV,  p.  400. 

'  1104.  I'orro  rex  .  .  .  urhcm  Ebroicenseni,  quam  prius  spoliarat,  peniici  furore  euertit, 
nee  celclxTrimae  in  illis  regionibus  ecclesiac  bcati  Gaurini  pepercit.  Cum  enim  eamdem  incendi 
iussi.sset,  ct  nullus  ex  fanto  exercitu  <livini  tinioris  intuitus  nefariae  iussioris  executor  existeret, 
ipse  (ut  dicilur)  cum  quibusdam  perditis  ex  illo  hominum  genere,  quos  Ribaldos  vocant,  ingres- 
sus  sacris  aedibus  ignem  immisit.  —  Guillelmi  Neubrigensis,  lib.  V,  p.  55'.2,  cit.  Inkersley. 

303 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

remain,  though  much  altered,  fragments  of  architecture  of  great  value  for  the  study 
of  the  transition  in  Normandy.  The  nave  as  it  stands  to-day  is  a  curious  patchwork 
of  different  constructions:  the  north  aisle  together  with  certain  fragments  of  the  nave 
arcades,  as  we  have  seen,  date  from  c.  11^0;  the  upper  parts  of  the  nave  and  the  square 
tower  which  dominates  the  transepts,  belong  to  a  reconstruction  of  1047;  the  south 
aisle  is  of  the  XVI  century  and  half  Renaissance  in  character;  the  piers,  which  are 
surrounded  each  by  twelve  colonncttes,  date  from  after  the  fire  of  1195;  the  wall  of 
the  north  transept  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  south  transept  are  Norman ;  and  the 
choir  is  of  the  early  XIII  century,  but  has  been  much  altered  in  the  flamboyant  period. 

AUFFAY,  Seine-Inferieure.  Prieiire.  This  establishnient,  founded  as  a  col- 
legiate church,  became  in  1007  the  seat  of  a  priory,  when  the  present  transepts  were 
erected.  In  1264  Eudes  Rigaud,  archbishop  of  Rouen,  found  the  nave  in  a  ruinous 
condition,  and  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt  in  the  form  which  it  still  retains.  The  present 
southern  aisle  of  the  choir  seems  to  have  been  added  slightly  later,  perhaps  in  the  XIV 
century;  but  the  central  and  northern  aisles  of  the  choir  and  the  west  facade  belong 
to  the  XVI  century.  The  nave  vaults  were  destroyed  in  1472,  and  the  existing  tower 
was  built  in  1735.  IMonocylindrical  piers  with  octagonal  abaci  and  a  triforium  gal- 
lery characterize  the  design  of  the  nave.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

BENY-SUR-jMER,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  a  fine  example  of  the  style  of  the  XII 
century.  There  is  a  single  aisle;  the  choir  is  vaulted.  The  buttresses  are  salient, 
and  the  tower  and  spire  show  the  influence  of  the  style  of  the  He  de  France.  There 
seems  to  be  documentary  evidence  that  the  church  was  rebuilt  (doubtless  in  its  original 
form)  in  the  X\"III  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

PONT-AUDEMER,  Eure.  St.  Germain,  although  much  modernized,  is  a  most 
important  monument.  Ruprich-Robert '  does  not  hesitate  to  assign  the  nave  to  the 
first  half  of  the  XI  century.  This  nave,  originally  six  bays  long,  was  reduced  to  half 
that  length  in  1817.  Since  there  is  no  system,  it  is  evident  that  the  original  roof  of 
the  nave  as  well  as  that  of  the  side  aisles  was  in  timber.  The  transepts,  central  tower, 
and  choir  are  somewhat  later,  and  have  been  much  altered  in  the  Gothic  period.  The 
transepts  originally  had  the  usual  eastern  absidioles;  only  one  of  these  now  survives. 
Although  the  primitive  apse  has  been  replaced  by  a  square  east  end  of  the  XIV  cen- 
tury, the  choir  retains  its  Norman  groin  vaults  with  transverse  ribs.  The  exterior 
of  the  nave  is  characterized  by  arcades  in  two  orders,  flat  pilaster  strips,  flat  corbel- 
tables,  billet  mouldings,  and  capitals  already  assuming  Norman  characteristics. 
(Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle.) 

Notre  Dame-du-Pre  is  a  curious  example  of  Norman  transitional  architecture. 
(Benoist  II,  58.) 

FONTAINE-HENRY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  It  was  determined  in  the  XIX 
century  to  lengthen  the  choir  of  the  original  church  (whose  construction  Ruprich- 
Robert  assigns  to  c.  1170)  by  the  addition  of  an  extra  bay.  Accordingly  the  square 
east  end  was  torn  down  and  rebuilt  stone  for  stone  further  to  the  east,  and  a  new 
intermediate  bay  was  erected  between  this  and  the  remainder  of  the  church.  The 
present  nave  is  also  modern,  and  the  tower  uninteresting.     The  ancient  choir  which 

'  Arch.  Norm.  X. 
304 


OTIIKK    MONUMENTS 

appears  to  have  been  a  inonuineiit  of  extraorilinary  beauty,  comprised  a  single  aisle 
covered  with  (]ua(irii)artite  rib  vaults,  and  was  richly  decorated  with  ornament  of 
remarkable  delicacy  and  refinement.  Especially  graceful  are  the  two  exterior  ar- 
cades.    (lluprich-Robcrt;  De  la  Balle.) 

RUCQUE\'ILLE,  Calvados.  Egline.  The  ornament  of  this  ruined  and  neg- 
lected monument  is  strongly  Burgundian  in  character  and  quite  without  parallel  in 
Normandy,  except  for  the  capitals  found  imbedded  in  the  great  piers  of  the  crossing 
of  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux.  On  this  analogy  the  construction  may  be  assigned  to 
the  early  years  of  the  XII  century.  The  plan  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  with  a 
nave  of  a  single  aisle  and  a  square  east  end  of  the  XIII  century.  The  transept  was 
the  only  portion  of  the  edifice  to  be  vaulted. 

IFS,  Calvados.  £glise,  which  is  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1180,'  is 
famous  for  its  Gothic  spire,  in  the  purest  style  of  the  XIII  century.  This  spire  with 
its  four  angle  turrets  rises  from  a  noble  Norman  tower,  the  style  of  whose  upper  story 
is  distinctlv  transitional.  The  single-aisled  nave  is  of  little  interest  except  for  the 
southern  portal,  a  charming  example  of  late  Norman  design.  The  choir  is  an  addi- 
tion of  the  XIII  century,  but  the  windows  were  made  over  in  the  flamboyant  period. 

PONTORSON,  Manche.  Notre  Dame.  (111.  140.)  This  edifice,  dating  from 
the  third  (juarter  of  the  XII  century,"  is  of  interest  especially  for  its  facade,  one  of  the 
most  original  and  fanciful  of  Norman  designs.  The  composition  is  dominated  by  a 
great  pointed  arch,  two  stories  in  height,  opening  upon  a  recessed  porch.  Two  tur- 
rets flank  the  gable.  The  single-aisled  nave  and  the  transepts  are  at  present  covered 
with  pointed  quadripartite  rib  vaults  '  on  a  square  plan.  The  square  choir  dates 
from  the  Gothic  period.     (Ruprich-Robert  XCVII;  De  la  Balle.) 

BOURG-DUN,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  existing  edifice  consists  of  a 
nave  flanked  by  two  side  aisles  of  unequal  width,  salient  transepts,  and  a  choir  (with 
a  southern  side  aisle)  terminating  iu  a  square  east  end.  In  the  XI  century,  the  nave 
was  roofed  in  timber  and  supplied  with  narrow  side  aisles;  absidioles  opened  off  the 
transepts,  and  the  choir  consisted  of  a  single  square  compartment  followed  by  an  apse. 
At  the  end  of  the  XII  century  a  new  nave  and  southern  side  aisle,  both  rib-vaulted, 
were  erected,  and  the  choir  was  also  transformed,  its  length  being  increased  by  a  bay 
and  the  apse  being  replaced  by  a  square  east  end.  Other  alterations  executed  in  the 
course  of  the  XIV,  XV,  and  XVI  centuries  include  the  turrets  which  flank  the  west 
gable,  the  rayonnant  central  tower,  and  the  lancet  windows  of  the  clearstory.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

BARXEVILLE,  Manche.  St.  Germain,  an  example  of  the  pure  Norman  style, 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  parish  churches  in  the  departement.  The  nave  of  the 
XI  century  is  covered  by  a  modern  vault;  the  simple  interior  is  decorated  only  with 
a  cornice  formed  of  a  flat  corbel-table.     A  squarfe  east  end  terminates  the  choir  of 

>  .Uch.  Xnrm.  CXVI. 

•*  De  la  liallc  states  tliat  in  1171  the  chateau  of  Pontorson  was  destroyed  by  fire  and  that  the 
clmrcli  shared  the  same  fate.  The  existing  edifice,  consequentlj',  may  well  have  been  erected 
immediately  after  this  fire. 

'  Rupridi-Uoljert,  Arch.  Norm.  CVIII,  gives  a  restored  plan  in  which  are  shown  groin 
vaults  with  transverse  ribs. 

305 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

the  XII  century.  The  great  tower  which  flanks  the  church  rises  over  a  sort  of  fran- 
septal  chapel.     (De  la  Balle.) 

AMBLIE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  assigned  to  c.  1160  by  Ruprich-Robert.'  The 
nave  and  the  choir  are  Norman,  but  the  latter  has  been  "restored"  with  the  usual 
dire  results,  and  the  existing  vaults  are  an  addition  of  the  XV  century.  The  west 
facade  dates  from  the  early  Gothic  period,  but  the  tower  is  of  the  late  XVI  century. 
(Ruprich-Robert.) 

VAUDREUIL,  Eure.  Notre  Dame.  This  curious  little  church  must  have 
existed  as  early  as  the  X  century,  for  it  is  recorded  that  in  lOOG  Richard  II  presented 
the  parish  to  the  abbey  of  Fecamp.  No  part  of  the  existing  edifice,  however,  can  be 
earlier  than  the  XI  century.  The  church  as  it  stands  to-day  consists  of  three  aisles, 
a  central  tower,  and  a  semicircular  apse.  The  aisles  have  coupled  windows  and  are 
groin-vaulted;  the  nave  is  covered  by  a  modern  barrel  vault.  In  contrast  to  the  plain 
rectangular  sections  of  the  archivolts,  the  quality  of  the  masonry  is  fine.  The  system 
rests  upon  corbels  placed  just  above  the  absolutely  plain  capitals,  which  crown  the 
monocylindrical  piers.  It  is  evident  that  the  system,  the  cornice,  the  present  aisle 
windows,  and  the  apse  are  the  result  of  alterations  carried  out  in  the  XII  century, 
while  the  shell  of  the  edifice  is  older.  It  is  usually  stated  that  the  original  church 
of  the  XI  century  included  only  a  single  aisle,  and  that  the  side  aisles  were  added 
and  the  arcades  pierced  in  the  XII  century.  Proof  of  this  is  said  to  have  been  found 
in  the  foundations.  To  judge  from  photographs,  however,  —  I  have  not  had  the 
opportunity  of  visiting  this  monument  on  the  spot  —  the  side  aisles  and  nave  must  be 
homogeneous.  The  church  bears  traces  of  further  alterations  executed  in  the  XV, 
XVII,  and  XVIII  centuries. 

BOISNEY,  Eure.  Eglise,  which  assigned  to  c.  1150  by  Ruprich-Robert,^ 
consists  of  three  aisles,  a  square  choir,  and  a  central  tower  which  is  adjoined  to  the 
north  and  south  by  two  little  chapels  too  small  to  deserve  the  name  of  transept.  Be- 
neath the  central  tower  is  a  rib  vault  with  pointed  arches;  the  rest  of  the  church  is 
roofed  in  wood.  The  exterior  is  notable  chiefly  for  the  facade  of  the  XVI  century, 
for  the  decoration  in  arched  corbel-tables,  and  for  certain  pointed  windows.  (Ruprich- 
Robert;  De  la  Balle.) 

ST.-SAUVEUR-LE-VICOMTE,  Manche.  Ahbaije  consists  of  three  aisles, 
transepts,  a  central  tower,  and  a  polygonal  apse  of  the  XIII  century.  The  nave, 
although  vaulted  in  the  XV  century  and  since  much  modernized,  still  retains  its 
interesting  Norman  arcades.  These  arcades,  which  may  be  assigned  to  the  early 
years  of  the  XII  century,  are  characterized  by  archivolts  in  two  orders  supported  upon 
three  shafts  engaged  on  the  piers.  The  system  is  uniform,  and  consists  of  a  single 
shaft,  evidently  not  intended  to  carry  vaulting  ribs.  There  is  no  gallery,  but  a  con- 
tinuous triforium  arcade.  The  side  aisles  are  groin-vaulted.  (De  la  BaUe;  Benoist 
V,  60.) 

LOUVIERES,  Calvados.     Notre  Dame.     The  Norman  nave  and  the  rectangu- 

>  Arch.  Norm.  CXVI. 

^  Arch.  Norm.  LIV.  The  monument,  however,  must  be  later  than  this,  and  probably  dates 
from  c.  1170. 

306 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

lar  vaulted  choir  of  the  XIII  century  are  entirely  eclipsed  by  the  central  tower  with 
its  superb  spire  of  the  early  Gothic  period. 

ST.  CONTEST,  Calvados.  Eylisc  (111.  136),  assigned  to  c.  1150  by  Ruprich- 
Robcrt,'  is  remarkable  for  its  tower,  whose  pyramidal  stone  roof  is  broken  by  an  ele- 
mentary dormer  window.  Ruprich-Robert  considers  this  rudimentary  spire  to  be 
an  addition  of  the  XVI  century."  The  learned  archaeologist  is  here,  however,  certainly 
in  error,  and  Mr.  Moore  '  is  doubtless  correct  in  believing  that  the  stone  pyramid 
forms  part  of  the  original  construction.  This  spire  is  consequently  the  earliest  known 
example  in  which  a  dormer  window  is  employed  to  break  the  transition  from  square 
basement  to  sloping  upper  member.  The  tower  itself  is  of  great  beauty  with  its 
stair  turret  and  rich  ornament,  which,  while  elaborate,  is  well  composed.  This  church 
reverses  the  usual  dispositions  in  that  the  rectangular  choir  is  Norman,  while  the  nave 
is  an  exceptionally  fine  example  of  the  style  of  the  XIII  century.  The  choir  vaults, 
however,  were  added  in  the  Gothic  period.     (Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle.) 

TAMERVILLE,  Manche.  Eglisc.  This  church  is  assigned  to  c.  1 100,  and  the 
tower  to  c.  1140  by  Ruprich-Robert,^  —  erroneously,  however,  for  tower  and  church 
seem  to  be  homogeneous  structures  of  c.  1130.  The  edifice  is  extremely  simple,  con- 
sisting of  a  single  aisle,  a  central  tower,  and  a  square  east  end.  Rib  vaults,  unfor- 
tunately much  rebuilt,  cover  the  choir.  The  triumphal  arch,  which  is  of  horseshoe 
form,  is  supported  by  very  peculiar  capitals.  The  tower,  ornamented  externally 
with  cylindrical  buttresses,  consists  of  two  octagonal  stories  on  a  square  base.  (De 
la  Balle:  Benoist;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

CHEUX,  Calvados.  Eglisc.  (111.  142.)  De  Caumont  assigns  the  apse  and 
transept  of  this  church  to  the  first  half  of  the  XII  century:  the  remainder  of  the  mon- 
ument belongs  to  the  early  Gothic  period.  The  portal,  which  Ruprich-Robert  dates 
c.  1 160,  is  richly  decorated  with  double  chevrons,  billet  mouldings,  and  shafts.  The 
church  is  very  large  and  includes  three  aisles,  transepts,  and  an  apse  flanked  by  two 
chapels.     (Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist  III,  38.) 

QUILLEBEUF,  Eure.  Notre  Dame-du-Bon-Port.  This  well-known  monu- 
ment comprises  constructions  of  various  epochs.  To  the  Norman  period  belong  the 
nave,  the  west  portal,  and  the  tower,  but  the  side  aisles  were  rebuilt  in  1786,  and  the 
choir  with  its  ambulatory  is  of  the  late  flamboyant  style,  transitional  to  the  Renais- 
sance. The  west  portal  is  remarkable  in  that  its  mouldings  are  continued  to  the  ground 
without  break,  no  imposts  or  shafts  being  inserted.  An  extremely  picturesque  com- 
position is  the  low  central  tower  with  its  rich  ornament.  The  nave,  six  bays  long,  is 
characterized  by  archivolts  in  two  orders,  by  square  piers  with  two  engaged  colon- 
nettes  carrying  the  inner  order  of  the  arches,  by  many  arches  of  horseshoe  form,  and 
by  a  timber  roof.     The  clearstory  has  been  suppressed  in  modern  times. 

RYES,  Calvados,  tlglise.  There  is  a  generally  accepted  tradition  that  this 
church  was  finished  before  1047.  The  rich  ornament  of  the  nave  and  fa9ade,  how- 
ever, is  clearly  of  the  XII  century;  and  while  the  central  tower  is  doubtless  somewhat 
earlier,  even  this  with  its  shafted  orders  and  rich  mouldings  can  hardlv  be  anterior 

>  Arch.  Norm.  CXXXII.  ^  Goth.  Arch.,  p.  183. 

=  Ibid.  CXXXVIII.  *  Arch.  Norm.  CXIII. 

307 


NORMAN   :\IONUMENTS 

to  the  end  of  the  XI  century.  The  choir,  which  belongs  to  the  early  Gothic  period, 
is  ornamented  with  arcades.     (Ruprich-Robert ;  De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

CINTHEAUX,  Calvados.  St.  Germain.  The  date  of  this  edifice  is  known  from 
an  extant  charter  of  1181,  which  records  that  in  this  year  Robert  Marmion  donated 
the  parish  to  the  Abbey  of  Barbery.  The  chui-ch,  which  is  very  richly  decorated,  con- 
sists of  a  single  aisle  with  a  square  east  end.  Certain  of  the  corbel-tables  are  extremely 
obscene.     (De  la  Balle.) 

SAVIGNY,  Manche.  Eglise  is  a  fine  example  of  the  late  Norman  style,  doubly 
interesting  because  authentically  dated.  In  the  course  of  recent  restorations,  many 
fragments  of  old  frescoes  came  to  light,  and  among  them  a  painted  inscription.  Al- 
though the  letters  of  this  were  too  much  obscured  to  be  legible,  the  date,  1128,  was 
fortunately  well  presen-ed.  The  apse  is  decorated  with  an  arcade  whose  archivolt, 
moulded  and  carved  with  double  chevrons,  is  carried  on  coupled  columns.  The 
transverse  ribs  of  the  groin  vault  of  the  choir  are  flattened  into  quasi-ellipses,  the  vaults 
in  consequence  being  highly  domed.     (De  la  Balle.) 

COLLEVILLE-SUR-MER,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  beautiful  tower,  six 
stories  in  height,  is  crowned  by  a  pyramidal  stone  roof,  broken  by  dormers,  and  is 
decorated  with  elaborate  mouldings  and  shafted  corners.  Although  this  tower  is 
remarkable  in  having  no  corner  buttresses,  Ruprich-Robert  is  certainly  in  error  in 
assigning  it  to  c.  1050,  since  such  elaborate  decorations  could  not  have  been  executed 
before  the  XII  century.  As  for  the  church  itself,  it  is  a  work  of  the  XIII  century, 
with  the  exception  of  the  southern  portal  —  a  fine  example  of  the  rich  Norman 
decoration  —  and  the  choir  vaults  added  in  the  rayonnant  period.  Originally  the 
nave  was  flanked  by  a  single  side  aisle,  but  this  has  been  demolished. 

ST.  LO,  Manche.  Stc.  Croix.  (111.  143.)  Of  the  edifice  erected  by  Charle- 
magne in  80o,  nothing  survives.  The  present  structure  consists  of  three  aisles,  a 
square  east  end,  and  a  central  tower.  The  nave,  which  dates  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  XII  century,  is  characterized  by  archivolts  in  two  orders  ornamented  with  rich 
chevrons;  by  a  system  of  a  single  shaft;  and  by  vaults  evidently  added  to  the  orig- 
inal construction.  The  side  aisles  are  groin-vaulted.  Flat  buttresses  and  arched 
corbel-tables  ornament  the  exterior  walls,  while  the  rich  west  portal  is  surmounted 
by  sculptures  of  devils  with  chains,  forming  a  most  original  and  delightful  compo- 
sition. The  spire  is  of  the  XIII  century,  and  supplied  with  turrets  and  dormers.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  this  monument  has  been  disfigured  by  modern  alterations. 
(De  la  Balle:  Benoist  Y,  26.) 

BEAUMAIS,  Calvados.  Eglise.  (111.  144.)  The  rich  and  beautiful  doorway 
of  the  XII  century,  which  is  still  preserved  though  not  in  its  original  position,  is 
ornamented  with  finely  cut  mouldings,  dog-tooths,  rope  mouldings,  billets,  rinceaux, 
grotesques,  etc.  In  each  jamb  stands  a  single  shaft.  The  exterior  of  the  square 
choir  is  adorned  with  two  rows  of  arcades  superimposed,  and  a  flat  corbel-table  on 
which  are  carved  subjects,  in  several  instances  obscene.  The  square  tower  without 
spire  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Normandy. 

GENETS,  Manche.  Notre  Dame  et  St.  Sehastien  is  said  to  have  been  built 
by  Robert  of  Thorigny,  abbot  of   Mt. -St. -Michel.     Of  this  church,  consecrated   in 

308 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

11j7,  there  remains  only  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  tower,  but  this  fragment  is  of 
interest,  because  the  arches  of  the  interior  are  pointed  and  carried  on  pillars  sur- 
rounded by  many  engaged  colonnettes.  The  vault,  however,  has  no  ribs.  Somewhat 
earlier  —  perhaps  of  the  XI  century  —  are  the  present  transepts.  The  nave,  flanked 
by  side  aisles,  is  not  vaulted;  it  is  preceded  by  a  great  porch  of  the  XV  century.  The 
choir,  although  constructed  in  the  XI\'  century  and  rebuilt  in  the  flamboyant  period, 
preserves  some  fragments  of  the  XIII  century  glass.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

DOUVRKS,  Calvados.  St.  Rcmi.  The  beautiful  tower  which  flanks  the  church 
on  the  north,  between  the  choir  and  the  nave,  rises  over  a  chapel  of  the  XII  century. 
This  chapel,  however,  opens  on  the  nave  by  a  pointed  arch,  which,  like  the  upper 
story  of  the  tower  and  the  spire,  must  be  of  the  early  XIII  century.  The  nave  of 
the  church  is  Norman;  the  north  side  aisle  has  been  suppressed.  The  choir  is  of 
the  XIV  or  XV  century.     (Ruprich-Robert  CXLI;    De  la  Balle.) 

BIEVILLE,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame.  This  church  of  the  first  half  of  the 
XII  centurj',  consists  of  a  single  aisle  with  a  square  east  end,  the  whole  roofed  in 
timber.  Except  for  the  southern  wall,  which  is  principally  modern,  the  exterior  is 
richly  ornamented  witii  arched  corbel-tables  and  buttresses  in  two  orders,  while  an 
arcade  with  double  shafts  is  carried  across  the  facade,  and  two  oculi  are  pierced  in  the 
gable.  The  tower  is  in  part  Gothic.  The  choir  is  remarkable  above  all  for  the 
indecent  sculptures  of  its  corbel-tables. 

FRESNE-CAMILLY,  Calvados.  Eglise  consists  of  two  unequal  parallelo- 
grams (comprising  respectively  the  nave  and  choir)  separated  by  a  transept  and 
flanked  by  a  southern  tower.  The  nave  —  notwithstanding  the  pointed  arches,  a 
work  of  the  XII  century  —  is  roofed  in  timber,  but  the  choir,  w  hich  was  reconstructed 
in  the  XIII  century,  is  vaulted.  A\  hile  the  upper  parts  of  the  tower  appear  to  be 
modern,  the  chapel  which  forms  the  base  of  this  tower  and  the  adjoining  bay  of  the 
choir  are  the  most  ancient  parts  of  the  building,  and  may  be  as  old  as  the  XI  century. 
(Ruprich-Robert  CII;  De  la  Balle.) 

LA  LL'CERNE,  (La  Luzern),  Manche.  Abhcvjc.  It  is  said  that  the  founda- 
tions of  this  now-ruined  abbey  were  laid  in  11 04  —  a  date  which  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  style  of  certain  portions  of  the  existing  remains.  Especially  the  western 
portal  with  its  rich  Norman  decoration,  its  segmental  and  pointed  arches,  and  its 
chevrons  merely  chipped  on  the  edge  of  the  square  member,  must  have  been  erected 
about  this  time.  The  extant  ruins  include  remains  of  the  three  aisles,  transepts,  and 
central  tower  —  the  latter  quite  Gothic  in  style.  The  nave,  which  seems  to  have 
had  no  system  nor  triforium,  was  characterized  by  archivolts  of  a  single  order  deco- 
rated with  chipped  chevrons  and  by  moulded  clearstory  windows.  (De  la  Balle; 
Benoist.) 

ASNIERES,  Calvados.  St.  Vigor.  The  oldest  portion  is  the  rectangular  choir, 
but  even  this  has  been  modified  and  vaulted  in  the  XIII  century  —  the  epoch  at  which 
the  tower  and  the  transept  were  constructed.  The  former  is  surmounted  by  a  fine 
spire.     Of  the  late  Norman  style  are  the  rich  portals.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

ANTSY,  Calvados,  tlglise  is  characterized  by  a  single-aisled  nave  covered  with 
wood,  a  square  east  end,  and  a  gable  belfry.     The  portions  constructed  in  herring- 

309 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

bone  masonry  ought,  according  to  accepted  dogma,  to  be  of  the  XI  century;  if  so, 
the  monument  must  have  been  much  altered  in  the  XII  century,  for  the  arched 
corbel-tables,  shafted  windows,  and  other  ornaments  betoken  a  decoration  poor,  it 
is  true,  but  evidently  late.     (Ruprich-Robert ;  Cotman.) 

MARTINVAST,  Manche.  Notre  Dame.  With  the  exception  of  the  nave,  the 
tower,  and  one  of  the  transepts  ruined  by  modern  "restoration,"  this  church  may 
be  assigned  to  the  late  XII  century.  The  exterior  is  interesting  for  the  apse  orna- 
mented with  shafts  replacing  buttresses  —  a  decoration  which  recalls  the  schools  of 
Burgundy  or  Berry,  —  and  for  the  well  preserved  western  portal.  Of  the  interior 
of  the  church  the  most  conspicuous  feature  is  the  triumphal  arch  in  two  orders 
ornamented  with  a  fret.  The  choir  is  covered  with  a  square  rib  vault.  Since  several 
of  the  ribs  are  supported  on  corbels,  this  vault  is  doubtless  a  later  addition  to  the 
original  structure.     (De  la  Balle:  Benoist.) 

LION-SUR-MER,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  exquisite  tower  of  the  XII  cen- 
tury is  characterized  by  shafts,  mouldings,  sloping  and  salient  buttresses,  grouped 
openings  of  many  orders,  and  a  cornice  formed  of  arched  corbel-tables.  The  nave, 
built  of  herring-bone  masonry,  is  assigned  to  c.  1070  by  Ruprich-Robert;  at  some 
subsequent  time  —  probably,  however,  before  the  erection  of  the  tower  —  side  aisles 
were  added,  but  these  were  later  destroyed.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

VAU\RAY,  Eure.  St.  Etienne.  This  church  is  said  to  have  been  burned  in 
1136,  but  in  the  rebuilding  which  followed  this  disaster,  certain  parts  of  the  walls 
and  the  portal  in  three  orders  belonging  to  the  primitive  church  were  retained.  The 
nave  preserves  a  timber  roof  of  the  XIII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

LERY,  Eure.  St.  Oiien.  The  original  building  consisted  of  a  square  choir, 
transepts, a  central  tower, and  a  single-aisled  nave.  When  the  side  aisles  were  added, 
arches  were  opened  in  the  nave  walls  at  regular  intervals,  and  the  spaces  of  wall  left 
between  were  rounded  into  piers.  These  piers  are  in  small  masonry  without  bases 
and  with  the  simplest  sort  of  capitals.  The  nave,  which  has  no  system,  is  disfigured 
by  a  modern  barrel  vault,  but  the  clearstory  windows,  long  walled  up,  were  reopened 
in  1845.  The  design  of  the  facade  is  characterized  by  a  central  doorway  with  three 
round-headed  windows  above,  by  rich  ornament,  and  by  delicate  mouldings.  (De 
la  Balle;  Cotman  XLVI;  Benoist  II,  35.) 

HAM,  Manche.  Eglise.  Although  it  is  usually  thought  that  the  western  por- 
tions of  this  monument  are  fragments  of  the  church  which  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
by  Arefast  about  1080,  it  is  clear  from  the  style  that  no  parts  of  the  existing  edifice 
can  be  anterior  to  the  XII  century.  The  monument  has  been  entirely  rebuilt  in  the 
XIII  century,  but  the  plan  (which  includes  a  single  aisle,  transepts,  a  lateral  tower, 
and  a  square  east  end)  does  not  appear  to  have  been  radically  modified,  except  that 
the  nave,  originally  roofed  in  wood,  has  been  recently  vaulted.  The  western  portal 
is  adorned  with  triple  chevrons  and  a  drip  moulding.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

CAMPIGNY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  (111.  137.)  The  tower  is  assigned  to  the 
XI  century  by  Ruprich-Robert,'  although  it  certainly  must  be  as  late  as  the  first  third 
of  the  XII  century,  since  it  is  ornamented  with  arcades,  rich  billet  mouldings,  and 

'  Arch.  Norm.  XXXI. 
310 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

roll  mouldings.  Elementary  angle  turrets  soften  the  transition  to  the  spire  of  the 
late  XII  or  early  XIII  century.  The  square  choir  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century  is 
flanked  by  a  great  chapel  of  the  XIV  century.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

BOUVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Chapclle  St.  JuUen.  This  deserted  church,  a 
rare  example  of  Norman  art,  is  distinguished  by  the  severe  purity  of  its  lines,  the  grace 
of  its  proportions,  and  the  refinement  of  its  interior  decoration.     (Benoist.) 

NEL  F-MARCHE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise,  which  is  assigned  to  the  XI  cen- 
tury by  Ruprich-Robert,  consists  of  a  single  aisle,  transepts,  a  square  choir  flanked 
by  two  chapels,  and  a  semicircular  apse.  The  tower  is  supported  by  piers  falling 
within  the  nave  walls,  a  passage  thus  being  managed  from  the  nave  directly  into  the 
transepts.  Except  for  the  aisle  chapels,  which  are  groin-vaulted,  and  the  apse,  which 
has  a  half-dome,  the  church  is  entirely  roofed  in  wood.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

PERIERS,  Manche.  Eglise  retains  a  Norman  doorway,  although  the  monu- 
ment is  almost  completely  Gothic  in  style,  having  been  built  about  the  beginning  of 
the  XIV  century.  A  century  later  a  rebuilding  on  a  much  more  ambitious  scale  was 
begun,  but  never  entirely  completed.  The  choir  with  its  polygonal  apse  dates  from 
the  latter  epoch;  the  three  aisles,  transepts,  and  central  tower,  from  the  former.  The 
nave  has  no  clearstory;  and,  curiously  enough,  the  tower  vaults  are  without  ribs. 
(De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

RUGLES,  Eure.  St.  Germain.  To  the  very  small  and  rustic  nave  of  the  XIII 
century  was  added,  about  the  year  1500,  the  present  glorious  tower  —  a  work  quite 
worthy  of  a  great  cathedral.  The  style  of  this  tower  is  characterized  by  intersecting 
mouldings,  ogee  and  flattened  arches.  In  the  course  of  the  XVI  century,  the  edifice 
was  still  further  altered  by  the  addition  of  a  new  choir  with  side  aisles.  (De  la  Balle; 
Benoist.) 

Notre  Dame  is  an  unimportant  monument,  now  desecrated.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MANEGLISE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise,  which  is  assigned  to  c.  1 150  by  Ruprich- 
Robert,'  consists  of  a  nave  roofed  in  wood,  two  side  aisles,  a  choir,  and  a  square  apse 
—  the  two  last  rib-vaulted.  The  nave  system  is  carried  on  corbels  placed  slightly 
above  the  capitals  of  the  main  columns.  In  each  bay  of  the  clearstory  is  an  arcade 
of  three  arches  of  which  the  central  one  contains  a  window.  The  principal  portal 
is  Gothic  in  style.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

ROSEL,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  simple  and  elegant  tower,  assigned  by  Rup- 
rich-Robert to  c.  1140,-  is  placed  beside  the  church  in  such  a  manner  that  its  lower 
story  forms  a  chapel.  In  the  upper  story  are  the  usual  two  arcades,  reinforced  by 
corner  buttresses,  while  the  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  stone  pyramid  broken  by  dor- 
mer windows.  The  choir  with  its  square  east  end  is  of  the  XII  century;  its  vaults 
are  most  peculiar  in  that  the  diagonal  ribs,  instead  of  running  from  their  capitals 
straight  to  the  center  of  the  vault,  are  decidedly  curved  in  plan.  The  nave,  roofed 
in  woo<l,  was  enlarged  in  the  XV  century,  but  on  one  side  only,  so  that  its  axis  does 
not  at  present  correspond  with  that  of  the  choir.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

BRESTOT,  Eure.  Ste.  Marie.  The  two-storied  tower,  which  dates  from  the 
last  years  of  the  XI  century,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  has  lost  much  of  its  char- 

1  Arch.  Xorm.  LXXI.  =  Ibid.  CXXXVI. 

311 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

acter  through  modern  restorations,  is  still  of  interest  for  the  ornament  consisting  of 
arcades  in  two  orders  and  of  engaged  shafts.  The  square  choir  is  of  the  XII  century, 
but  was  vaulted  in  the  early  Gothic  period;  its  most  interesting  feature  is  a  rich  win- 
dow with  zig-zag  shafts.  A  wooden  roof  covers  the  single-aisled  nave,  which  has 
been  much  rebuilt  in  the  XIII  and  later  centuries.     (De  la  Balle.) 

PLESSIS-GRIMOULT,  (near  Aunay),  Calvados.  Prieure.  The  church, 
said  to  have  been  consecrated  in  1131  and  to  have  been  commenced  thirty-three 
years  before,  is  almost  entirely  destroyed  with  the  exception  of  the  southern  tower. 
The  plan,  however,  can  still  be  made  out.  Adjoining  the  ruins  are  the  remains  of 
a  circular  chapter-house.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

St.  Etienne.  Although  damaged  by  modern  restorations,  this  church  still  re- 
tains much  interest.  The  vaulted  choir  is  two  bays  long,  and  is  separated  from  the 
nave  by  a  fine  triumphal  arch.  In  contrast  to  the  rich  lateral  doorway  is  the  severely 
simple  and  unmoulded  western  portal,  which,  however,  is  preceded  by  a  porch.  The 
north  lateral  tower  probably  dates  from  the  XV  century.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

ESQUAY,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame.  This  church  of  the  last  third  of  the  XI 
century  consists  of  a  single  aisle,  a  single  western  tower,  a  square  choir,  and  a  semi- 
circular apse.  A  transverse  arch  spans  the  nave.  The  exterior  of  the  apse  is  charac- 
terized by  shafted  windows  and  blind  arches,  but  the  buttresses  are  of  a  primitive 
type.     (Ruprich-Robert  IX,  9.) 

COLOMBIER-SUR-SEULLES,  Calvados.  St.  Vigor.  The  fine  tower,  as- 
signed by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1170,'  is  placed  on  the  north  flank  of  the  church  be- 
tween the  rectangular  choir  and  the  nave.  The  design  is  very  typical  and  well 
composed;  the  mouldings  and  decoration  are  advanced  in  style.  A  lofty  pyramid 
dating  probably  from  the  XIII  century  rises  from  the  upper  story.  (Ruprich-Robert; 
De  la  Balle.) 

AISY,  (Aizy),  Calvados.  Eglisc.  The  architecture  of  this  monument  is  said 
to  show  influence  from  the  He  de  France. 

LITTRY,  Calvados.  Eglise,  though  much  modernized,  is  said  to  be  in  large 
part  of  the  XI  century.     The  choir  is  vaulted.     (Benoist.) 

OCTEVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  only  ancient  portions  are  the  choir, 
the  apse,  and  the  octagonal  central  tower.  The  latter  may  be  assigned  to  the  early 
years  of  the  XII  century  except  the  curious  upper  story,  evidently  an  addition  of  the 
earl}'  Gothic  period.  Like  the  bay  underneath  the  tower,  the  choir  is  vaulted  with 
rib  vaults  on  an  oblong  plan,  and  two  ribs  are  placed  beneath  the  half-dome  of  the 
apse.  Several  of  the  carvings  upon  the  exterior  corbel-tables  are  obscene.  (De  la 
Balle.) 

BRICQUEBEC,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  transepts,  the  central  tower,  the  choir, 
and  the  polygonal  apse  date  from  the  XIV  or  XV  centuries;  the  Norman  nave  and 
side  aisles,  however,  are  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1130.^  The  system  of 
the  nave  is  uniform;  the  archivolts  in  two  orders  are  richly  decorated  with  frets  and 
chevrons;  the  columns  are  massive  and  supplied  with  richly  varied  capitals.  Clear- 
story and  external  buttresses  are  omitted. 

>  Arch.  Norm.  CXL.  ^  ^^^j^   ^q^,   lxX. 

312 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

ROTS,  Calvados.  Eglise  consists  of  a  rectangular  choir,  transepts,  a  central 
tower,  and  a  single-aisled  nave.  The  latter  shows  work  of  two  epochs:  the  lower 
portions,  richly  decorated  with  a  series  of  elegant  arcades,  must  date  from  the  last 
half  of  the  XII  century;  the  windows  above  and  the  wooden  vault  are  modern.  The 
much  restored  choir  and  transepts  were  vaulted  in  tlie  X\T  and  XVII  centuries.  As 
for  the  central  tower,  the  first  story  is  of  the  XIII  century;  the  second  of  the  XIV; 
and  the  third  of  the  XV.     (Hui)rich-Robcrt,  I)e  la  Balle.) 

Chapelle  de  VOrtkil. 

LUC-SUR-MER,  Calvados.  Eglise.  Of  the  ancient  church  destroyed  in 
1873-77  only  the  tower  survives.  The  windows  with  pointed  arches  must  date  from 
the  very  end  of  the  XII  century,  but  the  ramparts  which  so  picturesquely  crown  the 
composition  are  additions  of  the  XVI  century.     (Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle.) 

MOUEN,  Calvados.  St.  Malo,  a  wooden-roofed  church  of  a  single  aisle,  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  XII  century,  and  the  ornament  of  arched  corbel-tables,  arcades, 
etc.,  is  very  rich  and  charming.  The  facade  is  particularly  interesting:  the  lower 
portions  are  adorned  with  chevrons,  star  mouldings,  billets,  rineeaux,  and  grotesques; 
the  second  story  is  formed  of  a  very  highly  ornamented  arcade  which  is  continued 
across  the  sides  of  the  monument.  The  tower,  without,  it  must  be  confessed,  any 
great  claim  to  distinction,  seems  to  be  mainly  contemporary.  (Ruprich-Robert  CIII; 
De  la  Balle.) 

CHAMBOIS,  Orne.  Eglise,  of  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century,  shows  unmis- 
takable signs  of  French  influence.  The  edifice  consists  of  a  nave  roofed  in  timber, 
a  groin-vaulted  choir  with  a  square  east  end,  and  a  tower  crowned  by  a  stone  spire 
of  the  very  last  years  of  the  XII  century.  Above  the  portal  of  the  crude  western  fa- 
cade may  still  be  seen  traces  of  the  imposts  of  a  wooden  porch  which  once  protected 
the  doorway. 

BASLY,  Calvados.  Eglise,  remarkable  for  its  tower,  is  assigned  by  Ruprich- 
Robert  to  c.  1140.'  The  design  is  simple  and  dignified,  and  were  it  not  for  the  fine 
mouldings,  the  late  date  would  hardly  be  suspected.  The  spire  was  added  in  the  XIV 
century.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

TOUR,  (Tours),  Calvados.  St.  Pierre.  Two  side  aisles,  which  have  been  de- 
molished, formerly  accompanied  the  Norman  nave.  The  main  western  portal  is 
extremely  rich  and  furnished  with  shafts  of  great  slenderness.  An  admirable  spire 
with  turrets  and  dormers  crowns  the  central  tower,  which  is  said  to  date  from  the 
last  years  of  the  XII  century.  The  Norman  tran.septs,  notwithstanding  the  later 
vaults,  have  in  the  main  preserved  their  original  characteristics,  while  the  rectangular 
choir  of  the  late  XIV  century  is  very  elegant  in  design.  (De  la  Balle;  Benoist  111, 
lOJ.) 

AUBERVOYE,  Eure.  Eglise  consists  of  three  aisles,  a  central  tower,  a  choir, 
and  a  polygonal  a[)se.  The  choir  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  tower  are  of  the  XII 
century,  but  the  upper  part  of  the  tower  fell  in  1806,  and  has  been  rebuilt  on  a  differ- 
ent design.  The  nave  of  the  XIII  century  is  characterized  by  monoeylindrical  piers. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

■  Arch.  Norm.  CXXXM. 
313 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

Orotic  de  BeihJeem  is  a  strange  grotto  intended  as  a  reproduction  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Nativity  in  Bethlehem.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BROGLIE,  Eure.  St.  Martin  consists  of  a  nave,  a  southern  side  aisle,  and  a 
choir  with  ambulatory.  There  was  originally  a  central  tower.  The  archivolts  of  the 
main  arcade  are  in  two  orders, and  rest  upon  severely  plain  rectangular  piers;  the  south 
side  of  the  nave  seems  to  have  been  altered  in  the  XV  century,  when  the  j)resent  vaults 
were  constructed.  Externally,  the  large  clearstory  windows  are  moulded;  the  fa9ade 
is  a  patchwork  of  the  styles  of  the  XI,  XII,  and  XVI  centuries.  According  to  De 
la  Balle  (whose  description  of  this  church  is  wretchedly  inadequate)  the  ambulatory 
is  part  of  the  original  plan  of  the  XI  century.     Since,  however,  an  ambulatory  of  the 

XII  century  would  be  without  precedent  in  Normandy,  it  is  probable  that  this  is  an 
error.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ROUEN,  Seine-Inferieure.  St.  Paul.  Of  the  church  of  the  XI  century,  only 
the  choir  with  its  three  apses  survives,  and  even  these  fragments  have  been  much 
altered,  for  the  present  rib  vaults  and  salient  buttresses  are  obviously  not  part  of  the 
original  construction.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

AUGUERNY,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  probably  a  monument  of  the  first  half  of 
the  XI  century.  The  tower,  whose  lower  portions  are  constructed  of  herring-bone 
masonry,  is  crowned  by  a  lateral  pyramid  in  stone.  The  mouldings  are  few  and 
simple.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

PUTOT-EN-AUGE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  choir,  which  is  assigned  to  c. 
1190  by  Ruprich-Robert,'  is  decorated  externally  with  engaged  arcades  similar  to 
those  of  the  church  of  Rots  (Calvados).  Like  the  nave,  the  tower  is  a  construction 
of  the  XIII  century,  much  modified  in  the  late  rayonnant  period.  (Ruprich-Robert; 
Benoist  III,  56.) 

STE.  MLRE-fiGLISE,  Manche.  Eglise  consists  of  three  aisles,  transepts,  a 
central  tower,  and  a  rectangular  choir.  The  crossing  with  its  horseshoe  arches  is 
of  the  XII  century,  but  the  remainder  of  the  edifice  is  of  the  early  Gothic  period. 
The  vaults  that  cover  the  entire  edifice  are  carried  on  a  logical  system;  there  is  no 
clearstory.     (De  la  Balle:  Benoist.) 

NEUFCHATEL,  Seine-Inferieure.  Notre  Dame,  although  essentially  a  Gothic 
edifice,  retains  some  fragments  of  Norman  architecture.  The  choir,  without 
ambulatory,  was  originally  erected  in  the  XIII  century,  but  was  rebuilt  in  its 
present  form  after  a  fire  in  1472;   the  north   transept,  however,   is   a  work   of   the 

XIII  century.  Most  interesting  is  the  south  transept  of  the  XV  century,  which  ends 
in  a  semicircular  apse.  The  exterior  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  flying  but- 
tresses and  by  the  tower  which  precedes  the  church  to  the  west.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BRIOUZES,  Orne.  Prieure  St.  Andre  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  consecrated  in  1080.  There  survives  only  the  curious  west  gable, 
the  half-dome  of  the  apse,  and  a  little  square  tower.     (De  la  Balle.) 

tlglise  is  said  to  have  been  consecrated  December  11,  1095  ( ?).     (Benoist  IV,  19.) 
VIENNE,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  said  to  be  of  the  XI  century.     The  central  west- 
ern tower  is  severely  simple,  except  for  its  upper  story,  which  is  characterized  by 

'  Arch.  Norm.  CXXX. 
314 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

richly  decorated  openings,  arcades,  anil  an  arched  corbel-table.  A  stone  pyramidal 
roof  of  considerable  elevation  crowns  the  entire  composition.  The  choir  has  been 
rebuilt,  and  the  remainder  of  the  edifice  is  of  slight  interest  except  for  the  south  lat- 
eral doorway  richly  adorned  with  chevrons,  frets,  and  triple  billet  mouldings.  (De 
la  Balle:  Uuprich-Robert  CXXXIV.) 

JUAYK,  Calvados.  St.  Vigor.  This  ruined  edifice  —  one  of  the  most  gracious 
parish  churches  of  the  canton  —  consists  of  three  aisles,  a  north  lateral  tower,  and  a 
choir  with  a  square  east  end.  The  choir  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  XII  century; 
the  tower  antl  the  nave  are  of  the  early  Gothic  period.  Simple  arches  resting  on  cylin- 
drical columns  with  crocketed  capitals  and  round  abaci  characterize  the  design  of 
the  nave.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

Am'ERMLLE-LA-GROSSE-TOUR,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  famous  for  its 
tower  of  the  XIII  century.  The  shell  of  the  nave  as  well  as  the  choir  is  Norman, 
but  the  vaults  are  an  addition  of  the  Renaissance.     (Benoist.) 

JORT,  Calvados.  Eglise  consists  of  a  nave  flanked  by  side  aisles,  transepts, 
and  a  rectangular  choir.  The  monument  is  probably  a  homogeneous  structure  of 
the  last  years  of  the  XII  century,  although  the  choir  at  first  sight  would  appear  to  be 
Gothic  in  character.  In  the  south  facade  is  preserved  a  fragment  of  a  linteled  door- 
way of  the  XI  century;  it  is  ornamented  with  stars  and  rinceaux  of  crude  execution. 
(Ruprich-Robert;  De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

BRETrEVILLE-L'ORGUEILLEUSE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  This  monument, 
which  is  assigned  to  c.  1220  by  Rupricli-Robert,'  betrays  its  late  date  only  in  the  fine- 
ness of  its  mouldings,  the  ornament  being  otherwise  thoroughly  Norman  in  character. 
The  tower  is  of  the  XIV  century. 

ST.  PAIR,  Manche.  Eglise  is  entirely  modern  with  the  exception  of  the 
uninteresting  tower  said  to  date  from  1131,  the  vaulted  choir  of  the  XV  century, 
and  the  octagonal  spire  of  the  XIII  century  with  its  four  angle  turrets.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ST.-PIERRE-EGLISE,  Manche.  Eglise.  Although  rebuilt  in  1651,  this 
church  still  retains  certain  interesting  fragments  of  ancient  architecture.  The  curi- 
ous round-arched  portal,  ornamented  with  chevrons  and  lozenges,  is  of  the  last  period 
of  Norman  art,  while  the  lancet  windows  of  tiie  first  story  belong  to  the  Gothic  style. 
The  construction  is  assigned  to  1190-1210  by  De  la  Balle. 

ROUTOT,  Eure.  >S/.  Ouen.  The  original  construction  of  this  church,  which 
seems  never  to  have  included  side  aisles  or  transepts,  was  executed  in  the  XII  cen- 
tury. The  tower,  of  the  very  end  of  that  century,  is  ornamented  with  intersecting 
arcades  (some  of  the  arches  pointed)  and  an  arched  corbel-table.  Pointed  arcading 
also  characterizes  the  exterior  decoration  of  the  rectangular  choir.  The  western 
portions  of  the  nave  and  the  facade  were  rebuilt  in  the  flamboyant  period.  (De  la 
Balle;  Benoist.) 

BRETEIIL,  ?-ure.  St.  Sulpire.  The  architectural  forms  of  the  central  tower 
show  that  it  must  have  been  spared  by  the  fire,  which  is  said  to  have  destroyed  the 
church  in  1138.  The  choir  and  ambulatory  date  from  the  XIII  century.  (De  la 
Balle;  Benoist.) 

■  Arch.  Norm.  CXXIV. 
31.5 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

FORMIGNY,  Calvados.  St.  Martin.  The  Norman  portions,  assigned  to 
c.  1130  by  Ruprich-Robert, '  are  remarkable  for  the  portals  richly  ornamented  with 
chevrons,  billets,  etc.  The  nave  has  been  much  modernized;  the  north  side  aisle 
is  an  addition  of  the  XIV  century.  A  gable  roof  in  stone  surmounts  the  beautiful 
tower,  which  like  the  rectangular  choir  is  evidently  a  work  of  the  XIII  century.  (De 
la  Balle;  Benoist;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

ST.  MARCOUF,  Manche.  Egli.se  consists  of  a  choir,  a  nave,  and  a  transept. 
The  vaults  of  the  choir  and  the  nave  belong  to  the  flamboyant  period ;  the  lower  por- 
tions of  the  tower  are  Norman,  the  upper  stories  additions  of  the  XIII  and  XIV  cen- 
turies; the  portal  whose  archivolt  is  decorated  with  a  chevron  is  also  Romanesque; 
and  the  crypt  is  of  the  same  period.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ST.-COME-DU-MONT,  Manche.  Eglisc.  The  fact  that  this  was  at  once  a 
priory  and  a  parish  church  explains  the  peculiar  east  end  with  its  double  choir  and 
double  apse.  The  main  portal,  part  of  the  nave,  and  the  north  apse  were  erected 
in  the  XII  century;  the  remainder  of  the  church  in  the  XV  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MAUVES,  Orne.  St.  Pierre  is  characterized  by  flat  buttresses,  a  semicircular 
apse  with  round  windows,  a  Norman  choir,  a  single  transept,  and  a  tower  of  the  XII 
and  XIII  centuries.     (De  la  Balle.) 

GUERON,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  apse  of  this  church  is  of  interest  for  the 
ribbed  half -dome  whose  ribs  are  given  function  through  the  raising  of  the  lobe  crowns. 
Externally  the  apse  is  characterized  by  shafts  used  as  buttresses.  Ruprich-Robert 
assigns  this  choir  to  the  first  half  of  the  XII  century,^  but  this  is  evidently  an  error, 
since  the  style  of  the  ornament  indicates  a  date  at  least  as  late  as  c.  1170.  Adjoining 
the  apse  are  buttresses  and  a  portal  of  the  XIII  century.  Of  the  main  body  of  the 
church  the  tower  and  much  of  the  nave  were  erected  in  the  XV  century,  but  the 
former  has  recently  been  rebuilt.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

OUEZY,  Calvados.  Eglise,  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1180,'  is  of 
interest  for  the  capitals  which  show  unmistakable  signs  of  influence  from  the  He 
de  France. 

PIN-LA-GARENNE,  Orne.  Eglise,  assigned  to  1160,Ms  of  interest,  since  it 
retains  some  traces  of  painted  ornament  applied  to  the  timber  portions  of  the  edifice. 

ST.  CYR,  Orne.  Prievre  de  Ste.  Gauhiirge.  Parts  of  the  original  construction, 
founded,  it  is  said,  about  1064,  probably  still  survive,  although  the  present  edifice 
dates  mainly  from  the  XIII  century.  There  is  only  a  single  aisle;  the  tower,  whose 
lower  story  forms  a  sort  of  transept,  ends  in  a  hipped  roof  with  four  pinnacles.  (De 
la  Balle;  Benoist  IV,  45.) 

Eglise.  The  central  western  tower  is  of  interest  for  the  fine  portal,  whose  figure 
capitals  with  foliage  and  grotesques  show  unmistakable  signs  of  French  influence. 
(Benoist.) 

Notre  Dame-de-CUmence. 

PERIERS,  Calvados.  St.  Otien.  The  blank  wall  of  the  simple  facade  is  broken 
by  a  central  portal  (whose  lintel  is  surmounted  by  a  semicircular  relieving  arch),  a 

'  Arch.  Ncyrm.  CXXIX.  '  Ibid.  CXVIII. 

2  Arch.  Norm.  CXI.  *  Il>td.  CXX. 

316 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

little  window,  and  buttresses  plaeed  at  the  angles.  The  herring-bone  masonry  in- 
dicates that  the  construction  must  have  been  executed  in  the  XI  century.  The  nave 
and  side  aisles  are  ruined,  while  the  central  tower,  if  it  ever  existed,  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared. The  (iothic  choir,  however,  is  well  preserved.  (Rupricli-Robert;  Cot- 
man;  De  la  Balle.) 

HEBERTOT,  Calvados.  St.  Andre  consists  of  a  nave  of  a  single  aisle,  a  south- 
western tower,  transepts,  and  a  rectangular  choir.  The  nave  is  roofed  in  timber; 
the  choir  is  rib-vaulted  in  two  bays.  According  to  Ruprich-Robert,'  the  nave  is  of 
the  XI  century,  the  tower  and  choir  of  the  XII. 

COMMES,  Calvados.  Eglise,  of  the  late  XI  or  early  XII  century,  is  of  inter- 
est for  the  fine  tower,  which,  however,  has  lately  been  most  unfortunately  mutilated. 
The  grouped  windows  and  the  angle  of  this  tower  are  shafted,  and  the  whole  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  pyramid  whose  stepped  courses  have  been  smoothed  over  with  cement. 
(Ruprich-Robert.) 

FOXTAINE-LA-SORET,  Eure.  Ec/li.ie.  The  nave  and  the  lateral  tower 
(placed  between  the  nave  and  choir)  date  from  c.  1100;  the  choir  is  of  the  XVI  cen- 
tury. The  church,  which  is  entirely  roofed  in  wood,  is  interesting  for  the  two  stories 
of  windows  pierced  in  the  side  wall.     (De  la  Balle.) 

OSMOY,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  inscription  of  dedication  is  still  pre- 
served: "In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  the  Lord  1170,  on  the  26th  of  April,  this 
church  was  dedicated  in  honor  of  ..." '' 

BARRE-I)E-SEMILLY.  Eglise,  of  the  second  half  of  the  XII  century,  con- 
sists of  a  single  aisle  with  central  tower  and  square  chevet.  The  southern  win- 
dows are  modern.  The  choir  is  covered  with  rib  vaults  on  a  square  plan.  (De  la 
Balle.) 

ETRETAT,  Seine-Inferieure.  Egli.fe,  of  the  XII  century,  is  characterized  by 
the  use  of  columnar  supports,  by  a  small  clearstory,  by  the  absence  of  a  system,  and 
by  richly  ornamented  archivolts.     (Ruprich-Robert  LXX.) 

DUCY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  shafted  Norman  portal  is  surmounted  by  a 
sort  of  gable,  ornamented  with  a  rope  moulding.  Aside  from  this  extraordinary 
doorway,  the  church  is  of  interest  for  the  choir  of  the  XV  century.  (Ruprich-Robert; 
Benoist. ) 

ANGERVILLE-L'ORCIIER,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  is  remarkable  for  its 
fine  tower  ornamented  with  arched  corbel-tables  and  grouped  windows  in  many  orders. 

HLPPAIN,  Calvados.  Eglise,  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  XII  century,  is  remark- 
able for  the  picturesque  tower  placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  nave.  This  tower  is 
ornamented  with  intersecting  double  arcades,  and  crowned  by  a  fine  spire  of  the  XIII 
<-entury.  The  exterior  of  the  single-aisled  nave  is  decorated  with  shafted  arches, 
rope  mouldings,  and  flat  pilaster  strips.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

MEUVAINES,  Calvados.  Eglise  seems  to  date  from  the  end  of  the  XI  century. 
The  facade  is  characterized  by  a  rich  central  doorway  in  several  orders,  flanked  by 

>  Arch.  Norm.  CXXXIV. 

'  .\nno  at)  incamatione  dni  MCLXX  dedicata  hoc  ccclesia  VI  Kl  Maii  in  honore.  .  .  .  This 
interesfing  iiisrription  is  pul)Iishcd  in  facsimile  l)y  Ruprich-Roljci-t,  Arch.  Norm.,  p.  201. 

317 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

two  blind  arches  and  surmounted  by  an  arcade.  The  east  end  is  square.  (Ruprich- 
Robert.) 

ALLEMAGNE,  Calvados.  Tower  —  the  only  existing  remains  of  the  ancient 
church  —  although  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1070,'  is  clearly  a  work  of  the 
XII  century.  The  base  contains  a  little  groin  vault;  the  upper  story  is  decorated 
with  a  double  arcade.     (Benoist  III,  32.) 

VER,  Calvados.  St.  Martin.  (111.  138.)  The  tower,  which  at  present  stands 
isolated  from  the  church,  is  in  many  stories,  a  fact  which  doubtless  induced  Ruprich- 
Robert  "  to  assign  the  construction  to  the  beginning  of  the  XI  century.  This,  how- 
ever, is  clearly  an  error,  since  the  style  is  that  of  the  XII  century.  The  ornament  is 
rich,  particularly  in  the  upper  stories;  the  openings  are  grouped;  arcades  occur; 
and  the  whole  composition  is  topped  by  a  stepped  pyramidal  roof.  The  choir  of  the 
church  proper  was  rebuilt  in  the  XIV  century  with  a  square  east  end,  but  the  nave 
preserves  its  Norman  piers.     (Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist;  De  la  Balle.) 

MONTGAROULT,  Orne.  St.  Remi.  The  sculpture  of  the  portal,  though  in 
the  rich  style  of  the  XII  century,  is  strangely  Carolingian  in  character,  and  the  carv- 
ings include  several  obscene  subjects.  The  square  east  end  and  the  transepts  were 
rebuilt  in  the  XIV  centurj'.  Curious  features  of  this  monument  are  the  windows 
pierced  in  the  buttresses.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist  IV,  20.) 

ENGRANVILLE,  Calvados.  Egli.se.  The  ruined  nave  is  remarkable  for 
its  fine  Norman  doorway  with  rich  ornamentation.  The  choir  of  the  XIII  century 
is  vaulted.  A  four-sided  pyramid  pierced  in  each  face  by  a  little  dormer  surmounts 
the  square  tower.     (De  la  Balle.) 

DUCLAIR,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  —  a  Norman  structure,  whose  choir  has 
been  rebuilt  in  the  XIV  century.     (Benoist.) 

VAUV^ILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  aisles  and  the  tower  are  said  to  date  from 
the  XII  century;  the  nave,  however,  has  been  rebuilt  in  the  early  Gothic  period,  and 
the  choir  is  a  work  of  the  Renaissance.  A  continuous  gable  roof,  whose  slope  is 
interrupted  only  by  the  tower,  covers  all  three  aisles.  This  tower  consists  of  two 
stories  of  coupled  windows.     (De  la  Balle.) 

GRISY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  principal  portal  is  assigned  to  c.  1160  by 
Ruprich-Robert,^  but  the  main  body  of  the  church  is  of  the  Gothic  period.  The 
tower  ends  in  a  rampart  that  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  donjon.     (Benoist.) 

AUTHIE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  assigned  to  c.  1150  by  Ruprich-Robert.''  A 
tower  of  the  XIII  century  rises  between  the  choir  and  the  nave. 

MARIGNY,  Calvados.  Eglise,  which  may  be  assigned  to  c.  1150,  consists  of 
a  single  aisle  with  a  square  east  end.  The  choir  is  groin-vaulted,  but  the  nave  pre- 
serves a  timber  ceiling  of  the  XIV  century.  The  lateral  doorway  is  remarkable  for 
its  rich  ornament.     (De  la  Balle;  Ruprich-Robert.) 

FONTAINE-HALBOUT,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  northern  portal,  to-day 
walled  up,  is  a  fine  example  of  XII  century  ornament,  the  archivolt  being  richly  carved 

1  Arch.  Norm.  LXXX.  ^  Arch.  Norm.  CXIX. 

2  Arch.  Norm..  XXXU.  *  Ibid.  CXXUI. 

318 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

with  c'lievrons.  The  tower  and  pyramid  are  also  elegant  specimens  of  the  style  of 
architecture  in  vogue  c.  1200.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BRIK^HEVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  interesting  tower  of  the  XII  cen- 
tury is  ornamented  with  coupled  windows  enclosed  in  triple  orders,  drip-moulded 
and  shafted.  A  portal  of  the  XIII  century  is  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  nave 
—  a  single-aisled  structure  of  the  XII  century  that  has  been  much  rebuilt.  The 
transepts  and  rectangular  choir  are  without  architectural  character.  (De  la  BaUe; 
Benoist.) 

GRAIN\'ILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  preserved 
monuments  in  the  departement,  consists  of  a  Norman  nave,  a  choir  of  the  XIV 
century,  and  a  north  lateral  tower  of  the  XV  century,  rising  between  the  choir  and 
the  nave.     (Benoist  III,  38.) 

ST.  LOUP,  Manche.  Eglise.  This  interesting  monument,  which  probably 
dates  from  the  XII  century,  consists  of  a  nave,  a  choir  ending  in  a  semicircular  apse, 
and  a  central  tower.     The  portal  is  richly  decorated.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BEAUMONT-EN-AUGE,  Calvados.  Prieure.  Only  a  single  bay  of  the  nave 
survives,  but  the  Norman  central  tower  together  with  transept  and  choir  —  the  two 
latter  constructions  of  the  early  Gothic  period  rebuilt  in  the  XVI  century  —  is  well 
preserved.     The  choir  vaults  are  modern. 

HARCOl'RT,  Eure.  Chapclle  is  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1150,'  but 
is  probably  considerably  later.  Nothing  survives  but  the  rectangular  choir,  cov- 
ered with  quadripartite  rib  vaults. 

ETREIIAM,  Calvados.  St.  Romain.  The  facade  still  retains  a  round-arched 
portal,  although  the  nave,  the  choir,  and  the  central  tower  have  all  been  altered  in 
the  XIII  century.  The  tower  is  of  dignified  design,  and  is  crowned  by  a  gable  roof. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

CHAMPS,  Orne.  .S^  j£vroult,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  the  XI  century,  has 
been  much  modernized,  but  the  rich  portal  and  the  semicircular  apse  of  the  ancient 
church  still  survive.  Several  large  windows  pierced  in  the  XV  and  XVI  centuries' 
are  filled  with  fine  glass.     (Benoist.) 

QUILLY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  tower,  low,  flat-roofed,  and  partially  but- 
tressed, seems  rather  crude  than  early,  although  Ruprich-Robert  does  not  hesitate 
to  assign  the  construction  to  the  first  years  of  the  XI  century.  This,  however,  is 
certainly  an  error,  since  the  shafted  windows  and  dog-tooth  ornaments  indicate  a  date 
at  least  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  XI  century. 

CAMBRES,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  facade  is  pierced  by  three  little  windows, 
but  contains  no  doorway.  It  is  constructed  of  herring-bone  masonry  —  an  ear- 
mark of  the  style  of  the  XI  century.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

BOUGY,  Calvados.  St.  Pierre.  The  nave  is  assigned  b\'  Ruprich-Robert  to 
c.  1220,  but  the  choir  may  be  somewhat  earlier.  Transepts,  side  aisles,  and  western 
portals  are  omitted.  The  decorative  features  —  a  curious  mixture  of  Norman  and 
Gothic  forms  —  include  arched  corbel-tables  and  shafted    lancets.     (De   Caumont.) 

ST.  FLOXEL,  Manche.     Eglise  consists  of  a  single  aisle,  transepts,  a  central 

'  Arch.  Norm.  LVI. 
319 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

tower,  and  a  rectangular  choir.  Only  the  lower  half  of  the  tower  and  the  crossing 
which  it  surmounts  are  of  the  Norman  period,  the  remainder  of  the  church  being  for 
the  most  part  a  work  of  the  XIII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MALTOT,  Calvados.  St.  Pierre  consists  of  a  single-aisled  Norman  nave  and 
a  rectangular  Gothic  choir.  The  exterior  of  the  choir  is  adorned  with  an  arcade  of 
pointed  arches.     (De  Caumont.) 

CRIQUETOT,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  contains  remains  of  three  different 
epochs:  the  choir  is  Norman:  the  nave  and  the  two  chapels  forming  transepts,  works 
of  the  XVI  century:  and,  finally,  the  side  aisle  is  of  the  Renaissance. 

VILLIERS-SUR-PONT,  Calvados.  St.  Nicolas.  The  nave  and  the  base 
of  the  tower  are  of  the  first  half  of  the  XII  century;  the  choir,  the  upper  portions  of 
the  tower,  and  the  beautiful  spire  are  of  the  early  Gothic  period.  The  monument 
is  much  ruined.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ALLEAUJNIE,  Manche.  Notre  Dame.  Some  fragments  of  Norman  work 
still  survive,  although  the  choir  dates  mainly  from  the  XIII  century,  while  the  tower, 
the  sacristy,  the  portal,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  nave  are  modern.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ECRAINVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure,  Eglise,  which  is  assigned  to  c.  1150  by 
Ruprich-Robert,  is  entirely  roofed  in  timber.  The  nave  and  side  aisles  are  character- 
ized by  the  columnar  supports,  by  the  archivolts  in  two  orders,  and  by  the  absence  of 
clearstory,  system,  and  buttresses. 

BLAINVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  central  tower  is  of  the  XII  century, 
but  the  spire  is  modern  and  the  single-aisled  nave  is  of  the  flamboyant  period.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

ST.-LEONARD-DE-VAINS,  Manche.  Prieure  may  be  assigned  to  the  end 
of  the  XI  century.  This  monument  is  desecrated;  the  nave  has  been  converted 
into  a  stable,  and  the  tower  into  a  dwelling-house  whose  kitchen  has  been  established 
in  the  ancient  choir.  The  lower  story  of  the  tower  contains  a  simple  groin  vault. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

PERVENCHERES,  Ome.  Notre  Dame.  Among  modern  restorations,  there 
may  still  be  distinguished  the  main  portal  and  other  remains  of  the  XII  century  church. 
The  master  builder,  who  in  1483  remade  the  rectangular  choir  and  all  the  timber 
roofs,  signed  his  name  upon  one  of  the  piers  which  still  support  the  central  tower. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

SAINT-SAENS,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  nave  six  bays  long  dates  from 
the  XIII  century,  but  the  north  side  aisle  was  reconstructed  in  1840,  while  the  cen- 
tral tower  is  Norman.  The  main  arcades  are  supported  by  short  monocylindrical 
piers,  crowned  by  capitals  with  octagonal  abaci  and  with  a  double  row  of  crockets. 
The  church  contains  no  vaults,  but  some  of  the  XV  century  glass  survives. 

SOUSMONT,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  a  bizarre  assemblage  of  fragments 
of  the  XII,  XIII,  XV,  and  XVI  centuries.  The  most  picturesque  feature  is  the  tower 
terminated  en  bafiere. 

GOUSTRANVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  Norman,  but  the  lat- 
eral tower,  though  commenced  in  the  XII  century,  was  terminated  only  in  the  flam- 
boyant period.     (Benoist  III,  56.) 

320 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

TIIURY-HARCOURT,  Calvailos.  Eglise.  Although  the  lower  portions  of 
the  walls  are  Norman,  the  church  in  \\s  ensemble  belongs  to  the  early  Gothic  period. 
Two  side  aisles  flank  the  nave,  which  is  separated  from  the  square  choir  by  a  central 
tower.    (Benoist.) 

TORDOUET,  Calvados.  Kglise.  This  timber-roofed  church  is  notable 
for  the  octagonal  tower  on  a  square  base,  which  rises  between  the  choir  aud  the 
nave.    (Ruprich-Robert.) 

FRIARDEL,  Calvados.  Eglisc,  which  is  assigned  by  Ruprich-Robert  to  the 
end  of  the  XI  century,  is  of  very  small  dimensions,  and  consists  of  a  single-aisled  nave 
terminating  in  a  semicircular  apse. 

HERMANVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglisc,  of  the  Norman  period,  is  said  to  be 
almost  perfectly  preserved. 

TINCHEBRAY,  Orne.  St.  Remi  dates  mainly  from  the  XI  century,  although 
many  additions  —  including  the  present  pointed  vaulting  underneath  the  central 
tower  —  were  made  in  the  XII  century.  The  nave  has  been  torn  down;  only  the 
transepts  and  choir  remain.  There  is  very  little  ornament  of  any  kind.  (De  la 
Balle.) 

TOUQUES,  Calvados.  >S7.  Pierre  consists  of  three  aisles  roofed  in  timber,  a 
vaulted  choir  and  transepts,  and  an  octagonal  tower.  The  nave  which  seems  to  date 
from  the  XI  century  is  characterized  internally  by  archivolts  in  two  orders,  externally 
by  ])lain  archivolts  and  fiat  corbel-tables.     (De  la  Balle;  Benoist.) 

VIRVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  is  remarkable  for  its  interesting  central 
tower.  This  tower  is  only  a  single  story  in  height,  and  each  face  is  pierced  by  two 
windows  flanked  by  blind  arches.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

ROCHE-MABILE,  Orne.  Eglise  consists  of  a  nave,  transepts,  a  semicircular 
apse,  and  a  central  tower.  The  construction  is  very  crude,  and  may  be  assigned  to 
the  first  half  of  the  XI  century,  but  the  vault  of  the  crossing  seems  to  be  a  later  addi- 
tion.    (De  la  Balle.) 

ENGLESQUEVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  Norman  tower,  although  un- 
finished, is  interesting  for  its  oculi.  The  rest  of  the  church  belongs  to  the  XIV  cen- 
tury.    (Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist.) 

CHAMPEAU,  Manche.  Eglise.  Although  some  portions  of  the  walls  are 
Norman,  the  main  body  of  this  church  is  of  the  XVI  century.  The  monument  is 
interesting  for  the  deep  porch  and  for  the  central  campanile  whose  bells  are  placed 
in  openings  arranged  in  a  strangely  picturesque  manner.     (De  la  Balle.) 

CAGNY,  Calvados.  Prieure.  The  church,  though  desecrated,  is  said  to  be 
well  preserved.     (Benoist.) 

INCHEVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  St.  Luh^n.  The  choir,  which  terminates  in 
a  polygonal  apse,  is  said  to  be  of  the  XII  century.     (Darsy.) 

HERONVILLE-ST .-CLAIR,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  assigned  to  c.  1130  by 
Ruprich-Robert.' 

TILLY-SUR-SEULLES,  Calvados.  St.  Pierre  is  assigned  to  c.  1150  by 
Ruprich-Robert." 

■  Arch.  y<>rm.  CXVl.  '  Ibid.  CXIV. 

321 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

Notre  Dame-du-J'al,  contains  two  remarkable  portals,  one  of  which  is  assigned 
to  c.  1160,  while  the  other  appears  to  be  very  early.     (Ruprich-Robert  CXIV.) 

SERQUIGNY,  Eure.  Eglise.  A  remarkable  portal  of  the  XII  century,  orna- 
mented with  birds'  heads,  chevrons,  etc.,  is  preserved  in  the  XVI  century  fafade.  The 
timber-roofed  nave  dates  from  the  flamboyant  period,  but  the  central  tower  is  of  the 
XIV  century.  The  entire  monument  has  been  very  thoroughly  restored.  (Ruprich- 
Robert  CXIII.) 

^'AUX-SUR-SEULLES,  Calvados.  Eglwe,  although  much  disfigured,  is  re- 
markable for  the  arcading  with  which  the  walls  of  the  choir  are  adorned  externally. 
(Benoist.) 

GLOS,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  architectural  fragments  of  the  XII  and  sev- 
eral succeeding  centuries.     (Benoist  III,  66.) 

LA  FERTE-MAC£,  Orne.  Eglise.  The  tower  with  its  shafted  windows  in 
three  orders  and  its  flat  corbel-tables,  dates  from  the  late  XII  century.  The  remain- 
der of  the  edifice,  dating  mainly  from  the  XIII  and  XIV  centuries,  is  without  inter- 
est.    (De  la  Balle;  Benoist  IV,  34.) 

ST.  WANDRILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Chapelle  St.  Saturnin.  This  curious 
little  monument  is  very  similar  to  the  Carolingian  chapel  at  Querqueville,  but  is  said 
to  have  been  reconstructed  by  the  abbot  Gerard,  at  the  beginning  of  the  XI  century. 

EXMES,  Orne.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  partly  Norman,  partly  Gothic  in  style; 
the  choir,  whose  reconstruction  was  begun  in  the  XV  century,  remains  unfinished. 
(Benoist  IV,  20.) 

CRESSERONS,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  western  portal  is  surmounted  by 
three  arches,  the  central  one  of  which  is  pierced  by  a  window.  All  the  archivolts 
are  richly  ornamented.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

CARCAGNY,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  interest  only  for  its  well-preserved 
Norman  apse.     (Benoist.) 

PAVILLY,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  is  said  to  be  Norman  in  style.  The  piers 
of  the  nave  are  square  with  engaged  colonnettes.     (Benoist.) 

STE.  CROIX,  Eure.  £glise.  Of  the  little  building  of  the  XIII  century  only 
the  nave  walls  survive.  In  the  XVI  century  the  present  side  aisle  was  added  to  form 
a  sort  of  southern  chapel  with  a  square  east  end.  Above  the  western  portal  rises  a 
modest  bell  tower.     The  church  contains  glass  of  the  XVI  century.     (De   la   Balle.) 

ROUARE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  only  remains  of  the  Norman  church 
are  to  be  found  in  the  tower  adorned  with  a  double  row  of  arcades.  The  main  body 
of  the  monument  has  been  reconstructed  in  the  XV  and  X\T  centuries. 

ST.  ROUMIN,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  consists  of  a  single-aisled  nave,  a 
central  tower,  and  a  semicircular  apse.  The  tower  contains  grouped  and  coupled 
windows  of  the  late  XII  century;  the  choir  is  contemporary.  The  ensemble  of  this 
little  monument  is  highly  picturesque.     (Brochure  Series  II,  27.) 

ROTHES,  Eure.  Eglise.  The  linteled  portal,  which  dates  probably  from 
the  end  of  the  XI  century,  is  ornamented  with  dog-tooths  and  Carolingian  triangular 
motives.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

PORBAIL,  Manche.     Notre  Dame,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  minor  addi- 

322 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

tions  and  the  XV  century  tower,  is  a  homogeneous  Norman  edifice.  The  archivolts 
of  the  arches  of  the  crossing  are  in  two  orders,  and  the  piers  are  shafted.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BAUON,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  choir  is  of  the  XIII  century  as  is  also  the 
north  lateral  lower,  with  the  pyramid  by  which  it  is  crowned.  The  nave,  partly 
Norman,  has  been  much  modernized.     (De  Caumont.) 

CAUPIQUET,  Calvados.  St.  Martin.  The  main  portal  is  in  the  rich 
Norman  stvle  of  the  XII  century;  the  nave  is  Gothic;  and  the  choir  flamboyant. 
(De  Caumont;  Benoist  II,  .SI.) 

MONTEBOURG,  Manche.  Abbai/e.  Nothing  survives  except  the  founda- 
tions, the  apse,  and  the  transeptal  absidioles.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BARBERY,  Calvados.  Ahbaye  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  1140.  Some 
architectural  fragments  of  interest  survive.     (Benoist.) 

COLOMBELLES,  Calvados.  Eglise,  of  the  Norman  period,  is  decorated 
externally  and  internally  with  arcades.     (Benoist  III,  48.) 

DRUBEC,  Calvados.  tlglUe.  The  upper  stories  of  the  Norman  tower  are 
octagonal.     (Benoist.) 

TREVIKRES,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  said  to  date  mainly  from  the  XII  century. 
The  base  of  tiie  tower  is  square,  but  the  upper  stories  (added  in  the  XIII  century) 
are  octagonal.     (Benoist  III,  106.) 

MOULT,  Calvados.     Eglise.     The  Norman  choir  is  not  without  interest. 

ST.  ARNOULT,  Calvados.  Prieure.  The  rectangular  Norman  choir,  which 
is  said  to  date  from  the  XI  century,  is  ornamented  internally  with  engaged  arcades. 
The  nave,  originally  of  the  same  period,  has  been  altered  in  the  XV  century.  The 
monument  is  in  ruins.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BURES,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  was  consecrated  on  the  21st  of  May,  1168, 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  Rotron  de  Warwick,  as  is  indicated  by  an  inscription 
incorporated  in  the  north  wall.  The  nave,  the  portal,  and  the  transepts  were  altered 
in  the  XIII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

PERRIERE,  Orne.  Eglise.  The  tower  of  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century 
survives,  but  the  interest  of  the  rest  of  the  edifice  has  been  destroyed  by  restorations. 
(De  la  Balle:  Benoist.) 

ST.-GERMAIN-LA-BLANCHE-HERBE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  original 
construction  of  the  XII  century  probably  consisted  of  a  single-aisled  nave  and  a  choir, 
but  these  dispositions  have  been  much  modified.  The  existing  vault  is  Gothic. 
(De  Caumont.) 

N'ERSON,  Calvados.  Eglise  consists  of  a  nave,  two  side  aisles,  transepts  with 
absidioles,  a  central  tower,  and  a  rectangular  choir.  The  construction  is  mainly 
of  the  XIII  and  XIV  centuries,  but  there  are  some  fragments  of  Norman  architecture, 
while  the  tower  is  flamboyant.     (De  Caumont.)     , 

TIIIBOl'VILLE,  Eure.  Eglise.  In  the  course  of  a  recent  restoration,  a  fine 
Norman  doorway  of  c.  1100  was  discovered.  The  nave  dates  from  about  the  same 
periotl.     The  central  tower  fell  in  1847.     (De  la  Balle.) 

LESTRE,  Manche.  St.  Michel.  The  Norman  apse  and  some  pointed  arcades 
are  all  that  remain  of  this  completely  ruined  edifice.     (De  la  Balle.) 

323 


NORMAN    MONUMENTS 

FEINGS,  Orne.  Eglise.  This  church  of  the  XI  century  has  been  much  mod- 
ernized, but  is  still  of  interest  for  the  central  western  tower,  the  curious  portal,  and 
the  timber  roof  of  the  XV  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

CLERAI,  Orne.  Eglise  consists  of  a  single-aisled  nave,  transepts,  a  western 
tower,  and  a  choir.  The  double  arch  of  the  chapel  is  the  only  fragment  of  the  prim- 
itive edifice  which  survives;  the  rest  of  the  church  has  been  rebuilt  at  various  epochs. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

TIERCEVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century.  The 
portal  is  remarkable  for  the  curious  leaf  ornament  carved  upon  its  archivolt  and  for 
the  capitals  which  sliow  the  influence  of  the  style  of  the  He  de  France. 

FRESVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  said  to  date  from  the  XI  century. 
(Benoist  V,  63.) 

SULLY,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  interest  chiefly  for  its  sculptured  corbel-tables. 
The  choir  is  covered  with  a  Gothic  vault;  the  tower  dates  from  the  late  flamboyant 
period.     (Benoist.) 

FOULBEC,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  is  assigned  to  c.  1150  by  Ruprich-Robert.' 
The  west  portal,  in  two  orders  and  shafted,  is  ornamented  with  frets  and  with  dia- 
pered columns. 

BRETTEVILLE-SUR-ODON,  Calvados.  St.  Pierre,  which  is  assigned  by 
Ruprich-Robert  to  c.  1170,^  is  of  interest  chiefly  for  the  obscenity  of  several  of  its 
corbel-tables. 

CHIPONVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  is  a  picturesque  little  building  with 
a  portal  of  the  XII  century,  and  a  spire  of  the  flamboyant  period.     (Benoist.) 

BRECEY,  Manche.  Eglise  is  said  to  be  of  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century. 
(Benoist.) 

ARGENCE,  Calvados.  St.  Patrice  is  notable  for  certain  fragments  of  Norman 
architecture,  and  for  the  choir  of  the  XV  century.     (Benoist.) 

ST.-PIERRE-DU-MONT,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  corbel-tables  are  espe- 
cially obscene.     (Benoist.) 

MORTAGNE,  Orne.  St.  Germain  de  Loise.  The  nave  is  Norman;  the  rest  of  the 
church  is  flamboyant  or  Renaissance.    The  vaults  have  been  destroyed.     (De  la  Balle.) 

Chapelle  de  St.  Santin,  erected  between  9iO  and  997,  has  since  been  frequently 
altered.  Some  parts  of  the  present  edifice  may  be  as  early  as  the  XI  (X  ?)  century. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

ST.  AUBIN,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  Norman;  the  choir  was  vaulted 
in  the  XIII  century.  To  the  north  of  the  choir  is  a  great  chapel  which,  as  is  known 
from  an  inscription,  was  founded  in  l.S-16. 

ST.-DENIS-SUR-SARTHON,  Orne.  Eglise,  of  the  late  XII  century,  is  peculiar 
in  that  the  broad  transepts  are  separated  from  the  nave  by  columns,  and  thus  appear 
almost  like  side  aisles.  The  east  end  is  square;  the  tower  stands  to  the  south.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

BELLENGREVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  mainly  of  the  XII  century,  but  the 
portal  is  said  to  belong  to  the  Norman  period. 

'  Arch.  Norm.  CXXVIII.  '  Ibid.  CXXV. 

324 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

LONGUEVILLE,  (Canton  d'Isigny),  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  tower 
which  has  Ijeen  covered  with  stucco  concealing  the  masonry,  is  of  httle  interest.  The 
church  itself  is  of  the  XI  and  X\  I  centuries.  In  the  north  wall  of  the  nave  may 
be  seen  four  arcades  now  walled  up;  these  originally  opened  upon  a  side  aisle. 
(Ruprich-R;ibert.) 

DEUX-JUMEAUX,  Calvados.  Prieure.  Of  the  ancient  church  of  the  XI 
century  only  the  transepts,  the  choir,  and  the  semicircular  apse  survive.  The  north 
transept  facade  is  peculiar;  the  angles  are  reinforced  by  buttresses,  and  on  the  ground 
story  are  two  very  irregularly  constructed  oculi  surrounded  by  billet  mouldings. 
(Ruprich-Robert;  Benoist  III.  109.) 

MOXTEMER-EN-LIONS,  Eure.  Abbaije,  of  which  only  scattered  fragments 
survive,  was  founded  in  113i.  The  church  seems  to  have  been  commenced  in  1137, 
but  was  not  completed  until  the  XV  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

CASTILLON,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  said  to  date  mainly  from  the  XII  century, 
although  the  choir  was  vaulted  in  the  XIII  century,  and  other  alterations  were 
carried  out  in  the  flamboyant  period.     (Benoist  III,  12.) 

LA  CAINE,  Calvados.  Prieure  is  a  small  building  terminating  in  a  semicir- 
cular apse.  The  north  wall  has  preserved  its  primitive  character  of  the  XII  century. 
(De  Caumont.) 

YAINVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure,  Eglise  of  the  early  XII  century,  consists  of  a 
single-aisled  nave,  a  choir,  and  a  semicircular  apse.  Two  transverse  arches  divide 
nave  from  choir  and  choir  from  apse.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

SUBLES,  Calvados.  Eglise.  With  the  exception  of  some  fragments  of  Norman 
architecture  preserved  in  the  northern  wall  of  the  nave,  the  church  is  a  homogeneous 
monument  of  the  XIII  century. 

STE.  CEROXXE,  Orne.  Eglise,  which  dates  from  the  early  XII  century,  is 
characterized  by  a  semicircular  apse  and  a  central  western  tower.     (De  la  Balle.) 

VAUX,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame  retains  among  modern  additions  a  Norman 
nave  and  a  Gothic  choir.     (De  Caumont.) 

COUVERT,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  in  part  of  the  XII,  in  part  of  the  XIV,  century. 
(Benoist.) 

ANDOUVILLE.  Manche.     tlglise.     The  nave  is  said  to  be  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

\'ERXIX,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  fine  western  portal  and  the  lateral  portal 
must  date  from  the  end  of  XII  century.  The  rest  of  the  monument  is  a  mixture  of 
various  later  styles.     (De  la  Balle.) 

BARNEVILLE-LA-BERTRAND,  Calvados,  dglise  is  said  to  be  mainly  of 
the  XII  century,  but  the  square  east  end  is  pierced  by  three  Gothic  lancet  windows 
now  walled  up. 

ST.-S.\MSON-SUR-RILLE,  Eure.  Eglise,  notwithstanding  its  very  small 
dimensions  and  its  present  condition  of  ruin,  is  interesting  for  the  peculiar  capitals 
it  contains.     The  east  end  is  square.     (Cotraan.) 

ST.-SULPICE-SUR-RILLE,  Orne.  Eglise.  Some  of  the  walls  are  Nor- 
man; the  interest  of  the  church,  however,  centers  in  the  XIII  century  glass.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

325 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

YVILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  tower  dates  from  the  end  of  the  XII 
century,  but  the  choir  and  nave  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  XVI  and  XVII  centuries. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

FRESNAUX,  Orne.  ChapcUe  des  Templiers,  now  desecrated,  is  a  rectangular 
wooden-roofed  structure  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MATHIEU,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame.  The  nave  is  said  to  date  from  the  end 
of  the  XI  or  early  XII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

CAIRON,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  Norman,  but  the  choir  is  said  to 
be  of  the  XIII  century.     (Benoist.) 

MONDEVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  choir  is  said  to  be  of  the  end  of  the 
XII  century,  the  nave  and  the  tower  of  the  early  Gothic  period. 

TESSEL,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  assigned  to  c.  1140  by  Ruprich-Robert.* 

BOUTEVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  said  to  be  Norman.  (Be- 
noist.) 

TOLLEVAST,  Manche.  Eglise  still  preserves,  notwithstanding  the  recon- 
struction of  the  central  tower  in  the  XIII  century  and  of  the  south  wall  of  the  nave 
in  1757,  the  dispositions  of  the  second  half  of  the  XII  century.  The  main  portal  in 
four  orders  is  ornamented  with  frets  and  surmounted  bj-  a  most  peculiar  tjTnpanum. 
The  choir  is  covered  with  Lombard  rib  vaults;  but  since  the  ribs  rest  on  corbels 
these  vaults  may  well  be  a  later  addition.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ST.-JAMES-DE-BEURRON,  Manche.  St.  Jacques-le-Majeur  is  the  ancient 
chapel  of  the  priory,  said  to  have  been  erected  about  1027.  The  portal,  which  serves 
as  an  entrance  to  the  present  crypt,  is  the  only  ancient  portion  of  the  existing  edifice, 
and  this  must  be  as  late  as  the  XII  century,  since  it  is  in  two  orders,  —  shafted  and 
moulded.     (De  la  Balle.) 

LANDE-PATRI,  Orne.  Eglise.  The  choir,  lighted  by  narrow  lancets,  is 
characterized  by  arcades  with  pointed  arches  resting  on  capitals  of  a  singularly 
Norman  type.     (Benoist  IV,  32.) 

BULLY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  portal,  which  is  assigned  to  1070  by  Rup- 
rich-Robert,  is  without  orders  and  surmounted  by  a  relieving  arch.  The  ornament 
consists  of  very  crude  sculptures  and  carved  dog-tooths  analogous  to  those  of  the 
Basse  Oeuvre  of  Beauvais. 

LA-CROIX-STE.-LENFROY,  Eure.  Eglise  still  preserves  many  fragments 
of  Norman  walls  but  is  interesting  chiefly  for  the  tower  of  the  XVI  century.  The 
choir  and  lateral  chapel  date  from  1895.     (De  la  Balle.) 

ST.-PIERRE-DE-SEMILLY,  Manche.  Eglise,  consisting  of  a  single-aisled 
nave  and  a  rectangular  choir,  dates  mainly  from  the  XII  century,  but  has  been 
modernized.     The  decoration  of  the  portal  is  unique.     (De  la  Balle.) 

RANVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  dates  largely  from  the  XV  century,  but  pre- 
serves certain  rudely  carved  arcuated  lintels  of  the  Norman  period.  (Ruprich- 
Robert;  Benoist.) 

LE  TANU,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  choir  is  Norman;  the  portal  Gothic;  the 
tower  of  the  XVII  century.     (Benoist.) 

■  Arch.  Norm.  CXXH. 


OTHER    MONUMENTS 

CAINET,  Calvados.  Eijlisc  is  in  great  part  a  work  of  the  last  years  of  the  XII 
century.     (Benoist  III,  4,'?.) 

fiCOVILLE,  Calvados.  EcjUxe  is  said  to  date  mainly  from  the  last  half  of  the 
XII  renturv.      (Benoist.) 

HODENG,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglisc.  A  Norman  tower  flanks  the  choir.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

AIGLE,  Orne.     St.  Darthelcmy  is  a  monument  of  the  XII  century.     (Benoist.) 

St.  Jean  is  a  patchwork  of  fragments  of  many  different  epochs.  The  earliest 
portions  are  said  to  be  of  the  XII  century. 

SEEZ,  Orne.  St.  Pierre  preserves  in  part  the  walls  of  the  XI  century  edifice. 
A  dedication  of  this  church  took  place  in  1361. 

Notre  Dame-ile-la-Place  consists  of  a  nave,  a  south  lateral  tower,  and  an  apse. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

BAZOCHES-SUR-IIOENE,  Orne.  Eglise  retains  a  curious  Norman  portal, 
although  the  edifice  was  thoroughly  rebuilt  after  a  collapse  which  occurred  in  1561. 
(De  la  Balle.) 

MEUVAINES,  Calvados.  Eglise,  in  part  Norman,  is  of  interest  chiefly  for 
its  portal.     (Benoist.) 

ST.-]MARTIN-DE-LA-SEINE,  Calvados.  Eglise  consists  of  a  single  aisle 
and  a  rectangular  choir.     (Ruprich-Robert.) 

ST.  MARD,  Eure.  Eglise  is  a  charming  Norman  structure  which  has  been 
desecrated  no  less  than  seven  times. 

MAISONS,  Calvados.     Eglise.     The  nave  is  Norman,  the  choir  Gothic. 

FONTAINE  ETOUPEFOUR,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  nave  which  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  XII  century  is  of  interest.     (Benoist  III,  35.) 

COURCY,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  ornamented  externally    with  arcades.     (Benoist.) 

ST.  BRICE,  Manche.  Eglise  dates  mainly  from  the  Norman  period,  but  the 
choir  with  its  stained  glass  is  of  the  XVI  century. 

BRICQUEBEC,  Manche.  Eglise  is  said  to  be  a  good  example  of  Norman  rural 
architecture.      (Benoist  V,  64.) 

GRAYE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  interest  chiefly  for  the  segmental  arch  of  the 
portal. 

FONTENAILLES,  Calvados.  St.  Pierre  is  assigned  to  c.  lUO  by  Ruprich- 
Robert.'  The  tTOipanum  of  the  principal  portal  is  modern,  but  the  lateral  portal  is 
an  example  of  the  pure  Norman  style.     (Benoist.) 

ST.-PAUL-DU-VERNAY,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  figured  capitals  are  of 
the  XII  century.     (Benoist  III,  110.) 

LOISAIL,  Orne.  Eglise.  The  XI  century  edifice  was  completely  transformed 
in  the  flamboyant  and  Renaissance  periods.  The  original  plan  consisted  of  a  single- 
aisled  nave  and  a  semicircular  apse. 

TROIS-MONTS,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame  has  been  much  modernized,  but 
the  arches  of  the  crossing  retain  their  rich  Norman  decoration  of  the  XII  century. 
(De  Caumont.) 

■  Arch.  Norm.  CXXII. 
327 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

ST.  QUENTIN,  Manche.  Eglise  is  of  interest  for  the  porch,  the  corbel-tables 
of  the  nave,  and  the  tower  in  part  Norman.     (De  la  Balle.) 

CHEN'REVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise  consists  of  nave  and  choir  without  tran- 
septs. The  portal  is  a  fine  example  of  the  style  of  the  Renaissance.  (Benoist  V, 
47.) 

ST.  MAUVIEUX,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  fragments  of  many  different 
epochs,  but  especially  of  the  XII  and  XV  centuries.     (Benoist  III,  38.) 

FIERVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  architecture  is  a  curious  combination 
of  the  styles  of  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries. 

QUIEVRECOURT,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise,  despite  numerous  rebuildings, 
retains  fragments  of  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries.     (De  la  Balle.) 

VASSY,  Calvados.  Chapelle.  The  round  arches  and  rectangular  buttresses 
are  of  Norman  construction.     (Benoist.) 

BOUELLES,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  in  spite  of  various  rebuildings  preserves 
a  portal  of  the  XII  century. 

PASSAIS-LA-COXCEPTION,  Orne.     Chapelle  St.  Atincii,  said  to  be  of  the 

XI  century  or  even  older,  has  been  altered  at  various  later  epochs.     (De  la  Balle.) 

PARFOURU-L'ECLIN,  Calvados.  Eglise.  The  tower  crowned  by  a  pyra- 
mid is  constructed  of  herring-bone  masonry,  and  consequently  is  thought  to  be  as 
early  as  the  XI  century. 

NESLE-EX-BRAY,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise.  The  style  is  said  to  be  that 
of  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MERLERAULT,  Orne.  Eglise,  in  part  Norman,  is  flanked  by  a  tower  of  the 
XrV  century. 

CERISY-BELLE-ETOILE,  Orne.  Eglise  is  an  unimportant  monument 
with  a  central  western  tower.     (De  la  Balle.) 

HUBERT-FOLIE,  Calvados.  Chapelle  in  part  Norman,  in  part  of  the  XIII 
century. 

CULLY,  Calvados.     Eglise.     The  tower  is  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

FONTENAY,  Calvados.     St.  Andre  is  a  construction  of  the  last  years  of  the 

XII  century  remarkable  for  the  pointed  arches  which  occur  in  the  arcades  and  vaults. 
(Benoist  III,  35.) 

CRfiCY,  Calvados.    Prieure  contains  some  fragments  of  XII  century  architecture. 

Eglise  is  of  several  different  epochs.     (Benoist.) 

PIERREPOX'T,  Calvados.  Eglise,  in  part  Norman,  is  of  interest  for  the  por- 
tal and  for  the  corbel-tables  sculptured  with  grotesques  and  obscenities. 

FAUV'ILLE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  retains  some  fragments  of  Norman 
architecture.  The  choir  is  lighted  by  fine  windows  of  the  XIII  century.  (Benoist 
I,  99.) 

VILLERS-CAX^IVET,  Calvados.  Abbai/e-aux-Femmes  was  founded  in  the 
first  half  of  the  XII  century.     Only  ruins  survive.     (Benoist  III,  83.) 

PLANQUERAY,  Calvados.  Eglise  of  the  XI  century  was  almost  entirely 
rebuilt  in  1744.         (Benoist.) 

ORVAL,  Manche.     Eglise  is  a  monument  of  the  XI  century.     (Benoist  V,  54.) 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

VIRE,  Calvados.     Si.  Tlioma.i  is  remarkable  for  the  Norman  portal.     (Benoist.) 

BOUCEY,  Manehe.     Etjlise  is  without  western  portal. 

COR\E\'lLLE.  Eure.  Abbaye  is  said  to  have  been  dedicated  by  Hugh  of 
Amiens,  Sept.  3,  1147.     Only  vestiges  survive.     (Benoist.) 

Egli.se.     The  facade  is  Norman. 

ST.-AIGNAN-DE-CRAMESNIL.  Calvados.  Eglhe.  The  little  southern 
portal  is  interesting  for  its  wooden  door,  whicli  is  the  original  one  of  the  Norman 
period,  and  probably  a  unique  example.     (Ruprich-Robert,  IGO.) 

VESSEY,  Manehe.  Eglise  is  said  to  be  anterior  to  the  X  century  (.').  (Benoist 
V,  37.) 

TICHEVILLE,  Orne.  Eglise  is  of  interest  for  the  rectangular  choir  and  for 
the  north  porch  with  its  Norman  portal.     (De  la  Balle.) 

SO^IMERVIEU,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  remarkable  for  the  Norman  portal  and 
for  the  choir  of  the  XIII  century. 

NOE,  Eure.  Abbaye.  Some  fragmentary  ruins  of  the  church  founded  by 
Henry  II  in  11-14  still  survive.     (Benoist.) 

MONTGAUDRY,  Orne.  Eglise  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century,  has  been  very 
thoroughly  restored.     The  choir  is  entirely  modern.     (De  la  Balle.) 

MESNIERES,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  although  rebuilt  in  the  X\T[I  and  XVIII 
centuries,  retains  some  fragments  of  Norman  architecture  in  the  nave,  and  a  chapel 
of  the  XIII  century. 

CREMELLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  retains  here  and  there  some  fragments  of 
ancient  architecture. 

CAENCHY',  Calvados.  Eglise.  Some  portions  date  from  the  Norman  period. 
(Benoist.) 

VIEUX-FUME,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  said  to  date  from  the  last  half  of  the  XII 
century. 

ELLON,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  in  part  of  the  XII  century.     (Benoist  III,  111.) 

CRICQUEBEUF,  Calvados.  Eglise,  of  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century,  is 
now  completely  ruined.     (Benoist.) 

BEUVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  constructed  of  herring-bone  masonry,  and 
therefore  is  probably  as  old  as  the  XI  century. 

VAL,  Calvados.  Abbaye  is  known  to  have  been  in  existence  in  1125,  but  the 
existing  ruins  are  of  much  later  date.  The  plan  of  the  nave  can  still  be  made  out. 
(Benoist  III,  84.) 

NEUFBOURG,  Manehe.  Eglise  which  is  probably  not  as  old  as  is  usually 
believed,  consists  of  a  single  aisle,  transepts,  a  central  tower,  and  a  rectangular  choir. 
The  vaults  are  of  the  XIII  century.     (De  la  Balle.) 

LYON-LA-FORET,  Eure.  Abbaye.  Remains  are  extant  of  two  ruined 
churches,  one  of  the  XII  century  (founded  by  Henry  I  of  England  in  1134),  the  other 
of  the  flamboyant  period. 

fiPRON,  Calvados.  Eglise,  of  slight  interest,  contains  fragments  of  architec- 
ture of  the  XI,  XII,  and  XV  centuries,  but  is  for  the  most  part  modem.  (De  Cau- 
raont.) 

329 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

GODEFROY,  Manche.  Eglisc  retains  some  traces  of  lierring-bone  masonry. 
(Benoist.) 

SARTILLY,  Manche.  Eglise  contains  a  fine  Norman  lateral  portal.  (Be- 
noist.) 

AIRAN,  Calvados.     Eglise  belongs  to  the  last  half  of  the  XII  century. 

CHEF-DU-PONT,  Manche.  Eglise  of  the  Norman  period  is  not  without 
interest.     (Benoist.) 

ACQUEVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  retains  the  southern  wall  and  a  charming 
portal  of  the  Norman  edifice  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century.     (Benoist.) 

LA  HOGUETTE,  Calvados.  Ahhayc  Ht.-Andre-en-Gojifjern  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  1130. 

ST.  POIS,  Manche.     Eglise  of  the  Norman  period.     (Benoist.) 

ESSAY,  Orne.  Eglise  consists  of  a  western  tower,  a  single-aisled  nave,  and  a 
rectangular  choir.  With  the  exception  of  the  Norman  portal,  the  church  has  been 
thoroughly  modernized. 

FRIBOIS-ST.-LOUP,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  a  very  graceful  Norman 
portal  ornamented  with  chevrons.     (Benoist  III,  71.) 

ST.-VIGOR-LE-GRAND,  (St.-Vigor-de-Mieux),  Calvados.  Prieiire.  An  en- 
trance porch  of  the  XII  century  survives.     (Guide  Joanne.) 

VIERVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglisc  is  said  to  date  from  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries. 
(Benoist.) 

LIEURY,  Eure.     Eglise.     The  most  ancient  portions  are  of  the  Norman  period. 

LANQUETOT,  Seine-Inferieure.  (:gli^e.  The  tower  of  the  XII  century  is 
adorned  with  a  shafted  window.     (Guide  Joanne.) 

.  STE.-HONORINE-DE-DUCY,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  notable  for  several  frag- 
ments of  Norman  architecture. 

ST.-LAURENT-DE-CONDEL,  Calvados.  Eglise,  dating  from  c.  1200,  is 
a  remarkable  example  of  the  Norman  transition. 

URVILLE,  Manche.     Eglise  retains  two  Norman  portals.     (Benoist.) 

CANAPVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  retains  some  fragments  of  Norman  archi- 
tecture. 

ST.-MARTIN-DE-VARREVILLE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  Nor- 
man.    (Benoist.) 

AVENAY,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  some  fragments  of  XII  century  archi- 
tecture.    (De  Caumont.) 

BONS,  Calvados.     f2glise  is  said  to  date  from  the  XII  and  XIII  centuries. 

ARDEVON,  Manche.  "  Baptistere,"  so  called.  Part  of  the  wall  is  in  herring- 
bone masonry.     (Benoist.) 

NONANT,  Calvados.  Egli.se.  The  lateral  portal  is  of  the  XII  century.  (Be- 
noist.) 

VENDES,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman,  in  part  of  the  XIII  century. 

REVILLE,  Manche.     Eglise.     The  nave  is  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

fiTAVAUX,  Calvados.  Notre  Dame  is  a  ruined  edifice  of  the  XII  century. 
(De  Caumont.) 

330 


OTHER   MONUMENTS 

ECAUSSEXVILLE,  Manche.     Kglise.     The  choir  is  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

CIIARLEVAL,  Eure.  Eglise  is  notable  as  retaining  some  traces  of  painted 
ornament.     (Benoist  II,  75.) 

RE\'IER,  Calvados.  Ckapelle  Ste.  Chriiiine  is  assigned  to  the  end  of  the  XII 
century- 

ST.  FRONT,  Orne.  Eglise  has  been  recently  rebuilt,  but  retains  some  frag- 
ments of  Norman  architecture.      (Benoist.) 

BENER\'ILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  retains  some  fragments  of  architecture  of 
the  XI  century.     (Benoist.) 

SACY.  Manche.  Eglise  is  remarkable  for  its  portal,  whose  tympanum  is  deco- 
rated with  a  sculptured  zodiac.     (Benoist.) 

VALLETOT,  Eure.  Eglise  is  notable  for  the  fine  Norman  portal.  (Guide 
Joanne.) 

VAINS,  Manche.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman,  in  part  Gothic.     (Benoist.) 

TOURGEVILLE,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  said  to  be  of  the  XI  century.  (Be- 
noist.) 

SORTOS^'ILLE,  Blanche.     Eglise  retains  a  Norman  apse.     (Benoist.) 

ST.  SAIRE,  Seine-Inferieure.  Eglise  contains  a  portal  of  the  XI  century.  (De 
la  Balle.) 

ROUVION,  Orne.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

OCCAGNES,  (Occaignes),  Orne.     Eglise  is  of  the  late  XII  century. 

LA  MOTTE,  Manche.  Eglise  contains  some  Norman  remains.  (Benoist 
V,  45.) 

FATONVILLE-GRESTAIN,  Eure.  Eglise.  The  lateral  portal  is  of  the  XI 
century. 

ECAJEUL,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman. 

BELLfiME,  Orne.     Chapellc  St.  Sanetin  is  of  the  XI  century. 

ST.  HYMER,  Calvados.     Ste.  Milaine  is  in  part  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

FUEGUEROLLES-SUR-ORNE,  Calvados.  Eglise  contains  some  fragments 
of  XII  century  architecture.     (De  Caumont.) 

YVRANDE,  Orne.  Prieure,  completely  ruined,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
b}'  Richard-Coeur-de-Lion.     (Benoist.) 

RAPILLY,  Calvados.     Eglise.     The  nave  is  Norman,  the  choir  Gothic. 

RANVILLE-LA-PLACE,  Manche.  Eglise.  The  nave  is  Norman.  (Be- 
noist.) 

ST.-JEAN-LE-THOMAS,  Manche.  Eglise  is  of  the  XII,  XVI,  and  XVII 
centuries. 

PLUMETOT,  Calvados.  Eglise  retains  fragments  of  architecture  of  the  XI 
and  XIV  centuries. 

ORGLANDES,  Manche.     Eglise  contains  some  Norman  details.     (Benoist.) 

MARAIS-VERNIER,  Eure.  Eglise  is  said  to  have  been  dedicated  in  1129. 
(Benoist  II,  04.) 

MAGXY,  Calvados.     Eglise  was  thoroughly  restored  in  1846.     (Benoist.) 

MAGNEVILLE,  Manche.     Eglise.     The  choir  is  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

S31 


NORMAN   MONUMENTS 

FRESNAY-LE-PUCEUX,  Calvados.     Eglise  may  be  assigned  to  c.  1170. 

ETURQUERAIE,  Eure.     Eglise  is  of  the  XIV  century. 

COLOMBY-SUR-THAN,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  the  Norman  period.  (Be- 
noist.) 

CARQUEBUT,  Manche.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman. 

CONDE-SUR-LAIZON,  Calvados.  Eglise  is  of  the  end  of  the  XII  century. 
(Benoist.) 

STE.  COLOMBE,  Manche.     Eglise.     The  choir  is  Norman.     (Benoist.) 

MUTRECY,  Calvados.     t:glise  is  of  the  XI  century. 

MARCILLY,  Manche.     Eglise  is  in  part  Norman. 

ST.  VAAST,  Manche.     Eglise.     The  choir  is  Norman. 

SURRAIN,  Calvados.     Eglise  is  of  the  XI  century. 

QUINfiVILLE,  Manche.     Eglise.     The  choir  is  Norman. 

ST.  ARNOULT,  Calvados.     Chapelle  is  of  the  XII  century. 

Other  churches  in  whole  or  in  part  Norman  are  to  be  found: 

In  the  departement  of  Calvados,  at  BILLY,  CESNY-BOIS-HALBOIIT, 
CRASMENIL,  LEFFARD,  LOUCELLE,'  OUILLY-LE-VICOMTE,  PO- 
TIGNY,  ST.-JEAN-DE-LIVET,  and   SOLIERS. 

In  the  departement  of  Eure,  at  ETREVILLE.  FIQUEVILLE-ESQUAIN- 
VILLE,  FORMOVILLE,  HAIE-AUBREE,'  HAIE-DE-ROUTOT,  and 
REUILLY. 

In  the  departement  of  Seine-Inferieure  at  ABBETOT  and  MONT-AUX- 
]\L\LADES. 

In  the  departement  of  Manche  at  CHERIS.     Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

'  Or  Lucelle.  ^  Classed  as  a  monument  historique. 


33S 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


SCHEME    OF    CLASSIFICATION 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  Sources 

B.  Bibliographies 

C.  General  histories  of  architecture 

D.  Histories  of  Medieval  Architecture 

E.  Histories  of  Belgian  Architecture 

F.  Histories  of  French  Architecture 

G.  Histories  of  German  Architecture 
H.  Histories  of  Italian  Architecture 

I.  Desultory  and  miscellaneous  studies  in  architectural  history 

J.  General  histories  of  art 

K.  Civil  architecture 

L.  Books  of  illustrations 

M.  Ornament  —  historical  and  theoretical  works 

N.  Ornament  —  books  of  illustrations 

O.  Poiychromy 

P.  Mosaic 

Q.  Dictionaries,  encyclopedias,  and  works  of  reference 

R.  Archaeologj'  and  iconography 

S.  Monastic  architecture 

T.  Construction 

U.  Curves  and  "Refinements" 

V.  Criticism,  philosophy,  and  esthetics 

RONLVX  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  General  Works 

Sources 

General  histories 

Books  of  illustrations 

Ornament 

Guide  l)ooks  and  l)Ooks  of  reference 

Philosophic  and  esthetic 

B.  Special  Works  , 

Historical  miscellanies 
Africa 
Arabia 
Asia  Minor 
Dalmatia 
England 
France 

Greece,  the  ^gean  Islands,  Macedonia 
335 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

Italy 

Spain  and  Portugal 

Syria  and  Palestine 

Westphalia  (Germany) 

Aqueducts 

Amphitheaters 

Basilicas 

Capitols  and  Comitia 

Circular  Buildings 

Houses  and  Villas 

Therma-  (Baths) 

Details  of  Construction 

Monographs  of  two  or  more  places  combined  in  one  volume  (classed  under  the  coun- 
tries, arranged  alphabetically) 
C.    Monographs 

(Classed  by  cities  alphabetically  under  the  countries,  which  are  also  in  alphabetical 
order) 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  General  Works 

Sources 

Historical  accounts 
Books  of  reference 
Books  of  illustrations 
Ornament  and  mosaics 

B.  Special  Works 

Africa 

Asia  Minor 

Coptic  Architecture  of  Egypt 

Italy 

Palestine 

Syria 

Basilicas;  origin  and  history 

Circular  churches 

Orientation 

C.  Monographs 

(Classed  by  cities  alphabetically  under  the  countries,  which  are  also  in  alphabetical 
order) 

BYZANTINE  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  General  Works 

Sources 

Historical  accounts 
Ornament 

B.  Monographs 

(Classed  alphabetically  by  cities) 

CAROLINGIAN  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  General  Works 

Sources 

Historical  accounts 
Works  of  reference 

B.  Special  Works 

336 


SCHEME    OF   CLASSIFICATION 


Gerinaiiy,  Austria,  Switzerland 
Italy 
Daluiatia 

Special  phases  of  architecture 
Ornamental  sculpture 
The  Coinaciiii 
C.    Monographs 

(Classed  alphabetically  by  cities) 

LOMBARD   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  General  Works 

Sources 

Historical  accounts 
Books  of  illustrations 

B.  Special  Works 

C.  Monographs 

(Classed  alphabetically  by  cities) 


337 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  SOURCES 

Quellenschriftcn  fiir  Kunstgeschichte.  Herausgegeben  von  Eitelberger  von  Edelberg. 
VVien,  Wilhelm  Braumiiller.  Various  dates.  —  This  superb  series  (individual  volumes  of  which 
have  often  been  referred  to  in  our  various  bibhographies)  makes  accessible  German  translations 
of  the  texts  of  many  sources  for  architectural  history. 

B.  BIBLIOGR.\PHIES 

E.  R.  Smith.  Architectural  books:  architectural  classics,  dictionaries,  periodicals,  man- 
uals, and  histories.  (Architectural  review,  1900-01,  VII,  p.  113;  VIII,  p.  39,  99)  —A  capital 
bibliographical  study,  which,  while  inten<led  primarily  for  the  practical  designer,  is  also  of  great 
value  for  the  student  of  architectural  history. 

Ammymous.  Catalogues  of  the  Avery  Architectural  Library,  Library  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York,  1895.  —  The  Avery  Library  contains  upwards  of  18,000  books  exclusively  on 
architectural  subjects,  and  is  probably  tlie  most  serviceable  collection  in  existence.  The  cat- 
alogue is  hence  very  valuable  from  a  bibliographical  point  of  ^-iew.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  many  additions  have  been  made  since  1895. 

Russell  Sturgis  and  H.  E.  Krehbiel.  Annotated  bibliography  of  fine  art.  Boston,  The 
Library  Bureau,  1897.  4to.  —  One  section  is  devoted  to  architecture,  and  valuable  because  of 
the  lack  of  bibliographies  in  this  field.  The  annotations  are  usually  adequate,  occasionally 
quite  misleading;  the  selection  of  books  is  apparently  confined  to  those  available  in  English. 

Anonymous.  Catalogue  of  the  books  relating  to  architecture,  construction,  and  decora- 
tion in  the  public  library  of  the  xity  of  Boston.  Boston,  published  by  the  Trustees,  1894.  4to. 
—  A  catalogue  of  a  library  which  contains  a  large  number  of  architectural  works. 

Anonymous.  Katalog  der  Bibliothek  des  Arcliitekten-Vereins  zu  Berlin.  Berlin,  1887. 
8vo.  —  Contains  valuable  bibliographical  information. 

Karl  W .  Hiersemann.  New  series  of  catalogues  —  architecture,  archaeology,  books  of 
costume.     Leipzig,  1893.  —  Much  bibliographical  material. 

American  Institute  of  Architects.  Quarterly  bulletin  containing  an  index  of  literature  from 
the  publications  of  architectural  societies  and  allied  subjects,  1900-01.  Washington.  8vo.  2 
vols. 

Domenieo  Guoli.  Archi\'io  storico  dell'  arte.  Roma,  1889-92.  5  vols.  —  Contains  bib- 
liographies. 

H.  E.  Haferkorn.  Handy  lists  of  books  on  fine  arts  and  architecture.  Milwaukee,  H.  E. 
Haferkorn,  1893.  8vo.  —  A  very  large  list  of  works  of  all  kinds,  compiled,  however,  from  a  prac- 
tical rather  than  from  an  antiquarian  standpoint. 

A'.  W.  Hiersemann.  Architecture,  ornament,  decoration,  furniture.  .  ..  .  Catalogue  108. 
Leipzig,  Hiersemann,  1893.  12°. — A  catalogue  well  arranged,  but  too  incomplete  to  serve  as 
a  bibliography. 

Anonymous.  Katalog  der  Bibliothek  herzoglicher  Bau-Direction  zu  Braunschweig. 
Braunschweig,  Julius  Krampe,  1873.  12°.  —  The  selection  of  books  in  this  library  is  not 
particularly  judicious. 

Batsjord.  Some  suggestions  on  the  formation  of  a  small  library  of  reference  books  on  orna- 
ment and  the  decorative  arts.     London,  Batsford,  1897.     Pamphlet.  —  Of  slight  value. 

338 


C.    GENERAL   HISTORIES 

Committee  of  the  Council  on  Eduration.     The  universal  oatalof;iie  of  books  on  art. 
Duplessii.     Essai  tl'une  biblioj;rapliie  generale  lies  l)eaux  arts.     Paris,  1866. 

C.    GENERAL  HISTORIES  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Auguste  Clwisy.     Histoire  de  I'arcliitecture.     Paris,  Gauthier-Villars,  1899.     2  vols.     8vo. 

—  An  excellent  general  history,  treated  from  the  point  of  view  of  construction. 

F.  M.  Simpson.  A  history  of  architectural  development.  New  York  and  Bombay, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1905.  3  vols.  8vo.  —  An  elementary  work  of  merit.  As  yet  only 
the  first  volume  has  appeared. 

Rudolj  Adamij.  Architektonik  auf  historischer  und  aesthetischer  Grundlage.  Hamiover, 
Helwing'.sclie  Verlagsbuchhandlung,  1883.  3  vols.  8vo. — An  excellent  general  history,  vm- 
fortunately  rather  old.     A  second  etlition  in  4  vols.  4to.,  was  published  in  1884. 

l)e  Caumoni.  Cours  d'antiquites  nionumentales.  Caen,  1837-38. — A  work  entirely 
out  of  <late  in  many  particulars,  but  still  of  great  value  for  its  scientific  spirit. 

James  Fergusson.  The  illustrated  handbook  of  architecture.  London,  1855.  2  vols. 
8vo.  In  1862  a  third  volmne  was  published  on  the  "Historj'  of  the  modern  styles  of  architec- 
ture." In  1865  and  1867  the  work  was  revised  and  pulilished  under  the  title,  "A  history  of  archi- 
tecture in  all  countries  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day."  A  third  edition  was  edited 
by  R.  Phene  Spiers  (London,  1893.  5  vols.  8vo.),  in  which  a  desperate  effort  was  made  to 
modernize  the  text.  I  understand  Dr.  Kriehn  has  at  present  (1907)  in  hand  still  another  revi-sed 
edition  to  be  published  by  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  Fergusson,  however,  is  too  replete  with  errors 
of  fact  and  judgment  to  be  worth  resuscitation.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  see  whereon  the  innnense 
reputation  of  his  work  has  been  based,  even  in  the  past. 

Henrij  Ilavard.  Histoire  et  philosophic  des  styles  (architecture,  ameublement,  decora- 
tion). Paris,  Charles  Schmid,  1890.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  A  work  of  .slight  scientific  value,  but 
covering  a  vast  variety  of  subject-matter.     The  illustrations  are  mediocre. 

Russell  Sturgis.  A  historj' of  architecture.  —  Only  Vol.  I  (Antiquity)  has  appeared  as  yet. 
New  York,  The  Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  1906.     8vo.  —  The  illustrations  in  half-tone  are  excellent. 

A.  D.  F.  Hamlin.  A  tex1-book  of  the  liistory  of  architecture.  London  and  New  York, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1896.  —  The  "impression"  of  1899  is  much  improved.  This  is  an 
elementary  text-book. 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher.  A  history  of  architecture  for  the  student,  craftsman,  and  amateur. 
London,  B.  T.  Batsford,  1896.  4th  edition,  1901.  —  A  book  presenting  a  certain  amount  of 
drj-  fact  (usually  with  tolerable  accuracy)  in  sj-noptical  form. 

Russell  Sturgis.  European  architecture;  an  historical  study.  London  and  New  York, 
1896.     8vo.     The  Macmillan  Co. —  Well  illustrated. 

A.  Rosengarten.  Die  architektonischen  Stylarten.  Dritte  Auflage,  Braunschweig, 
Friedrich  Viewig  und  Sohn,  1874.  8vo.  —  A  mediocre  work  that  misses  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant points.  The  book  has  enjoyed,  however,  great  popularity.  The  first  edition  appeared 
in  1857  (Braunschweig,  Friedrich  Viewig  und  Sohn).  The  work  has  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  W.  Collet  Sandars  under  the  title  "A  handbook  of  architectural  styles"  (London,  Chap- 
man and  Hall,  1876.  8vo.).  The  same  translation  was  reprinted  by  Chatto  and  Windus, 
London,  no  date. 

Charles  T.  Mathews.    The  story  of  architecture.     New  York,  Appleton,  1896. 

Wilhelm  Liihke.  Geschichte  der  Architektur  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zur  Gegenwart. 
Leipzig,  1855:  6th  edition,  I>eipzig,  E.  A.  Seemann,  l'884-86.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  A  standard 
work;   now,  of  course,  somewhat  out  of  date. 

Wilhelm  Liihke.  Vorschule  zum  Sfudium  der  kirchlichen  Kunst  des  deutschen  Mittel- 
alters.  6te  Auflage,  Leipzig,  E.  A.  Seemann,  1873.  8vo.  —  .\  good  primer  of  German  Gothic, 
sketching  its  development  through  the  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  styles. 

F.  Kugler.    Geschichte  der  Baukunst.  Stuttgart,  Ebncr  und  Seubert,  1854-73.  5  vols.  Svo. 

—  Of  course  not  up  to  date  in  many  directions,  but  in  its  day  a  <lignified  and  important  work. 

Daniel  Ramee.     Histoire  generale  de  I'architecture.     Paris,  Amyot,  1840.     2  vols.     8vo. 

339 


GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Second  edition,  1860-62.  —  One  of  the  first  general  histories  of  architecture  to  be  written. 
While  a  praiseworthy  work  in  its  day,  it  is  now  entirely  out  of  date. 

H.  Heathcote  Siatham.  Architecture  for  general  readers;  a  short  treatise  on  the  principles 
and  motives  of  architectural  design,  with  a  historical  sketch.  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  1895.  Svo.  —  A  book  of  excellent  plan,  frequently  unsatisfactory,  however,  in 
detail. 

C.  L.  Stieglib.  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  von  friihesten  Alterthume  bis  in  neuren  Zeiten. 
Nurnlierg,  1827.  Zweite  Aufiage,  Niirnberg,  J.  S.  Lotzbeck,  1857.  Svo.  —  One  of  the  earli- 
est serious  works  on  architectural  history  —  now  quite  out  of  date. 

C.  L.  Stieglitz.  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Ausbildung  der  Baukunst.  Leipzig,  Schas- 
chmitt.     1834.      8vo.  —  A  supplement  to  the  first  edition  of  the  same  author's  "Geschichte." 

A.  L.  Tuckerman.  A  short  history  of  architecture.  New  York,  Scribner's,  1887.  12°.  — 
Sujjerficial. 

E.  A.  Freeman.  History  of  architecture.  London,  1849.  Svo. — "Valuable  historically, 
but  has  no  illustrations  and  is  not  consulted."     (Smith.) 

Smitli  and  Slater.  Architecture  classic  and  Early  Christian.  Ix)ndon;  Sampson,  Low, 
Marston,  Searle  and  Rivington,  1882.  —  A  handbook  covering  all  styles  previous  to  the  Gothic. 
Not  recommended. 

SmWi  and  Poynter.  Architecture,  Gothic  and  Renaissance.  (.\rt  handbooks  series). 
New  York,  Scribner's.  —  A  continuation  of  the  above.     "Vague,  discursive."     (Sturgis.) 

T.  Roger  Smith.  Architecture  Gothic  and  Renaissance.  London,  Sampson,  Low,  etc., 
1888.  —  An  English  edition  of  the  above. 

E.  Barberot.  Histoire  des  styles  d'architecture  dans  tous  les  pays  depuis  les  temps  anciens 
jusqu'a  nos  jours.     Paris,  Baudry  &  Cie.,  1891.     2  vols.     4to.  —  Superficial. 

Hope.  An  historical  essay  on  architecture.  London,  1838.  2  vols.  Svo.  A  French 
translation  was  published  by  Baron,  Bruxelles,  1839.  2  vols.  Svo.  —  "This  book  has  had 
some  reputation,  but  is  not  of  much  value  now."     (Smith.) 

H.  Berghaus-Groessen.  Die  Baudenkniiiler  aller  Volker  der  Erde.  Neue  Ausgabe.  Briis- 
sel,  Gent,  und  Leipzig;  Carl  Muquardt,  1862.  4to.  2  vols.  —  A  very  ambitious  work  that  is 
of  little  value  to-day. 

S.  Sophia  Beale.    The  amateur's  guide  to  architecture.     London,  1887. 

Rene  Menard.     Histoire  de  I'architecture.     Paris,  J.  Rouam,  1884. 

Camillo  Boito.  I  principii  del  disegno  e  gli  stili  dell'  ornamento.  Secunda  edizione,  Mi- 
lano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1SS2.  12°.  —  A  good  primer  written  from  an  entirely  practical  standpoint. 
It  contains  an  annotated  bibliography. 

T.  Talbot  Bury.  Rudimentary  architecture.  The  styles  of  architecture  of  various  coun- 
tries.    Sixth  edition,  London,  Lockwood    &  Co.,  1874.     12°.  —  Mediocre. 

G.  Mongeri.  Gli  stili  architettonichi  dimostrati  in  ordine  storico.  Milano,  Ulrico  HoepU, 
1887.     Folio.  —  An  inferior  work. 

C.  E.  Clement.    An  outline  history  of  architecture.     New  York,  1886. 

J.  W.  Chadicick.     The  evolution  of  architecture.     Boston,  1891. 

Edward  J.  Tamer.  A  guide  to  the  study  of  the  history  of  arcliitecture.  London,  Pettitt 
&  Co.,  1888.     12°.  —  Unimportant. 

C.  Gurlitt.     Klassiker  der  Baukunst.     Baukunst  des  Mittelalters.     Leipzig,  1884. 

Caroline  W.  Horton.  Architecture  for  general  students.  New  York,  Hurd  &  Houghton, 
1874.     12°.  —  A  poor  general  history. 

Carl  Busch.  Die  Baustile.  Erster  Theil,  Der  Schule  der  Baukunst.  Leipzig,  Otto 
Spanier,  1878.     12°.  —  Out  of  date. 

Adolf  Gollcr.  Die  Entstehung  der  architektonischen  Stilformen:  eine  Geschichte  der 
Baukunst  nach  dem  Werden  und  Wandern  der  Formgedanken.  Stuttgart,  Konrad  Wittwer, 
188S.     Svo.  —  Contains  many  errors.     No  illustrations. 

Carl  Kohler.  Lehrbuch  zuni  Studiura  der  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  und  der  verschiedenen 
Baustyle.     Stuttgart,  Hofi'mann,  1866.     4to.  —  Lacks  clearness  and  is  much  out  of  date. 

340 


D.    HISTORIES   OF   MEDIEVAL   ARCHITECTURE 

C.  A.  Rosenthal.     Uebersicht  der   Geschichte  dcr   Baiikunst.     Berlin,    1841-50.     3  vols. 

J.  P.  N .  da  Sitva,  No^oes  elementares  do  archeologia.  Lisboa,  Lallemant  Freres,  1878. 
8vo.  —  A  very  elementarj'  text-book  of  average  merit. 

F.  Taccani.  Storia  dell'  arehitettura  in  Europa  fiuo  al  secolo  XVII.  Milano,  Domeiiico 
Sain  e  Co.,  1855.     8vo.  —  Misleading. 

Mrs.  L.  C.  Tuihill.  History  of  architecture  from  the  earliest  times.  Philadelphia,  Lindsay 
&  Blakeston,  1848.     8vo.  —  Mediocre  and  quite  out  of  date. 

F.  Taccani.  Sulla  storia  dell'  arehitettura  .  .  .  esame  logico.  Milano,  Gaspare  Truffi, 
1844.     8vo.  —  Worthless. 

KrcuscT.     Christliche  Kirchenbau. 

Martin  A.  Buckmaster.  A  descriptive  handbook  of  architecture.  London,  George  Rout- 
ledge  and  Sons,  and  New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  no  date.     8vo.  —  Of  no  scientific  value. 

Eliza  Chalk.     A  peep  into  architecture.     London,  Hell,  1845.     18°.  —  Of  no  value. 

Batissicr.  Histoire  de  I'art  monumental  dans  rantiquite  et  au  moyen  age.  2me  ed., 
Paris,  1860.  lere  ed.,  Paris,  Fume  et  Cie.,  1845.  4to.  —  In  its  day  a  valuable  work.  Now, 
of  course,  entirely  out  of  date. 

Anonymous.  .\rt  of  building  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  or.  Architecture  illustrated. 
New  York,  Appleton,  1856.     4to  and  atlas.  —  Of  little  value. 

G.  George,  fitude  et  memoire  sur  les  caractercs  architectoniques.  (Annales  de  la  So- 
ciete  .\cademique  d '.Vrchitecture  de  Lyon  VIII,  51;  188'2-83.)  — Of  little  interest. 

Samuel  Huggins.  The  course  and  current  of  architecture.  London,  John  Weale,  1863. 
1'2°.  —  Contains  many  errors.     No  illustrations. 

John  Bullock.  The  history  and  rudiments  of  architecture.  New  York,  Stringer  and  To^vn- 
send,  1853.     Vl°.  —  Out  of  date. 

.fames  Elmes.  Lectures  on  architecture,  comprising  the  history  of  the  art  from  the  earli- 
est times  to  the  present  day.     '-Jd  edition,  London,  1823.     8vo. 

Anonymous.  Cahiers  d'instructions  sur  I'architecture,  la  sculpture,  les  armes,  etc.  .  .  . 
du  moyen  age.  Publics  par  le  comite  historique  des  arts  et  monuments.  Paris,  Ch.  Baudry, 
1846.     8vo.  —  X  history  of  ancient  and  medieval  architecture  in  France,  now  entirely  out  of  date. 

[Edward  Bold].  A  concise  history  and  analysis  of  all  the  principal  styles  of  architecture. 
London,  T.  Cadell,  1829.     12°.  —  Worthless. 

Ernest  Breton.  Monuments  de  tous  les  peuples.  Bruxelles,  Librairie  historique-artistique, 
1843.     2  vols.     4to.  —  Worthless. 

Richard  Brown.  Sacred  architecture:  its  rise,  progress,  and  present  state.  London,  etc., 
Fisher,  Son  &  Co.,  1845.  —  Worthless. 

D.    HISTORIES  OF  MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE 

C.  H.  Moore.  Development  and  character  of  Gothic  architecture.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.  Second  e<lition  rewritten  and  enlarged,  1904.  8vo.  • —  The  best  study  of  the  trans- 
itional and  Gothic  periods  that  has  yet  appeared. 

G.  Dehio  und  G.  von  Bezold.  Die  kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes.  Stuttgart, 
J.  G.  Cotta,  1892.  Text  in  4to.  2  vols,  .\tlas  in  folio.  4  vols.  —  A  splendid  work,  especially 
valuable  for  the  plates  which  form  the  most  extensive  collection  of  illustrations  of  medieval  archi- 
tecture available. 

Alois  llauser.  Styl-Lehre  der  architektonischen  Fomien  des  Mittelalters.  Wien,  Alfred 
Holder,  1884.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  A  satisfactory  text-book,  although  somewhat  lacking  in  clear- 
ness of  presentation. 

E.  E.  ViolUt-le-Duc.  Entretiens  sur  I'architecture.  Paris,  1863-72.  3  vols.  4to  and 
folio.  —  "  Deals  with  .  .  .  the  various  styles  and  periods  in  Viollet-le-Duc's  usual  compre- 
hensive waj'." 

De  Caumont.  ILstoire  de  I'architecture  religieuse  du  moyen  age.  Paris,  Derache,  etc., 
1841.  8vo.  —  One  of  the  earliest  works  to  treat  medieval  architecture  in  a  scientific  spirit. 
Still  worthy  of  study. 

34.1 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

De  Cnummit.     Essai  sur  rarchitectiire  relii;ieuse  dii  nioyen  age. 

Reber.  History  of  medieval  architecture.  Translated  by  J.  T.  Clarke,  New  York, 
1887. 

W.  It.  Leihabij.  Medieval  art  from  the  Peace  of  the  Church  to  the  eve  of  the  Renais- 
sance, 312-1350.  London  and  New  York,  Duckworth  &  Co.,  and  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1904.     12°.  —  A  mediocre  account. 

Etlmimd  Sharpe.     Illustrated  papers  on  church  architecture.     London,   1874-76.     Folio. 

A.  Springer.     Die  Baukunst  des  christlichen  Mittelalters.     Boiui,  1854. 

ItcdicuhacfuT.  Leitfaden  zuni  Studium  der  mittelalterlichen  Baukunst.  1881.  Zweite 
Aufgabe,  Leipzig,  T.  O.  Weigel,  1888.     8vo.  —  Full  of  errors. 

G.  E.  Street.  Architecture  in  the  thirteenth  centurj'.  Afternoon  lectures  on  literature 
and  art,  4th  .series.     London,  1867. 

H.  Willis.     Remarks  on  the  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Cambridge,  1835. 

D.   Uamee.     Le  moyen  age  monumental  et  archeologique.     Paris,  1843.     4  vols.     Folio. 

George  Moller.  An  essay  on  the  origin  and  progress  of  Gothic  architecture,  translated  from 
the  Grerman.  London,  Priestley  and  Weale,  1824.  8vo.  —  For  its  date  a  remarkably  advanced 
twok. 

Franz  Mertons.  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters.  Berlin,  Carl  Reimarus,  1850.  8vo.  — 
A  goo<l  study  for  its  day;  now  out  of  date. 

II.  Klette.     Die  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  Architektur.     Leipzig,  S.  Knapp,  1881.     8vo. 

—  Written  from  a  German  point  of  \'iew  and  contains  several  errors;  with  these  restrictions  the 
book  is  a  serviceable  elementary  historj'. 

Kallenhach  und  Schmitt.     Die  christliche  Kirchenbaukunst  des  Abendlandes,  1850. 
Gilbert  Seott.     Rise  and  development  of  medieval  architecture.     London,  John  Murray, 
1879.     2  vols. 

Carl  Miillinger.     Elemente  des  Spitzbogenstiles.      Miinchen,   Emil   Roller,   1847.      4to. 

—  Of  little  value  to-day. 

Paid  Laeroix.     Le  moj'en  age  et  la  renaissance.     Histoire  et  description.     Paris,  1851. 

Paul  Laeroix.     Les  arts  au  moyen  age  et  a  I'epoque  de  la  renaissance.     Paris,  1869. 

T.  F.  A.  Peyre.     Manuel  d'arcliitecture  religieuse  au  moyen  age.     Paris,  1848. 

Rene  Menard.     Art  du  moyen  iige.     Paris,  Librairie  de  I'Echo  de  la  Sorbonne,  1872. 

Felix  de  Vemeilh.  Le  style  ogival  en  Angleterre  et  en  Normandie.  (In  Annales  arche- 
ologiques,  v.  24,  p.  226,  277;  v.  25,  p.  33-44,  85-102.)  —  A  study  very  valuable  in  its  day  (1864), 
but  now  hardly  serviceable. 

Felix  de  Vigue.  Ge,schiedenis  der  middeleeuwsche  Bouwkunde.  Te  Gent,  de  Busscher 
Frcres,  1845.     Folio. — Unimportant. 

/.  Taverurr  Perry.  The  chronology  of  medieval  and  renaissance  architecture.  A  date 
book  for  architectural  art  from  the  building  of  the  ancient  basilica  of  St.  Peter's.  London,  John 
Murray,  1893.     4to.  —  t\i\  attempt  to  group  together  under  each  year  all  known  building  dates. 

J.  J.  Bourasse.  ^\rcheologie  chretienne;  ou  precis  de  I'histoire  des  monuments  reli- 
gieu-^c  du  moyen  age.     4me  edition.  Tours,  A.  Mame  et  Cie.,  1847.     4to.  —  Out  of  date. 

W.  Bardwell.  Temples,  ancient  and  modem,  or  notes  on  church  architecture.  London, 
1837. 

Hall.     Essay  on  the  origin,  historj',  and  principles  of  Gothic  architecture.     London,  1819. 


8vo. 


A.  H.  Springer.     Die  Baukunst  des  christlichen  Mittelalters.     Bonn,  1854. 

Gunn.  An  inquiry  into  the  origin  and  influence  of  Gothic  architecture.  London,  1819. 
8vo. 

M.  Smith.     Les  eglises  gothiques. 

Richard  Popplewell  Pullan.  Elementary  lectures  on  Christian  arcliitecture.  London 
Edward  Stanford,  1879.     12°. —  Worthless. 

W.  Wood.     The  twenty  styles  of  architecture.     London,  1881. 

F.  Wills.     Ancient  ecclesiastical  architecture.     New  York,  1850. 

342 


I.    DESULTORY   STUDIES 

E.  BELGLYN  ARCHITECTURE 

Abhe  df  liruyn.  Arclieologie  religieuse  appliquee  a  nos  monuments  nationaux.  Bruxelles, 
Victor  Devaiix  et  Cie.,  1809.  8vo. — An  inferior  work,  written  from  an  exclusively  Belgian 
standpoint. 

F.  FRENCH  ARCHITECTURE 

A.  St.  Paul.  Histoire  monumentale  de  la  France.  Troisieme  edition,  Paris,  Librairie 
Hachette  et  Cie.,  1888.  8vo.  —  An  excellent  elementary  work  with,  however,  unsatisfactory 
illustrations. 

Edmond  Lcchevallier-Chevignard.  Les  styles  francj-ais.  Paris,  Quantin,  1892.  ^  "An 
admirable  treatise."     (Sturgis.) 

Henry  Havard.  La  France  artistique  et  monumentale.  Paris,  La  Librairie  Illustree, 
Montgredian,  no  date.  6  vols.  Folio.  —  "  Each  volume  contains  eight  or  nine  monographs 
on  an  important  building  or  group  of  buildings."     (Sturgis.)     Of  slight  value. 

Leon  Chateau.  Histoire  et  caracteres  de  I'architecture  en  France.  Paris,  A.  Morel  & 
Cie.,  18G4.  —  "A  valuable  book."     (Sturgis.) 

G.  GER^LVN   ARCHITECTURE' 

Rettberg.     Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands. 

H.    IT.\LI.\N  ARCHITECTURE 

W'.  Attmann.  Die  italischen  Rundbauten.   Berlin,  Wiedmannsche  Buchhandlung,  1906.  8vo. 

Amico  Ricci.  Storia  dell'  architettura  in  Italia  dal  secolo  IV  al  XVIII.  Modena,  pei  tipi 
della  Regio-Ducal  Camera,  1857.     8vo.  —  Contains  many  errors. 

Alfredo  ilelani.  .\rchitettura  italiana.  Parte  pima,  architettura  pelasgica,  etrusca,  italo- 
greca  and  romana.  ^lilano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1887.  16°.  —  A  primer,  quite  out  of  date,  espe- 
cially as  regards  Lombard  architecture,  and  yet,  on  the  whole,  well  made. 

Gaily  Knight.  The  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  Italy  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
the  XV  century. 

Charles  A.  Cummings.  \  history  of  architecture  in  Italy  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
the  dawn  of  the  Renaissance.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1901.  2  vols. 
8vo.  —  Indifferently  poor  throughout;  for  the  Lombard  period  quite  misleading. 

I.  DESULTORY  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  STUDIES  L\  THE  HISTORY  OF  ARCHI- 
TECTURE 

G.  T.  Rivoira.  Le  origini  della  architettura  lombarda  e  delle  sue  principali  derivazioni 
nei  pacsi  d'oltr'  alpe.  Roma,  Ermarmo  Ltescher  &  Co.,  1901.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  A  book  of 
great  value  notwithstanding  that  its  thesis  is  somewhat  questionable. 

J.  Gaudet.  Elements  et  theorie  de  I'architecture.  Cours  professe  a  I'EcoIe  Nationale  et 
Speciale  des  Beaux  .\rts.  Paris,  Librairie  de  la  Construction  Moderne,  no  date.  4  vols.  —  A 
work  intende<l  for  practical  purposes  but  containing  a  certain  number  of  incidental  historical  hints. 

C.  E.  Norton.     Historical  studies  of  church  building  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Russell  Sturgis.  How  to  judge  architecture.  A  popular  guide  to  the  appreciation  of 
buildings.     New  York,  Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,     8vo.  —  Well  illustrated. 

Franz  Kugler.  Kleine  Schriften  und  Studien  zur  Kunstgeschichte.  Stuttgart,  Ebner  & 
Seubert,  1853.     3  vols.  —  Of  interest. 

Theodor  Seemann.  .\rchitektonische  und  ornamentale  Formenlehre.  Leipzig,  Karl 
Schollzc,  1890.     4to.  —  An  inferior  work. 

Lurien  Magne.  Cours  d'histoire  generale  de  I'architecture.  Le^on  d'ouverture.  Ecole 
Nationale  et  Speciale  des  Beaux  .\rts.  Paris,  Firmiii,  Didot  et  Cie.,  1890.  4to.  —  Good,  but 
almost  too  brief. 

'  See  also  below,  p.  417. 
343 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Edward  A.  Freeman.  Historical  and  architectural  sketches,  chiefly  Italian.  London, 
Macmillan  &  Co.,  187G.  12°.  —  Desultory  sketches  of  travel  delightfully  written,  but  not  deep 
from  an  architectural  standpoint. 

ArOiur  Synions.  Studies  in  seven  arts.  New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1907.  —  Lit- 
erary essays. 

W.  P.  P.  Longfellow.  The  column  and  the  arch.  Essays  on  architectural  history.  New 
York,  Scribner's,  1899.     12°.  —  Readable  essays  without  scientific  value. 

Jean  Franfois  Coifs.  La  filiation  gencalogique  de  toutes  les  ecoles  gothiques.  Paris, 
Baudry,  1887.  2  vols.  4to.  —  "Maintains  that  Gothic  consists  in  a  purely  ornamental  trans- 
formation of  the  component  members  of  a  building."     (Moore.) 

Leader  Scott.    The  cathedral  builders.     Second  edition,  London,  Sampson  Low,  1899. 

Prosper  Merhnee.  Etudes  sur  les  arts  au  moyen  age.  Nouvelle  edition,  Paris,  Calmanu 
Le\'y,  1891.  12°.  —  A  series  of  desultory  essays  more  interesting  from  a  literary  than  from  an 
architectural  standpoint. 

Esther  Singleton.  Turrets,  towers,  and  temples.  The  great  buildings  of  the  world  as  seen 
and  described  by  famous  writers.  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1898.  12°.  —  Of  no  scien- 
tific value. 

J.  A.  Messmer.  Ueber  den  Ursprung,  die  Entwickelung,  und  Bedeutung  der  Basilika  in 
der  christlichen  Baukunst.     Leipzig,  1854. 

l)c  Wieheking.  Analyse  descriptive,  historique  et  raisonnee  des  monuments  ...  en 
Europe.      Munich,  Francois  Wild,  1839.     5  vols.     Folio.  —  Worthless. 

Schmidt.     Romanische,  byzantinische  und  germanische  Baudenkmale.     1836.     4to. 

{H.  Taylor.}  Notes  on  sketching  tours  by  an  architect.  London,  B.  T.  Batsford,  1880. 
8vo.  —  Of  no  value. 

Fraivesco  Taccani.  Progetto  di  rettificazione  della  storia  architettonica  dal  suo  principio 
fino  al  secolo  XVIL     Milano,  Tipografia  Guglielinini,  1849.     4to.  —  Misleading. 

Milizia.     Memorie  degli  architetti  antichi  e  modemi.     Rome,  1768.     2  vols.     8vo. 

J.    GENER.\L  HISTORIES  OP  ART 

Andre  Michel.  Histoire  de  I'art  depuis  les  premiers  temps  chretiens  jusqu'a  nos  jours. 
Paris,  Colin,  1905.  8vo.  —  A  standard  work  of  which  only  the  first  four  volumes  have  yet 
appeared. 

Alain  Schultz.  Kunstgeschichte.  Berlin,  G.  Grote,  1895-96.  To  Ije  published  in  about 
thirty  parts. 

Wilhelm  von  Liibke.     Grundriss  der  Kunstgeschichte.     Stuttgart,  1860  and  1873.      8vo. 

—  Excellent.     Translated  by  F.  E.  Bennett.     London,  1868.     2  vols.     8vo. 

Wilhelm  von  Liibke.  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kunst  von  den  friihesten  Zeiten  bis  zur 
Gegenwart.     Stuttgart,  Neff,  1894.  —  A  standard  work. 

William  II.  Goodyear.  A  history  of  art.  New  York,  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  1888.  — An 
adequate  primer. 

William,  H.  Goodyear.     Roman  and  medieval  art.     New  York,  Flood   &  Vincent,  1897. 

—  A  handy  little  text-book. 

William  lieymond.  Histoire  de  Part  depuis  les  origines  jusqu'a  nos  jours.  Paris,  Ch. 
Delagrave,  1890.  —  Partly  on  architecture.     Too  brief. 

K.  Frey.  Magliabechianus.  Berlin,  1892.  —  "Stellt  in  der  Vorrede  einen  Leitfaden  der 
Kunsthistoriographie  in  Aussicht."     (Schlosser.) 

E.  Forster.     Vorschule  der  Kunstgeschichte.     Leipzig,  1862. 

F.  X.  Kraus.  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Kunst.  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  Herder'sche 
Verlagshandlung,  1897.  3  vols.  4to.  —  Considering  the  vast  field  covered,  on  the  whole  a  praise- 
worthy effort,  though  the  sections  on  architecture  are  full  of  errors  and  inexactitudes. 

Sch7iaase.     Geschichte  der  bildenden  KUnste.     2te  Auflage,  Dusseldorf,  1866-79.     8  vols. 
A.   Faeli.     Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunst.     Freiburg  im  B.,   1887-90 
4to. 


K.    CIVIL   AIICIIITECTURE 

,1.  F.  Bounmml.  Ilistoire  d'art  chrt'ticn  des  oriRines  ...  a  nos  jours.  (Architecture, 
sculpture,  ix'iuture,  etc.)     Paris,  1897,  'it'  edition.     8vo. 

ImuLi  Courajod.  Lemons  professees  a  I'ecole  du  Louvre,  1887-99.  Paris,  Alphonse 
Picard  et  Fils,  1899.     3  vols.  —  Fairly  good  elementary  lectures,  unillustrated. 

L.  Vittt.  Etudes  sur  I'histoire  de  I'art.  Paris,  Michel  Levy  Freres  editeurs,  1875.  —  A 
series  of  well-writtcu  essays. 

Charles  Baijet.  Precis  d'histoire  de  I'art.  Paris,  Quantin,  ISgi.  —  "Limited  to  145  small 
pages."     (Sturgis.) 

A''.  D'Ani'ers.  An  elementary  history  of  art,  architecture,  sculpture,  painting.  London, 
Sampson,  Low,  etc.,  1882.     12°.  —  Attempts  to  cover  too  large  a  field  in  too  brief  a  compass. 

FetijT  Clement.  Histoire  abregee  des  beau.x  arts.  Paris,  Firmin  Didot  et  Cie.,  1879.  —  Not 
iniix)rtant  for  architecture. 

.-1.  Miehiels.  L'architecture  et  la  peinture  en  Europe  depuis  le  IV  siecle  jusqu'a  la  fin 
du  XVL  3e  edition,  Paris,  Henri  Loones,  1873.  8vo.  —  Unillustrated  essays  of  indifferent 
merit. 

D'Agincourt.  Storia  dell'  arte  dimostrata  coi  monumenti  dalla  sua  decadenza  nel  IV  secolo 
fino  al  suo  rinnovamento  nel  XVI.  French  translation  under  title  "Histoire  de  I'art  par  les 
monuments."     Paris,  1823. 

F.  C.  Turner.     A  short  history  of  art.     London,  1886. 

R.  St.  John  Tyrwhitt.  Greek  and  Gothic.  Progress  and  decay  in  the  three  arts  of  archi- 
tecture, sculpture  and  painting.     London,  1881. 

Charles  S.  Farrar.  Art  topics.  History  of  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture,  with 
specific  references  to  most  of  the  standard  works  on  art.  New  York,  Townsend,  MacConn  & 
Co.,  1885.  —  Quite  worthless. 

Edmond  Guillaume.  L'histoire  de  I'art  et  de  I'ornement.  Deuxieme  edition,  Paris, 
Charles  Delagrave,  1888.     8vo.  —  A  very  elementary  book,  poorly  illustrated. 

]{.  Menard.     Histoire  des  beaux-arts.     Paris,  1875. 

J.  Srhnatier.     Synchronistische  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste.     Berlin,  1870. 

J.  G.  Kinkel.     Gescliichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste  bei  den  christlichen  Volkern.     Bonn,  1845. 

J.  G.  Kinkel.  Vierundzwanzig  Tafeln  architektonischer  Zeichnungen  zu  Vortragen  iiber 
die  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste  bei  den  christhchen  Volkern.  .  .  .  Bonn,  Selbstverlag. 
1844.     8vo.  —  Worthless. 

Roger  de  St.  Poncin.     Cours  sur  I'art  catholique. 

Julia  B.  DeForest.  Short  history  of  art.  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  —  "A  popular 
account  .  .  .  The  account  of  Gothic  vaulting  is  wholly  inaccurate."     (Sturgis.) 

M.  liatissier.  Histoire  de  I'art  monumental  dans  I'antiquite  et  au  moyen  age.  Paris, 
Fume,  IS45.     8vo. 

Labarte.     Handbook  of  the  arts  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Nancy  Bell.     An  elementary  history  of  art.     London,  1875.     3d  edition,  1889. 

George  Cleghorn.  Ancient  and  modern  art.  Edinburgh  and  London,  Wra.  Blackwood 
&  Sons,  1848.  —  In  small  part  on  architecture;  well  written  but  hardly  to  be  recommended 
to-day. 

Charles  Blanc.  Grammaire  des  arts  du  dessin,  architecture,  sculpture,  peinture.  3me  ed. 
Paris,  Henri  Laurens,  1876.  —  "The  works  of  this  author  are  in  a  sense  perfunctory."  (Stur- 
gis.) 

J.  Braun.     Geschichte  der  Kunst.     2te  Ausgatje,  Wiesbaden,  1873.     2  vols. 

J.  S.  Memes.  History  of  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture.  Edinburgh,  1829.  Other 
editions,  Boston,  1831;  1834. 

K.    CIVIL  ARCHITECTURE 

A'.  F.  ron  Wiehehing.  Architecture  civile,  theorique  et  pratique,  enrichie  de  l'histoire 
descriptive  des  edifices  anciens  et  modemes  les  plus  remarquables  et  de  leurs  dessins  exacts.  .  .  . 
Munich,  1827-31.     7  vols,  and  atlas.     Folio. 

34.5 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGR-\PHY 

K.  F.  mn  Wiebekiiig.  Memoria  sullo  stato  dell'  architettura  civile  nel  medio  evo. 
Traduzione  del  Carlo  Amati.     Milano,  Giacomo  Pirola,  1825.     4to.  —  Unimportant. 

L.    BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Atxonymous.  Le  moyen  age  monumental  et  archeologique.  Paris,  A.  Hauser,  1842. 
3  vols.  Folio.  —  A  series  of  fine  drawings,  so  much  the  more  valuable  because  in  many  cases 
they  were  made  before  modern  restorations  were  executed. 

M.  S.  ReynaiiA.  Traite  d 'architecture.  Paris,  1858.  2me  edition,  Paris,  Dunod,  1863. 
2  vols.     Folio.  —  A  series  of  miscellaneous  croquis,  well  selected  and  exquisitely  drawn. 

Gailhabaud.  Architecture  du  V  au  XVII  siecle,  et  les  arts  qui  en  dependent.  Paris, 
Gide,  1858.  Folio.  4  vols,  and  atlas.  —  Beautiful  croquis  of  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  char- 
acter, with  descriptive  text. 

Gailhabaud.  Monuments  anciens  et  modcrnes.  Paris,  1855.  4  vols.  —  A  book  of  croquis 
recommended  for  practical  purposes. 

J.  N.  S.  Duraml.  Parallele  des  edifices  de  tout  genre.  Paris,  1800.  —  A  book  of  croquis 
recommended  for  practical  purposes. 

Jides  Gailhabaud.  Fragments  d'architecture  et  d'ornaraentation  empruntes  a  toutes 
les  epoques.  Paris,  Ducher  &  Cie.,  no  date.  Folio.  —  A  miscellaneous  collection  of 
croquis. 

Stitdirenden  der  koniglichen  Bau-Akademie  zu  Berlin,  1877.  Selbstverlag  .  .  .  der 
Studirenden.  Folio.  —  A  large  collection  of  drawings  made  from  second-hand  materials  and 
frequently  inaccurate;  valuable,  however,  as  bringing  together  a  very  wide  variety  of  subjects. 

J.  Nash.  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages.  London,  Maclean,  1838.  Folio.  —  Fine 
drawings  of  miscellaneous  subjects,  mostly  in  France. 

H.  G.  Knight.  The  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  Italy,  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
the  Fifteenth  Century.  London,  Bohn,  1843.  2  vols.  FoUo.  —  A  series  of  [lersjjective  draw- 
ings de  luxe. 

Lange  e  Lahriola.  I  principali  monumenti  architettonichi  di  tutte  le  civilta  antiche  e 
modeme.  Torino,  Ermamio  Loescher,  1886.  8vo.  —  A  series  of  notices  on  miscellaneous 
buildings  of  various  styles,  well  illustrated. 

John  Allen  Giles.  Church  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  —  a  series  of  etchings  by  J. 
Coney.     The  descriptive  account  of  each  building  is  by  G .     London,  1841.     Folio. 

Julius  A.  Schtveinjurth.  Sketches  abroad.  Boston,  Ticknor  &  Co.,  1888.  Folio. — 
Mediocre  drawings  of  miscellaneous  subjects. 

L.  Cloquet.  Les  grandes  cathedrales  du  monde  catholique.  Lille,  Desclee,  de  Brouwer  et 
Cie.,  1897.     4to.  —  An  inferior  work. 

Architectural  Club  of  Boston.  Sketch  book.  Boston,  1890.  Folio.  —  A  miscellaneous 
collection  of  drawings,  some  of  wliich  are  of  artistic  merit. 

R.  N.  Shaiv.    Architectural  sketches  from  the  continent.     London,  1838.     Folio. 

Samuel  Prout.  Sketches  at  home  and  abroad.  London,  Reinell,  1844.  Folio.  —  Ms- 
cellaneous  croquis  of  greater  artistic  than  archaeological  merit. 

Pierre  Chabat:  Fragments  d'architecture.  figypte,  Grece,  Rome,  moyen  age,  renais- 
sance, etc.  Paris,  A.  Morel,  1868.  Folio.  —  Finely  drawn  croquis  of  miscellaneous  subjects, 
principally  classical. 

Samuel  Read.  Leaves  from  a  sketch  book,  —  pencillings  of  travel  at  home  and  abroad. 
London,  Sampson  Low,  etc.,  1875.     Folio.  —  Poor  drawings  of  miscellaneous  subjects. 

Chapuy.  Le  moyen  age  pittoresque.  Monumens  et  fragmens  d'architecture,  etc.,  du  X 
au  XVII  siecle.  Paris,  Veith  et  Hauser,  1838.  5  vols.  Folio.  —  A  miscellaneous  series  of 
good  engra\Tngs,  accompanied  by  an  indifferent  text. 

Chapuy.  Italic  monumentale  et  pittoresque;  ou  ses  \'ues  et  ses  monuments.  Avec  un 
discours  sur  I'histoire  de  I'art  en  Italic  par  Didron.  Paris,  Jeannin,  no  date.  Folio.  —  A  series 
of  miscellaneous,  but  good  engravings. 

Anonymous.    Eglises  principales  de  I'Europe.   ^lilan,  no  date.  —  Some  fine  illustrations. 

346 


M.  ORNAMENT 

G.  Btmrgerel.  Frap;nipnt.s  d'architecture  et  de  sculpture.  Paris,  Morel,  1863.  Folio.  — 
A  miscellaneous  collection  of  large  drawings  mostly  of  antiques. 

F.H.Allen.    The  great  cathedrals  of  the  world.    Boston,  Haskell  &  Post  Co.,  1886.     Folio. 

—  Poor  reproductions  and  worse  text. 

T.  S.  Boys.     Picturcsijue  architecture  in  Paris,  etc.     London,  Thomas  Boys,  1839.     Folio. 

—  Colored  croquis  of  no  value. 

J.  B.  Waring.  Illustrations  of  architecture  and  ornament.  London,  Blackie  &  Son,  1871. 
Folio.  —  Croquis  of  moderate  interest. 

L.  Fisenne.     Kunstdenkniale  des  Mittelalters.     Aachen,  1880-86.     3  vols. 

CItapuy.     IjC  moyen  age  monumental. 

M.  M.  liipley.  The  world's  workshop  in  stone;  temple,  cathedral,  and  mosque.  Boston, 
Estes   &  Lauriat,  1880.     Folio.  —  Quite  worthless. 

M.    ORNAMENT:   HISTORICAL  .\ND  THEORETIC.^:.  WORKS 

Gusiav  Ebe.  Die  Schmuckformen  der  Monumentalbauten  aus  alien  Stilepochen  seit 
der  grieschischen  .\ntike.  Leipzig,  Baumgiirtner,  1S96.  3  vols.  Folio.  —  Perhaps  the  best 
general  history  of  ornament,  though  devoting  disproportionate  space  to  the  Renaissance  and 
modem  periods. 

F.  Edward  Hulme.  The  birth  and  development  of  ornament.  London  and  New  York, 
Macmillan's,  1893.  8vo.  —  Not  exactly  a  history  of  ornament,  but  a  series  of  very  readable 
essays  on  ditVerent  phases  of  the  development  of  ornament. 

James  Ward.  Historic  ornament;  a  treatise  on  decorative  art  and  architectural  ornament. 
London,  Chapman  and  Hall,  1897.  8vo.  —  A  second  volume  deals  with  the  minor  arts.  Prob- 
ably a.s  good  as  any  took  can  be  which  attempts  to  cover  so  much  ground  in  so  small  a  compass. 

Charles  Cahier.  Nouveaux  melanges  d'archeologie,  d'histoire  et  de  litlerature  sur  le  moyen 
age.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot,  1875.  4  vols.  Folio.  Vol.  2.  La  decoration  d'eglises. — A 
treatise  of  medieval  ornament  with  excellent  studies  of  the  legendary  subjects  represented  in 
windows,  statues,  etc.     Many  plates. 

Sophiss  Midler.  Die  Thier-Ornamentik  ira  Norden.  Archaologischen  Untersuchung  aus 
dem  danischen  iibersetzt  von  J.  Mestorf.  Hamburg,  Meissner,  1881.  8vo. — •  A  study  of  the  origin 
of  medieval  ornament. 

Cahier  et  Martin.     Melanges  d'archeologie.     Paris,  1847;  1856. 

F.  Kanitz.  Katechismus  der  Ornaraentik.  Leitfiiden  iibcr  die  Geschichte,  Entwicke- 
lung  und  die  charakteristischen  Formen  der  Verzierungsstile  aller  Zeiten.  Vierte  Auflage, 
Leipzig,  J.  J.  Weber,  1891.     1-2°.  —  .\  verj'  elementary  tex-t-book. 

Bichard  Glazier.  A  manual  of  historic  ornament.  Prepared  for  the  use  of  students  and 
craftsmen.     Second  edition,  rcN-ised  and  enlarged,  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1907. 

—  "The  author's  knowledge  of  the  many  subjects  treated  proves  in  almost  every  case  sufficient." 
(N.  Y.  Post.) 

Aljredo  Melani.  Decorazione  e  Industrie  artistiche.  Volume  I.  Antichita  e  medioevo. 
Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1888.     18°.  —  A  very  rudimentary  pocket  text-book. 

D.  Guilmard.  La  connaissance  des  styles  de  I 'orneraentation  —  etudes  elcmentaires  sur 
I'histoire,  I'architecture  et  les  arts  industriels.  Paris,  Guilmard,  18-19.  Folio.  —  Very  mediocre. 
Numerous  plates,  especially  of  the  minor  arts. 

./.  Ilaiiselmann.  Studicn  und  Ideen  iiber  Ursprung,  Wesen,  und  Stil  des  Ornaments. 
Zweite  .\uflage,  Ziirich  und  Ijcipzig,  Orell  Fussli   &  Co.,'  no  date.     8vo.  —  Mediocre. 

iS.  Uesselbach.  Vergleichende  Darstellung  der  antiken  Ornamentik  mit  der  des  Mittel- 
alters und  der  neueren  Zeit.  Programm  zum  Schlusse  des  Schuljahres,  1848.  WUrzburg,  Ziirn, 
1849.  —  Quite  unimportant. 

W.  C.  Colling imnd.  Philosophy  of  ornament.  Eight  lectures  on  the  history  of  decorative 
art,  given  at  the  University  College,  LiverjKJol.     Sunnyside,  1883.     12°. 

B.  I'.  PuUan.  Remarks  on  church  decoration.  London,  B.  T.  Batsford,  1878.  8vo.  — 
Of  no  interest. 

347 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ralph  N.  Wornuni.  Analysis  of  ornament;  —  the  characteristics  of  styles.  4th  edition, 
London,  Chapman  and  Hall,  1873.     8vo.  —  Superficial  and  inaccurate. 

John  P.  Seddon.  Progress  in  art  and  architecture  with  precedents  for  ornament.  Lon- 
don, David  Bogue,  1852.     4to.  —  A  manual  of  medieval  ornament,  of  no  value  to-day. 

Viollet-le-Duc.  De  la  decoration  appliquee  aux  edifices.  Paris,  Pierson  et  Cie.,  no  date. 
Foho.  —  Of  little  value. 

Rene  Menard.  La  decoration  au  moyen  age.  Paris,  J.  Ronam,  1884.  18°.  —  Of  no 
scientific  value. 

N.    ORNAMENT:  BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTR.\TION 

Owen  Jones.  Grammar  of  ornament.  London,  B.  Quaritch,  1865.  Folio.  —  A  standard 
work,  designed  more  for  practical  than  archaeological  purposes. 

Lewis  Gruner.  Specimens  of  ornamental  art,  selected  from  the  best  models  of  the  classical 
epochs.  London,  Thomas  McLean,  1850.  Great  folio.  —  Splendid  croquis  (many  in  colors) 
of  the  ornament  of  Italy  in  all  epochs. 

Cahier  et  Martin.  Suite  aux  melanges  d'archeologie.  Paris,  Morel,  1868.  Folio. — A 
great  collection  of  colored  croquis  of  medieval  ornament. 

Rudolphe  Pfnor.  Ornamentation  usuelle  de  toutes  les  epoques  dans  ]es  arts  industriels  et 
en  architecture.  Paris,  Devienne  et  Cie.,  1866-67.  Folio.  —  A  large  number  of  croquis 
(with  explanatory  text)  designed  for  practical  purposes. 

Robert  Newbcry.  Gleanings  from  ornamental  art  of  every  style.  London,  E.  &  F.  N. 
Spon,  1863.     Folio.  —  A  collection  of  croquis  intended,  doubtless,  for  practical  purposes. 

Augustus  Pugin.  Gothic  ornaments,  selected  from  various  ancient  buildings,  both  in 
England  and  France.  London,  Bohn,  1854.  —  "Utilissimo  per  chi  voglia  studiare  il  dettaglio 
ornamentale  dell'  architettura  archiacuta."     (Boito.) 

Mechin.  Dictionnaire  d'art  ornemental  de  tous  les  styles.  Fragments  et  ensembles  d'archi- 
tecture,  de  sculpture,  de  decoration  et  d 'ornementation.  Paris,  Eugene  Bigot,  1888-91. 
4  vols.  Folio.  —  A  large  collection  of  croquis,  sometimes  useful  for  reference.  Intended  for 
practical  purposes. 

Emile  Leconte.  Ornemens  gothiques  de  toutes  les  epoques  et  choix  d'omemens  de  la 
renaissance.  Paris,  fimile  Leconte,  1839.  3  vols.  Folio.  —  Miscellaneous  croquis  of  some 
value. 

W.  &  G.  Audsley.  Outlines  of  ornament  in  the  leading  styles.  London,  Sampson  Low, 
Marston,  Searlc  and  Ri\ington,  1881.  Folio.  —  Miscellaneous  croquis  mostly  of  cheaper  and 
painted  ornaments. 

Leon  Gaucherel.  Exemples  de  decoration  appliquees  a  1 'architecture  et  a  la  peinture  depuis 
I'antiquite  jusqu'  a  nos  jours.  Paris,  Bance,  1852.  Folio. — A  miscellaneous  series  of  croquis 
of  arcliitecture  and  ornament. 

J.  Carot.  Cours  complet  d'omements  d 'architecture.  Paris,  Mourocq,  no  date.  Folio. 
—  A  series  of  fine  drawings  mostly  of  Roman  ornament. 

King.     Study  book  of  the  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Emile  Leconte.  Albimi  de  I'ornemaniste.  Recueil  compose  de  fragmens  d 'ornemens  dans 
tous  les  genres  et  dans  tous  les  styles.  Paris,  Emile  Leconte,  1836.  Folio.  —  Worthless  from  an 
historical  point  of  view. 

J.  Cundall.  Examples  of  ornament.  London,  Bell  &  Daldy,  1855.  Folio. — A  medi- 
ocre collection  of  miscellaneous  croquis,  some  in  color. 

H.  Dolmetsch.  Der  Ornamentenschatz;  ein  Musterbuch  stilvoUer  Omamente  aus  alien 
Kunstepochen.  Zweite  Auflage,  Stuttgart,  Julius  Hoffman,  1889.  Folio.  —  Croquis  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  many  in  color. 

Daly.     Motifs  historiques  d'architecture  et  de  sculpture. 

William  Helhurn.  Ancient  and  modem  ornament  .  .  .  from  the  best  masters.  New 
York,  1887.     Folio. 

Ilofjmann  et  Kellerhoven.     Recueil  de  dessins  relatifs  a  I'art  de  la  decoration  chez  tous  les 

348 


Q.    I)I(  riONAllIES,    ETC. 

peuples  el  aux  plus  belles  epoques  de  leur  civilisation.  Paris,  Levy,  1858.  Folio.  —  Croquis 
(some  in  color)  quite  useless  from  an  historical  point  of  view. 

J.  K.  CMing.  Art  foliage  for  sculpture  and  decoration.  Second  edition,  revised,  Lon- 
don, B.  T.  Hatsford,  1878.  Folio.  —  Intended  for  practical  purposes,  but  containing  many  cro- 
quis from  almost  all  ixtIikIs. 

Arwnijmous.  Ornanienle  fiir  Architektur  und  Kunstindustrie  nach  den  Gypsabgiissen 
des  jMuscinns  [fiir  Kunst  und  Industrie,  von  Vienna]  ausgewahlt.     Wien,  1876.     Folio. 

O.    POLYCHROMY 

iV.  &  G.  Audsley.  La  peinture  murale  decorative  dans  le  style  du  moyen  age.  Paris, 
Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1881.  Folio.  —  Thirty-six  fine  plates  in  color  which,  though  intended  for 
practical  and  not  for  archaeological  purposes,  serve  excellently  to  give  a  rough  idea  of  medieval 
color  decoration. 

IC.  d-  G.  Auddey.  Polychromatic  decoration  as  applied  to  buildings  in  the  medieval  styles. 
London,  Henry  Sotheran  &  Co.,  1882.  Folio.  —  An  English  edition  of  the  same  author's  "\ja. 
peinture  murale." 

A.  Racinet.  L'ornement  polychrome.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot,  1869-87.  i  vols.  Folio. 
—  Superb  colored  croquis,  classed  chronologically. 

Ernst  Eu-ald.  Farbige  Decorationen.  Berlin,  Ernst  Wasmuth,  1896.  '2  vols.  Folio.  — 
Miscellaneous  croquis. 

W .  Zahn.  Ornamente  aller  klassischen  Kunstepochen  nach  den  Originalen  in  ihren  eigen- 
thiimlichen  Farben  dargestellt.     Berlin,  1849.     Folio. 

Guido  Schreiber.  Gemalte  gothische  Ornamente.  Carlsruhe.  —  "Ornamente  senza 
composizione,  senza  carattere,  senza  garbo."     (Boito.) 

P.    MOSAIC 

Edouard  Gerspach.     La  mosaique.     Bibliotheque  de  I'enseignement  des  beaux -arts.     Paris. 

Valentin  Teirich.  Eingelegte  Marmorornamente  des  Mittelalters  und  der  Renaissance. 
Wien,  1875.     Folio. 

Wyatt.  Specimens  of  the  geometric  mosaics  of  the  Middle  Ages.  London,  1848. 
Folio. 

Q.     DICTIONARIES,  ENCYCLOPEDIAS  AND  WORKS  OF  REFERENCE 

Viollel-le-Duc.  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  1  'architecture  franpaise  du  XI  au  XVI  siecle. 
Paris,  Bance,  1854.  10  vols,  and  Table  Analytique,  1  vol.  8vo.  —  A  book  whose  immense 
reputation  was  doubtless  deserved  at  the  time  it  was  written,  but  which  is  somewhat  out  of  date 
at  the  present  time. 

Henri  Sabine.  Table  analj'tique  et  synthetique  du  dictionnaire  raisonne  de  I'architecture 
franpaise  du  XI  au  XVI  siecle  par  E.  E.  Viollet-le-Duc.  Paris,  Librairie  des  Imprimeries  Re- 
unies,  1889.  —  An  index  to  Viollet-Ie-Duc's  great  work. 

Schonermark  und  StUber.  Hochbau-Lexicon.  Berlin,  Wilhelm  Ernst  und  Solm,  1896. 
Folio.  —  A  valuable  work  —  of  course  entirely  in  German. 

WUhelin  Spemann.  Kunstlexicon;  ein  Handbuch  fiir  Kunstler  und  Kunstfreunde.  Ber- 
lin, 1905.     8vo. 

Architectural  Publication  Society.  The  dictionary  of  architecture.  London,  1892.  8 
vols.     Folio.  —  "Much  of  the  work  is  of  very  high  order."     (Smith.) 

Russell  Sturgis.  A  dictionary  of  architecture  and  building,  biographical,  historical,  de- 
scriptive.    3  vols.     Folio.     New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1901.  —  Well  illustrated. 

Anonymous.  Dictionnaire  de  I'academie  des  beaux-arts.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  &  Cie., 
1858-96.  4to.  —  A  work  of  great  pretentions,  but  of  which  in  1896  only  five  volumes  had 
appeared,  extending  from  A  to  E.     The  work  is  of  slight  value. 

J.  Adeline.  Lexique  des  tcrmes  d'art.  Bibliotheque  de  I'enseignement  des  beaux-arts. 
Paris,  1884.     Translatt^l  under  title:   Art  dictionary.     New  York,  Applcton,  1891. 

349 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

L.  J.  Guenebault.  Dictionnaire  iconographique  des  monuments  Ae  I'antiquite  chretienne 
et  du  moyen  age.     Paris,  Leleux,  1845.     2  vols.     8vo.  —  Of  little  value. 

R.  Willis.  Architectural  nomenclature  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Cambridge,  Deighton,  etc., 
1844.  Folio.  —  A  work  of  considerable  scholarship,  which  may  occasionally  be  of  use  even 
to-day. 

Joseph  GwUt.  Encyclopaedia  of  architecture,  historical,  theoretical,  and  practical.  Revised 
by  Wyatt  Papworth.  9th  edition.  New  York,  Longmans,  1888.  1st  edition,  London,  1842. 
8vo.  —  "Contains  bibliography."     (Sturgis.) 

Robert  Stuart.  Dictionary  of  architecture,  historical,  descriptive,  topographical,  decorative, 
theoretical,  and  mechanical.  London,  1830-46;  Philadelphia,  1854.  2  vols.,  text,  1  vol., 
plates.  8vo.  —  "A  satisfactory  little  book  for  its  time,  but  of  course  not  very  serviceable  now." 
(Smith.) 

Heinrich  Otte.  Archaologisches  Wiirterbuch  zur  Erklarung  der  in  den  Schriften  iiber 
mittelalterliche  Kunst  vorkommenden  Kunstausdriicke.  Leipzig,  T.  D.  VVeigel,  1857.  12°.  — 
A  book  useful  for  readers  unacquainted  with  technical  vocabularies  in  German  and  French.  The 
work  is  written  in  three  different  languages  —  German,  French,  and  English. 

H.  A.  Mailer.    Lexikon  der  bildender  Kiinste.     I.,eipzig,  1883.     12°. 

Moihes  und  Miiller.  Illustriertes  archaologisches  Worterbuch.  Leipzig  und  Berlin,  1877- 
78.     2  vols.     8vo. 

J.  W.  MoUett.  An  illustrated  diciionary  of  words  used  in  art  and  archaeology.  London, 
1883. 

Ernest  Bosc.  Dictionnaire  general  de  I'archeologie  et  des  antiquites  chez  les  divers  peuples. 
Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1881.  —  Very  incomplete. 

/'.  Nicholson.     Encyclopiedia  of  architecture.     London,  1852.     2  vols. 

./.  //.  Parker.  A  glossary  of  terms  use<l  in  Grecian,  Roman,  Italian,  and  Gothic  architec- 
ture. 5th  edition,  enlarged,  O.xford,  1850.  12°.  —  There  are  also  later  editions.  A  book  that 
still  has  its  value. 

Adolph  Berty.  Vocabulaire  archeologique  fraiifais-anglais  et  anglais-franfais  avec  ren- 
vois aux  1700  vignettes  illustrant  le  'Glossaire  d 'Architecture'  public  par  J.  H.  Parker.  Paris, 
1853.     8vo. 

Quatremere  de  Quitwy.     Dictionnaire  historique  d'architecture. 

Ernest  Bosc.  Dictionnaire  raisonne  d'architecture  et  des  sciences  et  arts  qui  s'y  rattachent. 
Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1877-80.     4  vols.     8vo. 

L.  Bergmann.  Baulexicon:  oder  Realencyclopadie  des  gesammten  Bauwesens.  Leip- 
zig, 1855.     8vo. 

Adolphe  Berty.  Dictionnaire  de  I'architecture  du  moyen  age,  contenant  tons  les  termes 
techniques.     Paris,  A.  Derache,  1845.     8vo.  —  A  satisfactory  work  in  French. 

John  Brition.  A  dictionary  of  the  architecture  and  archseology  of  tlie  Middle  Ages.  Lon- 
don, Longmans,  1838.     8vo.  —  Leaves  much  to  be  desired  in  clearness  of  definition. 

A.  F.  Demmin.  Encj-clopedie  des  beaux-arts  plastiques,  architecture  et  mosaique,  etc. 
Paris,  1873.     5  vols.     8vo. 

Pavi  Planai.  Encyclopedic  de  I'architecture  et  de  la  construction.  Paris,  no  date. 
7  vols.     4to.  —  A  book  well  known,  but  of  secondarj'  importance  for  the  historian. 

Henry  Share.  The  encyclopaedia  of  ornament.  London,  William  Pickering,  1842.  Folio. 
• —  A  collection  of  croquis,  not  as  extensive  as  the  title  would  imply.  The  most  interesting 
are  several  colored  reproductions  of  pure  ornament  in  stained  glass. 

Quatremere  de  Quiney.  Dictionnaire  historique  d'architecture  comprenant  dans  son  plan 
les  notions  historiques,  descriptives,  archeologiques,  etc.,  etc.  Paris,  1832.  2  vols.  4to.  —  Of 
little  use  to  the  medievalist. 

Rev.  Thomas  Dudley  Fosbroke.  Encyclopedia  of  antiquities  and  elements  of  archteology, 
classical  and  medieval.     London,  M.  A.  Nattali,  1843.     2  vols.     8vo.  —  Of  no  value. 

Pietro  Zani.  Enciclopedia  metodica,  critico-ragionata  delle  belle  arti.  Parma,  1817-24. 
28  vols.     8vo.  —  Of  little  use  to  the  student  of  medieval  architecture. 

350 


V.    CRITICISM,    ETC. 

R.    ARCH.EOI.OGY  AND   ICONOGRAPHY 

li.  P.  dom  Fernand  Cahrol.  Dictionnaire  d'archeologie  chretieiine  et  de  liturgie.  Paris, 
Lefouzey  et  Ane,  1907.  Folio.  —  .\  monumental  work  of  which  only  the  first  two  volumes 
(covering  the  letter  A)  have  as  yet  appeared. 

Didrun.  Iconographie  chretienne.  Histoire  de  Dieu.  Paris,  Imprimerie  Royal,  1843. 
4to.  Translatetl  into  English  by  E.  J.  Millington  under  the  title  "Christian  Iconography," 
London,  1851.     1'2°.  —  \  work  valuable  even  to-<lay. 

H.  Dctzcl.     Christliche  Ikonographie.     Freiburg-en-Breisgau,  1894-96.     2  vols.     8vo. 

Barbier  de  Montaidt.    Traite  d 'iconographie  chretienne.     Paris,  1890.     2  vols.     8vo. 

Jides  Quirherat.  Archcologie  du  moyen  age.  (Revue  des  cours  publics  et  des  societes 
savantes  de  la  France  et  de  I'etranger,  Vols.  I-III,  1855-57,  passim.) 

Pasral.     Institutions  de  Part  chretien.     Paris,  1858.     '2  vols.     8vo. 

./.  Oudin.  Archeologie  chretienne,  religieuse,  civile  et  militaire.  Troisieme  edition, 
Bruxelles,  Adolphe  Wahlen  et  Cie.,  1847.  2  vols.  8vo.  and  12°.  —  A  fairly  good  book  for  its 
date. 

Reusens.  Manuel  d'archeologie  chretiemie  ...  a  I'usage  des  seminaires  et  des  etablis- 
sements  d 'instruction.  Paris,  Ernest  Thorin,  1890.  4to.  —  A  fairly  good  handbook.  In  no 
sense,  however,  an  important  work. 

Grimoiiard  de  Si.  Laurent.  Manuel  de  I'art  chretien.  Paris,  Oudin  Freres,  1878.  4to. 
—  Contains  much  incouography. 

5.  MON.\STIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Lenoir.     Arcliitecture  monastique.  —  A  standard  work. 
Montcdembert.     Les  moines  d'Occident. 

T.    CONSTRUCTION 

G.  Ungewitter.  I^hrbuch  der  gotischen  Konstruktionen  neu  bearbeitet,  dritte  Auflage, 
von  K.  Mohrmann.  Leipzig,  T.  D.  Weigel,  1884.  4to.  —  An  excellent  te.xt-book  on  construc- 
tion, considered  largely  from  a  practical  and  technical  standpoint. 

G.  Dehio.  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  gleichseitige  Dreieck  als  Norm  gotischer  Baupropor- 
tionen.     Stuttgart,  1894. 

Aljonse  Gosset.  Les  coupoles  d'Orient  et  d'Occident.  Paris,  Levy,  1889.  FoUo.  — 
The  drawings,  showing  the  construction  of  domes  of  all  periods  and  styles,  are  valuable. 

U.    CURVES  AND  "REFINEMENTS" 

William  II.  Goodyear.  Illustrated  catalogue  of  photographs  and  surveys  of  architectural 
refinements  in  medieval  buildings.     Edinljurgli,  1905.  —  Contains  bibliography. 

iVilliaiii  II .  Goodi/ear.  .\rchitectural  refinements  in  early  Byzantine  churches  and  French 
cathedrals.      (In  .Vrcliitectural  Record,  1904,  Vol.  16.)  —  Contains  many  illustrations. 

William  II.  Goodyear.  Vertical  cur\'es  and  other  architectural  refinements  in  the  Gothic 
cathedrals  and  in  the  early  Byzantine  churches  of  Constantinople.  New  York,  1904.  (Brook- 
lyn Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  Museum  Memoirs,  Vol.  1,  No.  4.)  —  With  plans  and 
photograplis. 

William  H.  Goodyear.     Medieval  architectural  refinements.     Yale  Alumni  Weekly.     Jan. 

6,  1904. 

P.  W.  Forchhammer.  Ueber  Reinheit  der  Baukunst  auf  Grund  des  Ursprungs  der 
vier  Haupt-Baustyle.  Hamburg;  Perthes,  Besser  und  Mauke;  1856.  Pamphlet.  —  Un- 
important. 

V.    CRITICISM,  PHILOSOPHY,  ESTHETICS 

William  Morris.  Gothic  architecture.  London,  1893.  18vo.  —  A  stimulating  little 
essay. 

351 


GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

John  Ruskin.  Seven  lamps  of  architecture.  —  "Transcendental  estheticism"  abounding 
in  all  manner  of  errors  of  fact  and  judgmert,  and  yet  of  undeniable  value. 

John  Ruskin.     Stones  of  Venice.  —  See  above. 

John  Ruskin.     Lectures  on  architecture  and  painting. 

Gottfried  Seniper.  Der  Stil  in  den  technischen  und  tektonischen  Kiinsten,  oder,  Prak- 
lische  .(Esthetik.  Munchen,  1878.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  A  philosophical  treatise  characteristically 
German. 

Laurence  Harvey.  Semper's  theory  of  evolution  in  architectural  ornament.  (Royal  In- 
stitute of  British  Architects,  Transactions,  Vol.  51,  1885,  p.  29.)  — A  synopsis  of  Semper. 

Hippolyte  Adolphe  Taine.  La  philosophic  de  I'art,  etc.  Translated  by  John  Durand  as. 
Lectures  on  Art.     New  York,  Holt. 

Georg  Humann.  Zur  Beurtheilung  mittelalterlicher  Kunstwerke  in  Bezug  auf  ihre  zeit- 
liche  und  ortliche  Entstehung.  (In  Repertorium  fur  Ivunstwissenschaft,  Vol.  25,  1902,  pp. 
9-40.) 

Henry  Rutgers  Marshall.  .(Esthetic  principles.  New  York,  Macmillan,  1890.  —  Meta- 
physical. 

W.  R.  Lethahy.  Architecture,  mysticism,  and  myth.  New  Y'ork,  Macmillan,  1892.  — 
Philosophical;  bears  but  slightly  on  Gothic  architecture. 

C.  F.  von  Wiebeking.  Von  dem  Einfluss,  den  die  Untersuchung  und  beurtheilende  Be- 
schreibung  der  Baudenkmale  .  .  .  haben.  Mucnchen,  George  Jacquet,  1834.  Folio.  — 
Worthless. 

A.  Welhy  Pugin.  Contrasts,  or  a  parallel  between  the  noble  edifices  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  corresponding  buildings  of  the  present  day. 

H.  N.  Humphreys.  Ten  centuries  of  art.  -London,  Grant  &  Griffith,  1852.  —  Criticism, 
not  especially  illuminating. 


352 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

a.  general:  books  covering  more  or  less  the  entire  field. 
sourcp:s  > 

Berlin-Akademie  der  Wisseruichaften.  Corpus  inscriptionum  Latinarum.  Berolini,  1863— 
1905.  '2nd  edition,  Berolini,  1893.  Folio.  Supplernenta  Italica  coiicilio  et  auctoritate 
Academiae  Regiie  Ljiiceoruni,  edita  Roniie,  1884.  Folio.  Epheineris  epigraphica,  corporis 
inscriptionum  Latinarum  supplemeiitum.  Ed.  Insituto  di  Corrispondenza  Archeologica,  Romoe, 
1873-98.  4to.  — ■  In  this  monumental  series,  practically  the  entire  body  of  Roman  inscriptions 
is  made  accessible.  '"Le  tome  XII  par  Hirschfeld  a  recueilli  les  inscriptions  de  la  Gaule  Narbon- 
naise.  II  contient  une  bibliographie  complete  indiquant  ii  peu  pres  tout  ce  qui  a  ete  public  sur 
les  antiquites  romaines  de  la  region." 

L.  Henier.     Inscriptions  de  I'Algerie. 

Andrea  Palladia.  Architecture  in  ten  books.  Translated  from  the  Italian  by  James 
Leoni  with  notes  by  Inigo  Jones.  1742.  Folio.  —  Palladio's  drawings  are  notoriously  inac- 
curate, but  still  serve  to  give  a  general  idea  of  many  buildings  which  have  since  been  destroyed 
in  whole  or  in  part.     I  have  never  seen  the  original  Italian  editions  of  this  work. 

Guiliano  Giamberti  Sangallo.  —  "A  series  of  drawings  ably  executed  in  1465  are  now  to  be 
seen  in  the  Barberini  Library."  (Hemans).  —  These  drawings  are  very  valuable  for  the  restora- 
tion of  buildings  now  destroyed  in  whole  or  in  part,  though  they  pretend  to  be  little  more  than 
sketches. 

Sertio.  Libro  straordinario.  —  Preserves  sketches  of  buildings  now  destroyed  in  whole 
or  in  part. 

GENER.\L   HISTORIES 

Anderson  and  Spiers.  The  architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome.  A  sketch  of  its  historic 
development.  London,  B.  T.  Batsford,  and  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1903.  4to.  — 
The  best  general  history  of  Roman  architecture.  A  revised  edition  containing  much  new 
material  ap[)eared  in  1907. 

Josef  DuTin.  Die  Baukunst  der  Etmsker  und  der  RiJmer.  Darmstadt,  1885.  4to.  (In 
Handbuch  der  Architektur.)  —  .\  good,  but  very  technical  account. 

Prof.  G.  Aitehisoti.  Lectures  on  Roman  architecture  delivered  to  the  students  of  the  Royal 
Academy  during  1889.      (Published  in  the  "Builder"  of  the  year.) 

Hauser.     Styllehre  der  .\rchitect.     Fornien  des  Altertums.     188'2. 

William  H.  Goodyear.  Roman  and  medieval  art.  New  York,  Flood  &  Vincent,  1897. 
—  A  handy  te-vt-book. 

Ludu-ig  von  Sybel.  Weltgeschichte  der  Kunst  bis  zur  Erbauung  der  Sophienkirche. 
Marburg,  N.  G.  Elwert,  1888.  — .\n  excellent  elementary  work,  in  part  on  architecture. 

Franz  von  Reber,     History  of  ancient  art.     Translated  and  augmented  by.  J.  T.  Clarke. 

'  Classic  Authors.  Ne.vt  to  inscriptions,  the  most  authentic  sources  for  dating  monuments, 
and  for  learning  of  their  purpose  and  construction,  are  the  chance  references  to  buildings  scat- 
tered through  the  various  classic  authors.  It  is  unnecessary  to  quote  in  detail  the  list  of  such 
writers,  since  editions  of  any  of  the  Roman  authors  are  eve^\^vhere  available.  Possibly  the 
most  important  for  the  study  of  architecture  are  \itruvius  and  Pliny. 

353 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

New  York  and  London,  Harper  &  Bros.,  lOO'-J.  —  The  account  of  Roman  architecture  is  un- 
satisfactory. 

L.  T.  Canina.  L'architettura  antica  descritta  e  dimonstrata  coi  monumenti.  Roma, 
1832-44.     \i  vols. 

F.  T.  Kugler.     Geschichte  der  orientalischen  und  antiken  Baukunst.     Stuttgart,  1859. 
J.   Dewtrle.     Grieksche    en  romeinsche  bouwkunst.     Ghent,    no   date.     4to.     In   French 

and  Dutch.  —  An  unpretending  summary. 

JiJes  Marllia.  JSIanuel  d'archeologie  etrusque  et  romaine.  Bibliotheque  de  I'enseigne- 
ment  des  beaux-arts.  Paris,  A.  Quantin,  1884.  8vo.  —  In  part  on  architecture.  An  ac- 
count almost  too  brief. 

J.  B.  Lesueur.  Histoire  et  theorie  de  I'architecture.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie,  1879. 
4to.  —  A  study  of  the  orders,  containing  numerous  errors. 

Rene  Menard.    Art  antique.     Paris.     Libraire  de  I'Echo  de  la  Sorbonne,  1870. 

Iginio  Gentile.  Arte  etrusca  e  romana.  2a  edizione,  Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1892. 
24°.  —  A  very  brief  primer  of  the  art  history  of  Rome,  dealing  in  part  with  architecture. 

Ernst  Wagner  und  Gustav  Kachel.  Die  Grundformen  der  antiken  classischen  Baukunst. 
Heidelberg,  Friedrich  Bassermann,  1869.  —  A  synopsis  in  pamphlet  form. 

E.  Vinet.     Esquisse  d'une  histoire  de  I'architecture  classique.     1875. 

Pietro  Selvatico.  Le  arti  del  disegno  in  Italia.  Storia  e  critica.  Milano,  Francesco  Val- 
lardi,  no  date.     4to.  —  Unreliable. 

Pietro  Selvatico.  Storia  estetico-critica  delle  arti  del  disegno.  Lezioni  dette  nella  I.  R. 
Accademia  di  Belle  Arti  in  Venezia.  Venezia,  Pietro  Naratovich,  1856.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  Far 
inferior  to  the  same  author's  "Arti  del  disegno." 

G.  L.  Stieglitz.  Archsologie  der  Baukunst  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  Weimar,  Im  Ver- 
lage  des  Industrie-Comptoirs,  1801.  —  Out  of  date. 

W.  H.  Dai'enport  Adams.  Temples,  tombs,  and  monuments  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome.     London,  T.  Nelson   &  Co.,  1871.     12°.  —  Unpretending  account. 

Henrici  Kippingi.  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  libri  quatuor.  Franequerae,  Leonardi 
Strick,  1695.  —  No  illustrations.     The  work  is  of  some  interest  as  a  curiosity. 

BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

D'Espouy.  Fragments  d'architecture  antique,  d'apres  les  releves  et  restaurations  des  an- 
ciens  pensionnaires  de  I'Academie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  1896.  Folio.  —  A  collection  of 
superb  rendered  drawings. 

Sergius  Andrejeivitsch  luanoff.  Architektonische  Studien.  Mit  Erlauterungen  von 
August  Mau.  Berlin,  In  Commission  bei  Georg  Reimer,  1895.  —  A  series  of  fine  measured 
sketches  and  drawings  of  some  of  the  more  important  Roman  monuments.  The  text  is  in  Rus- 
sian and  German. 

Anonymous.  Antiquite  et  Renaissance  italienne.  Grece,  Pompei,  Rome,  etc.  Par  des 
eleves  de  I'Ecole  de  Rome.  Paris,  Ducher  &  Cie.,  no  date.  —  A  series  of  photographs  of  beauti- 
ful rendered  drawings,  more  correct  from  an  artistic  than  from  an  archaeological  point  of 
view. 

J.  Buehlmann.  The  architecture  of  classical  antiquity  and  of  the  Renaissance.  Berlin, 
Bruno  Hessling,  no  date.  —  A  convenient  series  of  measured  drawings.  A  translation  of  the 
German  edition  published  in  Stuttgart,  1872-77. 

Kaiserlich  Deutsehes  Archaologisclies  Institut.  Antike  Denkmaler.  —  A  series  of  fine  re- 
productions of  various  ancient  statues  and  buildings,  selected  apparently  by  hazard. 

Constantin  Uhde.  Die  Architekturformen  des  klassischen  Alterthums.  Berlin,  Bruno 
Hessling,  no  date.  —  An  excellent  series  of  drawings. 

G.  B.  Piranesi.  Delia  magnificenza  e  della  architettura  de'  Romani.  Rome,  c.  1761.  29 
vols.  (?).  [For  bibliographical  details  see  British  IMuseum  Catalogue.]  Folio. — A  colossal 
work,  of  course  not  to  be  trusted  in  detail,  but  valuable  as  showing  the  condition  of  various 
monuments  in  the  XVIII  century. 

354 


A.  GENERAL 

Enruis  of  the  RoUh  Travelling  Seholarsliip.  Boston,  Roprrs  &  Maiisoii,  lSOl-1900. 
Series  II.     190'i.  —  A  miscellaneous  assortment  of  measureil  ilrawiiifjs. 

Barbault.  Reeueil  de  divers  monumens  anciens,  pour  servir  dc  suite  aux  "Monumens 
de  Rome."     Rome,  Bouchard   &  Gra\-ier,  1770.     Folio.  —  A  series  of  fair  engravings. 

Luigi  Rossini.  L'aiiticliita.  roniane  divise  in  cento  tavole.  Roma,  1819-23.  Folio.  No 
title-page  or  text.  —  Grand  views  in  the  style  of  Piranesi. 

Cio.  Battista  Cipriani.  IMonumenti  di  fabbriche  antiche  estratti  dai  disegni  dei  piu  cel- 
chri  autori.  Roma,  1796.  4  vols.  4  to.  —  A  rather  large  collection  of  mediocre  engravings  of 
ancient  buildings.     The  restorations  and  details  are  of  course  not  to  be  trusted. 

A.  Hirt.  Die  Baukunst  nach  den  Grundsatzen  der  Alten.  Berlin,  In  der  Realschul- 
buchhandlung,  1809.  —  Contains  useful  line  drawings. 

Antonio  Borioni.  Collectanea  antiquitatum  Romanarum,  c|uas  centum  tabulis  seneis 
incisas  et  a  Rodulplino  Venuti.  .  .  .  notis  illustratas,  exhibit  A.  Borioni.     Romse,  1736.     Folio. 

GuaHani.     Monumenti  inediti.  1785. 

iS.  du  I'erac.  1  vestigi  dell'  anticliitii  di  Roma.  Roma,  Vaccheria,  1575-1653.  Folio. 
—  Well-known  engranngs  of  some  value. 

Jacques  Audrouet  du  Cerceau.     LivTe  des  edifices  antiques  remains.      1584.     Folio. 

ORNAMENT 

James  Cromar  Watt.  Examples  of  Greek  and  Pompeian  decorative  work.  Ixmdon, 
B.  T.  Bat.sford,  1897. —Very  fine  drawings. 

C.  Morcau.  Fragmens  et  ornemens  d'architecture  dessines  u  Rome  d'apres  I'antique. 
Paris,  1800.     Folio. 

Alois  liiegl.  Stilfragen.  Grundlegungen  zu  einer  Geschichte  der  Ornamentik.  Berlin, 
Georg  Siemanns,  1893.     8vo.  —  A  dignified  study  of  ancient  and  Arabian  ornament. 

C.  H.  Tatham.  Etchings  representing  fragments  of  antique  Grecian  and  Roman  archi- 
tectural ornament,  chiefly  collected  in  Italj'  before  the  late  revolutions  in  that  country,  and  drawn 
from  the  originals.  London,  Thomas  Gardiner,  1806.  Folio.  —  Many  drawings  of  details, 
some  of  interest.     This  work  has  been  republished,  London,  J.  B.  Nichols  &  Son,  1843.     P'olio. 

C.  II.  Tatham.  Etchings  representing  the  best  examples  of  ancient  ornamental  architec- 
ture drawn  from  the  originals  in  Rome  and  other  p>arts  of  Italy  during  the  years  1704,  1795,  and 
1796.  Third  edition,  London,  Thomas  Gardiner,  1810.  Folio.  Republished  by  J.  B. 
Nichols  &  Son,  1843.     Folio. — These  drawings  are  still  valuable. 

Louis  Vulliamij.  Examples  of  ornamental  sculpture  in  architecture.  London,  Louis 
Vulliamy,  [18'24.]     Folio.  —  Good  drawings  of  details.     The  majority  of  the  subjects  are  Roman. 

Gustav  Kachel.  Kunstgewerbliche  Vorbilder  aus  dem  .\lterthuni.  2te  Auflage,  Karls- 
ruhe, Beelefield,  1881.     Folio.  —  A  series  of  mediocre  croquis. 

Carlo  Losi.  Ornamenti  d'architettura  ritrovati  fra  le  ruine  delle  antiche  fabriche  di  Roma 
nuovamente  dati  in  luce.    Roma,  1773.    8vo.  —  Drawings  of  scattered  and  little  known  fragments. 

Ponce.  .\rabes<iues  antiques  des  Bains  de  Livie  et  de  la  Ville  Adrienne  avee  les  plafonds 
de  la  Ville  Madame.     Paris,  Bance  Aine,  no  date.     Folio.  —  Inaccurate  engravings. 

Rene  Menard.  La  decoration  a  Rome.  Paris,  J.  Ronam,  1884.  18".  —  Of  no  scien- 
tific value. 

GUIDE   BOOKS  .\ND  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE  _ 

Daremberg,  Saglio,  et  Puttier.  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  grec<|ues  et  romaines.  Paris, 
Hachettc  et  Cie.,  1905.  —  In  course  of  publication. 

William  P.  P.  Longfellow.  A  cyclopedia  of  works  of  architecture  in  Italy,  Greece,  and 
the  Levant.  New  York,  Sf'ribner's,  1895.  —  .\  work  which  contains  .some  errors,  but  which 
makes  accessible  much  unusual  information. 

E.  Ruggiero.  Dizionario  epigrafico  di  anticliit;i  romane.  Roma,  h.  Pasqualucci,  1906. 
In  course  of  publication. 

Guide  Joanne.  —  This  excellent  series  of  guide  books  which  covers  practically  the  \\  hole 
355 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

of  Europe  is  valuable  for  reference,  besides  being  an  indispensable  vade  mecum  for  the 
tourist. 

Murray's  guides  for  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  Northern  and  Southern  Italy,  Spain, 
France,  England,  etc.,  are  for  the  most  part  full  and  accurate. 

Baedeker's  guides  for  Northern,  Central,  and  Southern  Italy,  for  Syria  and  Palestine,  for 
Southern  and  Northern  France,  for  Greece,  for  Austria,  for  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  for  England 
are  too  well  known  to  require  more  than  reference.  They  are  constantly  kept  up  to  date  by 
new  editions. 

Touring  Club  de  France.  A  la  France.  —  Sites  et  monuments.  Paris,  190'2.  4to.  —  A 
popular  guide,  covering,  in  a  series  of  43  thin  but  well  illustrated  volumes,  the  whole  of  France, 
Tunis,  and  Algeria. 

Theo.  Schreiber.  Atlas  of  classical  antiquities  edited  for  English  use  by  W.  C.  F.  Ander- 
son. London  and  New  York,  Macniillan  &  Co.,  1895.  4to.  —  A  dictionary  of  antiquities 
with  poor  engravings.     Of  little  use  to  the  architectural  student. 

Thomas  Dempster.  Corpus  antiquitatum  Romanarum.  Paris,  1612.  —  "In  10  books 
this  Scottish  savant  goes  through  a  wide  range  of  Rome's  antiquities  —  city,  people,  gods, 
priests,  temples,  altars,  magistrates,  public  spectacles,  laws,  and  customs  —  the  usual  ency- 
clopedic aim  of  the  learncni  of  that  period."     (Hemans.) 

GrcEvius  et  Gronoinus.  Thesaurus  antiquitatum.  —  13  double  column  folios  of  an  en- 
cyclopedic nature,  written  in  the  XVIII  century. 

PHILOSOPHIC  AND  ESTHETIC 

Jean  Sclwpfer.  Roman  art.  (In  Architectural  Record,  1906,  vol.  19,  p.  443  seq.)  — 
A  very  brief  and  sane  criticism. 

Louis  Le  Brun.  Theorie  de  I 'architecture  grecque  and  romaine,  deduite  dc  I'analyse 
des  monuments  antiques.     Paris,  1807.  —  Contains  some  mediocre  drawings. 

Wilhelm  Warkernagel.  Ooflentlicher  Vortrag  gehalten  zu  IJasel  im  Namen  der  Antiquar- 
Gesellschaft,  am  27.  October  1849.     Basel,  Schweighauser,  1851.     2te  Auflage,  1851. 

Guhl  and  Kurner.     Life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Labaco.     Libro  dell'  architettura.     [Early  XVT  century.]  —  "Valuable." 

Cellarino.    Notitiae  orbis  antiqui. 

Scamozzi.     Discourses  on  antiquity.     [XVI  century.] 

Diego  de  Sagredo.  De  I'architecture  antique,  etc.  Traduit  d'espagnol  en  fran^ois.  Paris, 
Devise  Cavellat,  1608.  —  Interesting  as  a  curiosity. 

B.  BOOKS  LIMITED  TO  CERTAIN  ASPECTS  OF  THE  FIELD 

HISTORICAL  MISCELLANIES 

J.  I.  Hittorf.  Memoire  sur  Pompei  et  Petra.  Paris,  1866.  4to.  —  A  very  valuable  and 
important  paper  in  which  it  is  attempted  to  restore  the  monuments  of  Petra,  Pozzuoli,  etc.,  from 
the  Pompeian  wall  paintings. 

G.  Baldwin  Brouyn.  Origin  of  Roman  imperial  architecture.  Sessional  Paper,  R.  I.  B.A., 
1899. 

G.  Baldwin  Brown.  Origin  of  Roman  imperial  architecture.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  Brit- 
ish Architects,  Tran.sactions,  N.  S.,  1889,  vol.  5.) 

Russell  Sturgis.  Classical  architecture  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Rochester, 
Cutler  Mfg.  Co.  —  A  breezy  pamphlet  of  15  pages. 

Emesti  Pierolti.  On  Jewish  and  Roman  architecture  in  Palestine,  from  the  earliest  period 
to  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1861-62,  p. 
149  seq.) 

Orazio  Comes.  lUustrazioni  delle  piante  rapprcsentate  nei  dipinti  pompeiani.  Napoli, 
Francesco  Giannini,  1879.     Folio.  —  No  illustrations. 

356 


B.    SPECIAL   WORKS 

Alexandre  dc  iMlinrdc.  Ia's  mominients  do  France  classes  chroiiologifiuemciit.  Paris, 
1816.     Folio. 

Cart  SchiUtfss.  liauten  des  Kaisers  Hadrian,  llainhurg,  A.  G.  Richtor,  1898.  8vo. 
Pamphlet.  —  Of  little  scientific  value. 

C.  A.  Buitiijels.  Klcine  Schriften  archiiolof^iselien  imd  antiquarischen  Inlialts  Kcsammelt 
und  lierausgegeben  von  Jnlins  Sillig.  Dresden  und  Leipzig,  Arnoldisch  Buclihandlung,  1838. 
3  vols.  \i°.  —  A  series  of  desultory  essays  on  classical  subjects,  containing  very  little  about 
architecture. 

Achilk  Gcnncrclli.  La  nioiieta  primitiva,  e  i  inonunienti  dell'  Italia  antica  messi  in  rapporto 
chronologico  e  ravvieinati  alle  opere  d'arte  delle  altre  nazioni  civili  dell'  anticchita.  (In  Aca- 
demia  Uoniana  di  Archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  18j'2,  vol.  11.) 

/.  and  J.  Taylor.  Rudiments  of  ancient  architecture.  London,  1794.  —  A  small  but  very 
typical  Will  century  handbook  on  the  orders. 

ir«//<r  Anuluiuj.  Disjecta  membra.  (In  Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende  Kunst,  1902,  N.  F., 
vol.  13,  pp.  150-56.) 

Joseph  Wilpert.  L'n  capitolo  tli  storia  del  vestiario;  tre  studii  sul  vestiario  dei  tempi  pos- 
costantiniani.     (L'Arte,  vol.  1,  pp.  89-l'20.) 

AFRICA  ■ 

Amable  Ravoisie.  Exploration  scientifique  de  I'Algerie  pendant  1840— i2.  Paris,  Firmin- 
Didot  et  Cie.,  1846-53.     3  vols.     Folio.  — The  plates  of  this  work  are  invaluable. 

Amable  Ravoisie.  L'Algerie  monumentale.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1878.  Folio. 
—  This  work  (which  unfortunately  has  not  come  into  my  hands)  is  said  to  be  of  great  value. 

Ad.  II.  At.  Delamare.  Exploration  scientifique  de  I'Algerie.  Archeologie.  Paris,  Im- 
primerie  Nationale,  1850.     Folio.  —  Many  good  drawings. 

Sehullcn.  Archaologische  Neuigkeiten  aus  Nordafrika.  (In  Jahrbuch  des  kaiserlich 
deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts,  Anzeiger.)  —  For  each  year  an  excellent  summary  of  the 
progress  of  excavations. 

Mathuissieuljc.  Publication  des  decouvertes  importantes  en  Tripoli.  (Archives  des  mis- 
sions scientitiques,  1904.) 

Henri  Saladin.  Rapport  sur  la  mission  faite  en  Timisie  de  Novembre,  188^2,  a  Avril,  1883. 
(In  Archives  des  missions  scientifiques,  1887,  vol.  "28,  pp.  1-225.)  —  An  important  publication 
which,  however,  unfortunately  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

Henri  Saladin.  Rapport  sur  la  mission  accomplie  en  Tunisie  .  .  .  1885.  (In  Nouvelles 
archives  des  missions  scientifiques  et  litteraires,  1892,  vol.  2,  p.  377  seq.)  —  Important,  but  not 
altogether  satisfying. 

Henri  Saladin.  Description  de  la  regence  de  Tunis.  —  ler  fascicule.  Rapport  sur  la 
mission  de  1882-3.     Paris,  Rarbier,  1887. 

Henri  Saladin.  Notes  sur  un  voyage  archeologique  en  Tunisie.  (Lamta,  El  Djera, 
Sou.s.se.)  (In  L'ami  des  monuments  et  des  arts,  1887,  vol.  1,  p.  24  seq.,  p.  95  seq.)  — An  in- 
adequate description,  being  a  resume  of  the  report  in  the  Archives  des  missions  scientifiques,  q.  v. 

Anonymous.  Recherche  des  antiquites  dans  le  nord  de  I'Afrique.  Conseils  aux  artlieo- 
logues  et  aux  voyageurs.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux,  1890.  8vo.  —  In  the  lack  of  books  dealing 
with  Roman  architecture  in  .Vfrica,  the  scraps  of  information   here  contained  become  valuable. 

R.  L.  Playjair.     Travels  on  the  footsteps  of  Bruce.     Ix)ndon,  1877. 

Alexander  Graham.  Remains  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  North  Africa,  with  special 
reference  to  Tunisia.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Transactions,  1886,  New  Series, 
vol.  2.)  —  Very  disappointing  and  yet  the  best  description  of  certain  ruins  that  has  yet 
appeared. 

Beechey.     North  coast  of  Africa.     London,  1828.     4to. 

'  The  titles  of  several  works  of  importance  on  the  classical  remains  of  Africa  will  be 
found  in  the  .\ddenda  to  this  volume.      See  also  Boeswillwald's  "Timgad,"  quoted  below. 

337 


RO^L\N   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

-V.  Daris.  Ruined  cities  within  Numidian  and  Carthagenian  territories.  London,  John 
]\Iurra_v,  1S62.  —  A  verj-  lengthy  but  not  entirely  satisfactory  description. 

Alexander  Graham.  Roman  Africa.  An  outline  of  the  history  of  the  Roman  occupation 
of  North  Africa  based  chiefly  upon  inscriptions  and  monumental  remains  in  that  country.  Lon- 
don, New  York,  and  Bombay,  Longmans,  Green    &  Co.,  190'2.     8vo. 

Heron  de  ]'illejosse.  Rapport  sur  une  mission  archeologique  en  Algerie.  (In  Archives 
des  missions  scientifiques,  1875,  vol.  17,  p.  377  seq.)  —  Almost  entirely  on  epigraphy,  but  some 
precious  scraps  of  architectural  information  ar^  included. 

Bcrbrugger.  Voyages  dans  le  sud  de  I'Algerie  et  les  Etats  Barberesques  de  I'ouest  et 
de  Test,  par  Al-Aliaci-Moula-Almed,  traduits.     1846.     In  Exploration  scientifique  de  I'Algerie. 

Caussade.  Notice  sur  les  traces  de  I'occupation  romaine  dans  la  province  d'Alger.  (In 
Societe  archeologique  et  historique  de  I'Orleanais,  Menioires,  1851,  vol.  1,  p.  234  seq.) 

Louis  Piesse.  Le  routier  archeologique  de  I'Algerie.  (In  Revue  de  Tart  chretien,  vol.  21, 
pp.  324^4;  vol.  28,  pp.  5^6.  286-307.)  —  .\  list  of  monuments,  with  brief  annotations. 

D'Hcrissmi.  Relation  d 'une  mission  archeologique  en  Tunisie.  Paris,  Societe  Anonyme, 
188L     4to.  — An  insufficient  pubUcation  of  Bouchater. 

R.  L.  I'.  Cagiiat.  Rappwrt  sur  une  mission  scientifique  en  Tunisie.  (In  Archives  des 
missions  scientifiques,  1882-88.  vol.  24,  26,  27,  29.)  —  Very  little  information  about  archi- 
tecture. 

M.  Schaw.  Voyage  dans  plusieurs  provinces  de  la  Barberie  et  du  Levant  .  .  .  traduit 
de  I'aiiglais.     La  Haye,  Neaulue,  1743.     2  vols.     4to. 

n'.  Ragot.  Recueil  des  notices  et  memoires  de  la  Societe  Archeologique  du  departement 
de  Constantine,  1874,  vol.  16.  p.  201  seq.;  1882,  vol.  22,  p.  334  seq. 

Berhrtigger.  Itineraires  archeologiques  en  Tunisie,  1850.  (In  Revue  Africaine,  April, 
June,  and  Octoljer,  1856.) 

Alexander  Graham.  Roman  remains  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia.  (Sessional  Papers,  R.  I.  B.  A., 
1884-85,  1S85-S6.) 

H.  }'.  Guerin.  Voyage  archeologique  dans  la  regence  de  Tunis  execute  .  .  .  sous  les 
auspices  .  .  .  de  H.  d'All)ert,  due  de  Luynes.     Paris,  1863.     2  vols.     8vo. 

V.  A.  Malic-Brun.  Itiiieraire  historique  et  archeologique  de  Philippeville  a  Constantine. 
Paris,  Arthur  Bertand,  1858.     8vo.  —  Very  disappointing. 

Azema  de  Moitlgravier.  Obser\'ations  sur  les  antiquites  romaines  de  la  Province  d'Oran 
et  en  |jarticulier  sur  les  mines  de  Tiaret.  Extrait  du  Spectateur  Militaire,  cahier  de  Sept., 
1843.     [Paris  ?].  —  Little  or  no  information. 

Graham  and  Ashbee.  Travels  in  Tunisia.  London,  Dulan  &  Co.,  1887.  4to.  With 
bibliography.  —  Little  al)Out  architecture. 

Alexander  Grahavi.  Roman  remains  of  monumental  buildings  in  Algeria.  (In  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects,  Proceedings,  1885,  New  Ser.,  vol.  1,  p.  211  seq.)  —  Of  no 
value. 

ARABIA. 

R.  E.  Briinnow  uvd  A.  V.  Damaszewski.  Die  Pro^-incia  Arabia.  Auf  Gnmd  zweier  in 
den  Jahren  1897  und  1898  unternommenen  Reisen  beschrieben.  Strassburg,  Trubner,  1905. 
2  vols.    4to. 

ASLA.  MINOR 

Te.ricr  and  Piillan.  Principal  ruins  of  Asia  Minor.  London,  Day  &  Son,  1865.  —  The 
measured  drawings  are  very  valuable. 

Ncuton  and Pnllan.     A  history  of  discoveries  at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and  Branchidge. 
London,  Day  &  Son,  1863.  —  An  important  work. 

C.  T.  Neuion.  On  recent  researches  at  Budrum  (Halicamassus),  Branchidse,  and  Cnidus. 
(In  Royal  Society  of  Literature  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Transactions,  1859,  2nd  ser.,  vol. 
C,  i>p.  448-502.) 

358 


B.    SPECIAL   WORKS 

Neivtoti.    Travels  and  discoveries  in  the  Levant.     I^n<lon,  1865. 

Perrot  et  Guillaume.  Exploration  archeologique  de  la  Galatie  et  de  la  Bithynie,  d'une 
partie  de  la  IMjsie,  de  la  Phrygie,  de  la  Cappadoce,  et  du  I'otit.     Paris,  187'2. 

BenndoTJ  und  S'icmann.     Reisen  in  Lykien  und  Karien.     Wien,  Carl  Gerold's  Solin,  1884. 

—  A  great  volume  de  luxe,  disappointing  from  an  architectural  standpoint. 

Prokrsch-Osten.  UenkwUrdigkeiten  mid  Erinncrungen  aus  dein  Orient,  herausgegeben 
von  E.  Miinch.     Stuttgart,  1863-07. —Well  known. 

Fellows.     Journal  written  during  an  excursion  in  Asia  Minor.     1839.  —  A  famous  work. 

Cramer.     A  historical  and  topographical  description  of  Asia  Minor.     Oxford,  1832. 

Michaiul  et  Poujouhit.     Correspondence  d'Orient,  1830-31.     Paris,  1833. 

Hivliter.     Wallfahrten  im  Morgenlande.     Berlin,  18'-28. 

Raezynshj.  Malerische  Reise  in  einigen  Provinzen  des  Osmanischen  Reichs  aus  dem  Pol- 
nischen  iibersetzt  von  Fr.  H.  von  der  Hagen.     Breslau,  18i28. 

Olivier.     Voyage  dans  I'Empire  Othoman.     Paris,  1804. 

Pococke.     Description  of  the  East.     London,  1745.  —  Well  known. 

Tournejori.     Relation  d'un  voyage  du  Levant.     Amsterdam,  1718. 

DALMATL4 

T.  S.  Jackson.  Dalmatia,  the  Quarnero,  and  Lstria.  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1882.  3 
vols.  8vo.  —  While  this  work  is  of  value  chiefly  for  the  study  of  the  later  periods,  it  also  con- 
tains some  description  of  the  classical  remains  in  the  country. 

ENGL.\ND 

John  Corbet  Anderson.  Shropshire:  its  early  history  and  antiquities.  London,  Willis 
&  Lutheran,  1844.     4to.  —  Contains  brief  notices  of  the  Roman  monuments  of  the  county. 

Thomas  Wright.  Wanderings  of  an  antiquary  upon  the  traces  of  the  Romans  in  Britain. 
London,  1854.     1^2°. 

John  Strange.  Account  of  some  remains  of  Roman  and  other  antiquities  in  Monmouth- 
shire.    (In  Archseologia,  1779,  vol.  5,  p.  33  ct  seq.) 

John  Britton.     Architectural  antiquities  of  Great  Britain.     1807-26. 

Rev.  William  Harris.  Observations  on  the  Julia  Strata  and  on  the  Roman  stations  .  .  . 
in  the  counties  of  Monmouth,  Brecknock,  Caermarthen,  and  Glamorgan.  (In  Archseologia, 
vol.  2,  p.  1  seq.) 

FR.VNCE 

Baudot  et  Dabot.  Archives  de  la  Commission  des  Monuments  Historiques  publiees  sous 
le  patronage  de  I'Administration  des    Beaux-Arts.     Paris,  Laurens,  1855-70.     5  vols.     Folio. 

—  A  monumental  work  with  tine  drawings,  dealing  chiefly,  however,  with  the  medieval  period. 

Cornelius  Gurlitt.  Die  Baukunst  Frankreichs.  Dresden,  Gilbers'sche  Verlagsbuch- 
handlung,  1900.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  Superb  plates  in  photogravure,  a  few  of  which  are  devoted 
to  the  <lassical  monuments  of  France. 

M.  II.  Labande.  Notice  sur  les  dessins  des  antiquites  de  la  France  meridionale,  executes 
par  Pierre  Mignard  et  sur  leur  pubUcation,  projetee  par  le  comte  de  Caylus.  (Revue  du  Midi, 
1900,  vol.  28.) 

Perrot.  Lettres  sur  Nismes  et  le  Midi.  Nimes,  Chez  rauteur,  1840.  8vo.  —  A  good  book 
for  its  "popular  and  prolix  type." 

S.  Bealc.  Roman  and  Romanesque  France.  (In  American  Architect  and  Building  News, 
1902-1)4.  vol.  76-80.) 

Grangent,  Durand,  et  Durant.     Description  des  monuments  antiques  du  midi  de  la  France. 

PownaU.  Notice  and  descriptions  of  antiquities  of  the  Provincia  Romana  of  Gaul,  now 
Provence,  Languedcx',  and  Daupliine.  London,  John  Nichols,  1778.  —  The  day  of  usefulness 
for  this  book  has  passe<i.     The  engravings  are  poor. 

359 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Piganiol  de  la  Force.     Description  historique  et  geographique  de  la  France. 

E.  Germer  Durand.     Dictionnaire  topograpliique  du  departement  du  Gard. 

Ernest  Desjardins.     Geographic  de  la  Gaule  romaine. 

Mitlin.     Voyages  dans  les  departements  du  midi  de  la  France. 

MUlin.     Antiquites  nationales. 

Joseph  Woods.  Letters  of  an  architect  from  France,  Italy,  and  Greece.  London,  John  & 
Arthur  .\rch,  1829.  —  Illustrated  with  mediocre  engravings. 

Merimee.     Notes  d'un  voyage  dans  le  midi  de  la  France. 

Abbe  Longueme.  Description  historique  et  geographique  de  la  France  ancienne  et  mo- 
derne. 

Nodier,  Taylor,  et  CaiUeux.     Voyages  dans  Tancienne  France.     1825. 

Ch.  Leutheric.     La  Grece  et  I'Orient  en  Provence. 

Ch.  Leutheric.     Les  villes  mortes  du  golfe  de  Lyon. 

Zeiller.  Topographia  Gallia?.  Francfort-sur-le-Mein.  4  vols.  Folio.  Le  Tome  IV, 
les  dictionnaires  geographiques  de  Thomas  Corneille,  de  Bruzen,  de  la  Martiniere,  d'Expilly. 

Dom  Vaissette.     Historic  du  Lanquedoc.     Paris,  1730.     Folio. 

Honore  Bouclee.  La  chronographie,  ou  description  de  la  Provence  et  I'histoire  chrono- 
logique  du  menie  pays.     Aix,  1664.     Folio. 

lodocu-s  Sinceriis.     Itinerium  Galliae. 

Paul  Merula  (Van  Merle).  Cosmographise  generalis  libri  tres,  item  cosmographiae  par- 
tieularis  libri  quatuor  quibus  Europa  in  genere,  speciatim  Hispania,  Gallia,  describuntur.  — 
Cum  tabulis,  etc.  Amsterdam,  apud  Guilielmum  Blaeu,  1686.  12°.  —  "La  premiere  edition 
date  de  1605  et  est  in  4to."     (PejTe.) 

GREECE,  THE  .«GEAN   ISLANDS,  MACEDONIA 

Stuart  and  Rerett.  Antiquities  of  Athens  measured  and  delineated.  London,  T.  Bensley 
for  J.  Taylor,  1762-1815.  4  vols.  Folio.  —  This  monumental  work  is  of  great  value  to-day, 
although  the  beautiful  drawings  are  occasionally  inaccurate,  and  many  buildings  were  misunder- 
stood at  the  time  it  was  published.  Dealing  chiefly  with  Greek  monuments,  the  plates  still 
contain  not  a  few  reproductions  of  Roman  antiquities.  The  work  has  been  supplemented  by 
the  following  publications: 

C.  R.  Cockerell,  T.  L.  Donaldson,  et  als.  Supplement  to  Stuart  and  Revett's  "Antiquities 
of  Athens."     London,  1830.  —  A  publication  as  valuable  as  the  original  Stuart  and  Revett. 

Society  of  Dilettanti.  The  unedited  antiquities  of  Attica,  comprising  the  architectural 
remains  of  Eleusis,  Rhamnus,  Sunium,  and  Thoricus.  2d  edition,  London,  Priestly  and  Weale, 
1833. 

R.  Chandler  and  Revett.  The  antiquities  of  Ionia.  Published  in  four  parts  at  different 
times.  1769-1881.  Part  I  was  republished  in  improved  form  in  1812,  Part  II  in  1840.  Lon- 
don, Macmillan  &  Co.  —  A  companion  work  to  the  Antiquities  of  Athens. 

Society  of  Dilettanti.  The  unedited  antiquities  of  Magna  Grscia.  London,  1817. 
Folio. 

Stuart  and  Revett.  Die  Alterthiimer  zu  Athen.  Leipzig  und  Darmstadt,  Carl  Wilhelm 
Leske,  no  date.  4  vols.  —  The  plates  of  this  German  edition  are  smaller  than  in  the 
original. 

L.  F.  F.  Paris.  Les  antiquites  d'Athenes  de  Stuart  et  Revett.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et 
Cie.,  1808.     4  vols.  —  In  this  French  edition  the  plates  are  still  smaller  and  decidedly  inferior. 

J.  F.  Nolan.  Les  antiquites  d'Athenes  et  autres  monuments  grecs  d'aprcs  les  mesures 
de  Stuart  et  Revett.  Paris,  Andot  Libraire,  1835.  —  A  pocket  edition,  but  the  plates  are  sur- 
prisingly clear. 

Hevzey  et  Daumet.  Mission  archeologique  de  Macedoine.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie., 
1876.     2  vols.     Folio.  —  An  adequate  publication  of  not  very  important  discoveries. 

Conze.     Reise  auf  der  Insel  Lesbos.     Hanover,  1865. 

Choiseid-Gouffier.     Voyage  pittoresque  en  Grece.     Paris,  1782-1809. 

360 


B.    SPI'X  lAIv   WORKS 
ITALY 

Vincemo  de  Castro.  I/It:ilia  moniirnontale;  o,  (jalleria  (Idle  principal!  fabbriche  antiche 
e  moderne  d'ltalia.     ia,  edizioiie,  Milano,  1870.     Folio. 

G.  T.  von  Iloffweiler.  Sicilien.  Leipzig,  Alphoius  Diirr,  1870.  —  A  description  of  the 
island  coiitaiiiiiif;  some  account  of  the  antiquities. 

Fiiinili.  Sullc  scoverte  archcologiche  fatte  in  Italia  dal  184G  al  186().  Rclazione  al 
Minislrc)  doll"  Istruzione  Publilica.     Napoli,  Ohio,  1867.     8vo. 

Robert  Burn.  Home  and  the  Campagna.  Cambridge  and  Ix>ndon.  Bell  &  Daldy,  1871. 
•Ito.  —  A  work  of  great  learning,  but  a  little  diffuse  and  not  up-to-date. 

L.  Canina.     L'antica  Ktruria  marittima.     Rome,  1846—49.     2  vols.     Folio. 
[Paoliiii].     Memorie  sui  moiunnenti  <li  antichita  e  di  belle  arti  chi  esitono  in  Misenio,  in 
IJocoli,  in  Haja,  in  Cuma,  etc.,  etc.  .  .  .  Napoli,  IShi. 

Winckelinann.  Ilecueil  de  lettres  sur  les  decouvertes  faites  a  Herculanum,  a  Pompee,  a 
Stabie,  etc.  Traduit  par  Jansen.  Paris,  1784.  8vo.  —  A  translation  from  the  Italian.  There 
is  a  German  translation  under  the  title:  Briefe  an  seine  Freunde.     Dresden,  1777-80. 

ilontjaufon.  Diarium  Italicum.  [1707].  —  "Vividly  worked  up."  (Hemans.)  "Con- 
tained earliest  printed  edition  of  the  Graphia."     (Nicols.) 

Carlo  Labruzzi.  Via  Appia  illustrata  ab  urbe  Roma  ad  Capuam.  London,  no  date. 
Folio.  —  A  series  of  old-fashioned  woodcut-s  of  very  large  size. 

Ciriaco  of  Ancona.  Latin  itinerary,  [c.  1424-33].  —  "The  first  Italian  traveller  who 
made  .   .   .  antiques  a  primary  object." 

Flano  Biondo.      Italia  illustrata. 

Leamlro  Alberti.  Description  of  all  Italy,  its  cities,  monuments,  mountains,  lakes,  rivers, 
fountains,  baths,  mines,  and  all  the  marvellous  works  of  nature  here  produced. 

G.  Dennis.     Cities  and  cemeteries  of  Etruria.     1878.     2  vols.     8vo. 

P.  M.  Corradini.  Vetus  Latium  profanum  et  sacrum.  Roma;,  1704-05.  10  vols.  4to. 
Vols.  3-10  were  written  by  G.  R.  Volpi  and  bear  the  title  "Vetus  Latium  profanum." 

Nodot.  Nouveaux  menioires.  Amsterdam,  Francois  I'Honore,  1706.  24°.  —  A  book 
of  travel  in  Italy  —  quite  without  value  to-day. 

Mabillon.     Iter  Italicum.    [c.  1700.] 

Atlianasius  Kircher.  Latium;  id  est  nova  et  parallela  Latii  tarn  veteris  tam  novi  descriptio. 
Amstelodami,  1671.     Folio. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 

Comision  Esixrial,  creada  por  el  Ministerio  de  Fomento.  Monumentos  arquitectonicos 
de  Espafia.  Madrid,  18o9-81.  13  vols.  Folio.  —  A  superb  work  but  almost  entirely  on  medi- 
eval and  Renaissance  monuments. 

Junghdndel.  Die  Baukunst  Spaniens  in  ihren  hervorragendsten  Werken.  Text  von 
E.  Gurlitt.  Dresden,  1891-93.  2  vols.  Folio.  Naclitrag  von  Pedro  de  Madrago.  Dres- 
den, 1898.  —  A  splendid  work  but  unfortunately  only  a  small  part  is  devoted  to  the  Roman 
momiments. 

Constantine  Vhde.  Baudenkmaler  in  Spanion  imd  Portugal.  Berlin,  Ernest  Wasmuth, 
1892.  Folio.  —  A  fine  work  but  again  almost  entirely  on  medieval  and  Renaissance  monu- 
ments. 

Villa-Amil.  Espafia  artislica  y  monumental;  vistas  y  descripcion  de  los  sitios  y  monu- 
mentos mas  notables  de  Espafia.     Paris,  1842-50.     3  vols.     Folio. 

Jose  Caveda.  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  in  Spanien  aus  dem  Spanischen  iibersetzt  von 
P.  Heyse.     Stuttgart,  1858.     8vo. 

Taylor.  Voyage  pittoresque  en  Espagne  et  en  Portugal  et  sur  la  cote  d'Afrique  de  Tan- 
geraTotouan.     Paris,  18;52.     3  vols.     4to. 

Bernard  Smith.     Sketches  in  Spain.     London,  1883.     Folio. 

Laliordc.  Voyage  pittoresque  et  historique  de  I'Espagne.  Paris,  1806-20.  4  vols. 
Folio. 

361 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Dai'id  Roberts.     Picturesque  sketches  in  Spain.     London,  1837.     Folio. 
Roberts.     [Ansichten  %'on   Spanien.]     London,   1835-38.     4  vols.    8vo. 

SYRIA  AND   PALESTINE 

Hou'ard  Crosby  Butler.  Architecture  and  other  arts.  Part  II  of  the  publications  of  the 
American  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Syria  in  1899-1900.  New  York,  Century  Co.,  1903. 
Folio.  —  An  invaluable  publication.  I  understand  that  Mr.  Butler  has  in  preparation  another 
work  dealing  with  the  results  of  the  Second  American  Expedition  to  Syria. 

Melchior  de  Vogiie.  La  Syrie  centrale:  —  Architecture  civile  et  religieuse.  Paris,  Noblet 
et  Baudry,  1865.  2  vols.  Folio.  — This  work  is  of  the  greatest  value,  and  until  the  puWica- 
tion  of  Mr.  Butler's  work,  was  the  standard  authority  on  the  monuments  of  Syria. 

L.  F.  Cassas.  Voyage  pittoresque  de  la  Syrie,  de  la  Plioenicie,  de  la  Palestine,  et  de  la 
Basse  Egypte.  Paris,  1799.  3  vols.  Folio.  —  A  work  containing  superb  engravings.  It  is 
of  value  for  historical  rather  than  for  architectural  students. 

C  R.  Conder,  The  survey  of  Eastern  Palestine.  The  'Adwan  country.  (Palestine  ex- 
ploration fund.)  London,  1889.  —  Valuable  for  some  account  of  the  ruins  of  'Amman 
(Philadelphia). 

Conder  and  Kitcliener.  The  survey  of  Western  Palestine.  Memoirs  of  the  topography  .  .  . 
and  archifiology.     (Palestine  exploration  fund.)     London,  1881-83.     3  vols. 

Warren  and  Conder.     The  survey  of  Western  Palestine.     Jerusalem  and  London,  1884. 

Baedeker's  Palestine  and  Syria.  Fourth  edition,  1906,  remodeled  and  augmented.  New 
York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Libbey  and  Hoshins.  The  Jordan  Valley  and  Petra.  New  York  and  London,  Put- 
nam's, 1905.     2  vols. 

WESTPHALIA     (GER>L\NY) 

Wilhdm  Dorow.  Die  Denkmaler  germanischer  und  romischer  Zeit  in  den  Rheinisch- 
Westfahschen  ProWnzen.     Berlin,  Schlessinger,   1826.     2  vols.     4to.  —  Poor. 

AQUEDUCTS 

Belgrand.     Les  acqueducs  romains,  1878. 

Weber.  Wasserleitungen  in  kleinasiatischen  Stadten.  (Jahrbuch  des  kaiserlich  deut- 
schen  archaologischen  Instituts,  1904,  vol.  19,  p.  86;  1905,  vol.  20,  p.  202.) — A  noteworthy 
study. 

AMPHITHEATERS 

Francesco  Alrino.  Anfiteatro  campano  illustrato  e  restaurato.  3a  edizione  col  paragone 
di  tutti  gli  anfiteatri  d'ltalia  ed  un  cenno  sugli  antichi  raonumenti  di  Capua.  Napoli,  1842. 
FoUo. 

BASILICAS 

H.  Wurz.  Zur  Charakteristik  der  klassischen  Basihka.  Kunstgeschichte  des  Auslandes, 
H.  40.     Strassburg,  Heitz,  1906.     8vo. 

F.  von  Quasi.  Die  Basilika  der  Alten,  mit  besonderer  Rlicksicht  auf  diejenige  Form  der- 
selben,  welche  der  christlichen  Kirche  zum  Vorbilde  diente.  Berlin,  Ernest  und  Korn,  1845. 
8vo.     Pamphlet.  —  A  readable  sketch. 

CAPITOLS  AND  COMITIA 

Maxime  CoUigtum.  Le  Capitole  romain.  (In  Revue  de  I'Art,  1904,  vol.  16,  pp.  269- 
278.) 

Kuhfeldt.    De  capitoliis  imperii  Romani.     1883. 
Ditlefsen.     De  Comitio  Romano.     (In  Annali  dell'  Institute,  1860.) 
362 


B.    SPECIAL   WORKS 

L.  B.  Suphau.  De  capitolio  Koiiliiio  comnieiitarii  specimen.  Ilalis  Saxonum,  1846. 
8vo.     Pampldet.  —  A  doctor's  dissertation  in  Latin,  of  little  value  to-day. 

CIRCULAR  BUILDINGS 

Isabelle.     Edifices  circulaires.  —  Well  known. 

HOUSES  AND  VILIAS 

L.  Clifflot.  Etude  sur  I'habitation  antique.  (Le  Musee,  Revue  d'art  antique  II,  1905, 
p.  209.) 

L.  de  Beylie.  L'liabitafion  byzaiitine.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux,  190'2.  Folio. — The  first 
chapter  gives  an  adequate  account  of  the  Roman  house. 

Rubcnsohn.  Aus  griechisch-romischen  Iliiusern  des  Fayum.  (Jahrbuch  des  kaiserlich 
deutschen  archiiologischen  Instituts  XX,  1905,  p.  1.)  — An  important  article. 

Thomas  Moule.  An  essay  on  the  Roman  villas  of  the  .\ugustan  age  .  .  .  and  on  the 
remains  of  Roman  domestic  edifices  discovered  in  Great  Britain.  London,  Longman,  etc., 
1883.     8vo.  —  A  good  little  book  for  its  date. 

A.  D.  F.  Hamlin.  Ancient  Roman  country  houses.  (In  House  and  Garden,  1903,  vol.  3, 
p.  1  seq.)  —  "Popular." 

A.  D.  F.  Hamlin.  The  Roman  country  house.  (In  Architectural  Review,  1896,  vol.  4, 
p.  10  seq.) 

J.  L.  Ussing.  Indbrydelsesskrift  til  Kjc^benhaous  Universetels  Fets.  Oom  Graekernes 
eg  Romernes  Huse  med  saerligt  Heusyn  til  Benaeonelsen  for  de  Enkelte  Rum.  Kjc^benhaun, 
1876. 

Scheldt.     Maisons  de  campagne  de  Rome. 

J.  Buurhet.     La  laurentine  maison  de  campagne  de  Pline,  le  consul.     Paris,  1852. 

C.  G.  Zumpt.  Uber  die  bauliche  Einrichtung  des  romischen  Wohnhauses.  Berlin, 
Diimmler,  1844.     8vo.     Pamphlet.     2te  Auflage,  1852.  —  Out  of  date. 

THERALE    (BATHS) 

Prof.  G.  Aitchison.  The  Roman  thermse.  (Sessional  Paper,  R.  I.  B.  A.  Transactions, 
N.  S.,  1889,  vol.  5    p.  105.) 

Palladin.  Le  terme  dei  Romani  .  .  .  ripulilicate  con  lagiunfa  di  alcune  osservazioni  da 
O.  B.  Scamozzi.  Vicenza,  1785.  Folio.  Republished  under  title:  Les  thermes  des  Romains 
d'apres  I'edition  de  Londres  faite  en  1730  par  le  Comte  de  Burlington  sur  les  dessins  originaux 
de  I'auteur.  .  .  .  Paris,  1838.  Folio.  There  are  also  other  editions.  —  Palladios  drawings, 
though  very  inaccurate,  are  sometimes  valuable  in  the  study  of  buildings  since  destroyed. 

C.  Cameron.     Baths  of  the  Romans  with  restorations  of  Palladio.     1775.     Folio. 

Andrea  Bacci.     De  thermis  libri  VII.     Venetiis,  Valgrisino,  1571.     Folio. — Worthless. 

DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

A.  Choisy.  L'art  de  batir  chez  les  Romains.  Paris,  1873.  Folio.  —  An  excellent 
work  on  the  technique  of  Roman  construction  and  the  only  one  covering  this  important  field. 
There  is  an  English  translation  by  A.  J.  Dillon  (in  the  Brickbuilder,  1894-97,  vols.  3-6.) 

Pennethorne  and  liohinson.  Geometry  and  optics  of  ancient  architecture,  illustrated  by 
examples  from  Thebes,  Greece,  and  Rome.  London  and  Edinburgh,  Williams  &  Norgate, 
1878.     Folio.  —  A  monumental  work,  but  less  valuable  "for  Roman  than  for  Greek  architecture. 

L.  E.  Smith.  Roman  fresco  architecture.  (In  American  Architect  and  Building  News, 
1904,  vol.  83.) 

W.  H.  Leeds.  Outlines  and  characteristics  of  different  architectural  styles.  (Quarterly 
papers  on  architecture,  1844,  vol.  2.)  —  An  indifferent  account  of  the  classic  orders  without  illus- 
trations. 

Bruno  Schidtz.  Bogenfries  imd  Giebelreihe  in  der  romischen  Baukunst.  (Jahrbuch  des 
kai.serlich  deut-schen  archaologischen  Instituts  XXI,  1906,  p.  221.)  — An  adequate  study. 

363 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

3.  M.  von  Manch.  Die  arcliitektonischen  Ordnungen  der  Griechen  und  Riimer.  Durch 
neue  Taf.  verm.  Aufl.  nach  dem  Text  von  L.  Lohde  neu  bearbeitet  von  R.  Boormann.  Ber- 
lin, W.  Ernest  und  Sohn,  189G-1906.     4to. 

J.  H.  Parker.     De  variis  structurarum  generibus.     Romae,  Bonariun  Artium,  1868.     8vo. 

—  A  Latin  treatise  on  Roman  masonry. 

MONOGRAPHS  ON  TWO  OR    MORE   PLACES   COMBINED   IN   ONE  VOLUME 

AFRICA 

S.  Gsell.  Satafis  (Perigotville)  et  Thamalla  (ToequeWlle).  (In  Melanges  d'archeologie 
et  d'histoire,  1895,  vol.  5,  p.  33.)  —  A  slight  publication  of  slight  remains. 

AOSTA 

Edouard  Aitberi.  La  Vallee  d'Aoste.  Paris,  Amyot,  1860.  Folio.  —  A  book  of  travel 
with  fair  engra\'ings. 

Edouardo  Berard.  Antiquites  romaines  et  du  moyen  age  dans  la  Vallee  d'Aoste.  (In 
Societa  di  archeologia  e  belle  arti  per  la  provincia  di  Torino,  Atti,  vol.  3,  p.  119  seq.) 

KENT  (ENGL.\ND) 

C.  R.  Smith.  Antiquities  of  Richborough,  Reculver,  and  Lymme,  in  Kent,  illustrated  by 
F.  W.  Fairholt.     London,  1850.     8vo. 

ENGLAND 

IF.  T.  WaiJnn.  Roman  Cheshire,  or  a  description  of  Roman  remains  in  the  county  of 
Chester.     Liverpool,  1886.     4to. 

Samuel  Lysons.  Account  of  the  remains  of  several  Roman  buildings  and  other  Roman 
antiquities  discovered  in  the  County  of  Gloucester.     (In  Archasologia,  vol.  18,  p.  112  seq.) 

Rev.  A.  C.  Smith.  Guide  to  the  British  and  Roman  antiquities  of  the  north  of  Wiltshire 
downs  in  100  square  miles  around  Abury.     [Dwizes],  1884.     Folio. 

NAPLES,  MAGNA  GRAECIA,  ETC. 

7?.  F.  Giinther.  The  submerged  Greek  and  Roman  foreshore  near  Naples.  (In  Archse- 
ologia,  1903,  vol.  58,  p.  499  seq.)  —  An  important  publication. 

n'.  n'ilL'in.<!.  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia.  Cambridge,  Um'versity  Press,  1807.  —  For 
its  date  an  excellent  work.     The  engra\ings  are  fine. 

Piranesi.  Antiquites  de  la  Grande  Grece  .  .  .  Antiquites  de  Pompela.  Paris,  1807-19. 
4  vols.     Folio. 

Filippo  Morghen.     Le  antichita  di   PozzuoU,   Baja,   e  Cuma.     1769.     Folio. 

Anonymous.  Raccolta  degli  antichi  monumenti  esistenti  fra  Pozzuolo,  Cuma,  e  Baja,  luoghi 
nel  regno  di  Napoli.  Roma,  Presso  Agrapilo  Franzetti  al  Corso,  no  date.  —  A  collection  of 
poor  and  small  engravings. 

POMPEII  AND  HERCULANEUM 

Friedrich  Furchheim.  Bibliographia  di  Pompei,  Erculano,  e  Stabia.  2a  edizione  riveduta 
e  ammentata,  Napoli,  Furchheim,  1891.  —  Contains  the  titles  of  many  works  on  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum,  all,  of  course,  older  than  1891.      Few  articles  in  periodicals  are  included. 

Ernest  Breton.     Pompeia  decrite  et  dessinee  sui\ie  d'une  notice  sur  Herculanum.     Paris, 

—  3me  edition,  L.  Guerin  et  Cie.,  1869;   ler  ed.,  Gide  et  Baudry,  1855. — A  work  combining 
many  bad,  with  some  good  featvires.     The  engra\-ings  are  fairly  accurate. 

Henry  Wilkins.  Suite  de  vues  pittoresques  des  mines  de  Pompeii,  etc.  Rome,  1819. 
(Sans  indication  d'editeur).     Folio.  —  "Ouvrage  bien  execute." 

364 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

Ernest  Beule.  Le  dramc  du  \'rsiivp.  '.Jme  ed.,  Paris,  Micliei  Levy  Frcres,  1872.  12°. 
lere  ed.,  1871.     8vo. 

Stanislas  d'Atoe.  Les  ruines  de  I'ompei.  Suivies  d'une  excursion  .  .  .  ii  Herculanum, 
etc.     Naples,  1873.     8vo.     1st  edition,  1851.     German  translation,  Berlin,  1S57. 

Enrico  Schidz.  Ragguaglio  delle  principal!  escavazioni  operate  ultimamente  nel  regno 
di  Napoli.     Konia.  1842.     8vo. 

Menard.  Les  vilies  du  Vesuve.  Bibliotheque  populaire  des  ecoles  de  dessin.  Paris, 
Jules  Koiiam,  1885.  —  A  child's  primer.     Unimportant. 

U'.  //.  Davenport  Adams.  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum:  tlieir  history,  their  destruction, 
and  remains.  New  edition,  London,  Nelson,  1881.  8vo.  The  1st  edition  was  published  in 
1868  under  the  title:  The  buried  cities  of  Campania.  —  Of  no  value  to  the  serious  student. 

G.  B.  Finati.  Manuel  pour  Herculanum,  Pompei,  et  Stabie,  etc.  Naples,  Virgilio,  1844. 
8vo. 

Claudius.     Pompei  et  Herculanum.     Paris,  Renouard,  1840.     16°. 

Keerl.     Uber  die  Ruinen  Herculauums  und  Ponipeji's.     Gotha,  Ettinger,  1791.     8vo. 

pro\t:nce  .\nd  the  rhone 

Roger  Peyre.  NInies,  Aries,  Orange,  St.  Remy.  Paris,  Librairie  Renouard,  1904.  8vo. 
Paper.  —  "Les  vilies  d'art  celebres"  series.  —  An  ine-x-pensive  but  excellent  resume  with  biblio- 
graphy. 

David  Macgibbon.  The  architecture  of  Provence  and  the  Riviera.  Edinburgh,  David 
Douglas,  1888.     8vo. 

Hippolyte  Bazin.  Plans  de  Vienne  et  Lyon  gallo-romains,  d'apres  les  monuments 
antiques,  les  ruines,  et  les  comptes-rendus  de  fouilles.  (In  Bulletin  archeologique  du  comite 
des  travaux  historiques  et  scientifiques,  1891,  p.  319  seq.) 

ROME  AND  POMPEH 

G.  Boissier.     Rome  and  Pompeii.     Translated  by  D.  H.  Fisher.     1896.     8vo. 

G.  Boissier.     Promenades  archeologiques :  Rome  et  Pompeii.     4th  ed.,  Paris,  1891.     12°. 

SICILY 

Anonymous.  Raccolta  degli  monumenti  esistenti  fra  Gigenti,  Segeste,  e  Selinunte.  Roma, 
Nella  calcografia  di  Agrapilo  Franzetti  al  Corso,  no  date.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  poor 
engravings. 

SYRLV 

Wood.  Ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Baalbec.  London,  William  Pickering,  1827.  Folio.  —  The 
drawings  are  still  valuable.  This  is  a  verj-  famous  work,  although  unfortunately  frequently 
inaccurate. 

lier.  n'illiam  Wright.  Account  of  Palmyra  and  Zenobia  with  travels  and  adventures  in 
Bashan  and  the  desert.     London,  1895.     8vo. 

C.   MONOGRAPHS 
AFRICA 
ALEXANDRIA 

T.  D.  Keroutsos.  L'ancienne  Alexandric  —  etude  archeologique  et  topographique.  Paris, 
1888.    4to. 

J.  S.  H.  Kiejiert.  Zur  Topographic  des  alten  Alexandria,  nach  Mahmud  Beg's  Ent- 
deckungen  bearl>eitet.     Berlin,  1872.     8vo. 

BATNA 

L.  Domergue.     La  region  de  Batna.     Batna,  1890. 

365 


ROMAN    BIBLIOGR.APHY 

BULK\   REGIA 

A.  Merlin.  Des  fouilles  a  Bulla  Regia.  (Academie  des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres, 
Comptes-rendus,  1906,  p.  217.) 

CARTHAGE 

A.  Audollent.  Carthage  romaine.  146  avant  Jesus-Christ  —  698  apres  Jesus-Christ. 
(Bibliotheque  des  ecoles  fran^aises  d'Athenes  et  de  Rome,  fasc.  84.)  Paris,  A.  Fontemoing, 
1905.     8vo. 

E.  de  Sainte-Marie.  Mission  a  Carthage.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux,  1884.  Folio.  —  An 
adequate  account. 

E.  Cagtiat.  Le  Capitole  et  le  Temple  de  Junon  Celeste  a  Carthage.  (Rev.  Arch. 
XXIV,  1894,  p.  188  seq.) 

C.  E.  Beide.     Fouilles  a  Carthage.     Paris,  1861. 

L.  Berirand.  Les  Wiles  africaines.  3.  Constantine,  Carthage.  (Re\'ue  des  deux  mondes, 
1905,  5e  periode,  tome  27.) 

CHERCHELL 

L.  Bertrand.  Les  \'illes  africaines.  1.  Cherchell.  (Revue  des  deux  mondes,  1904, 
5^  periode,  tome  27,  p.  660.) 

DOUGGA 

A.  Merlin.  Les  fouilles  de  Dougga  en  1902.  (Nouvelles  archives  des  missions  scientifiques 
et  litteraires  U,  1903,  p.  1 .) 

L.  Poinssot.  Les  fouilles  de  Dougga  en  Avril-Mai,  1903.  (Nouvelles  Arcliives  des 
missions  scientifiques  et  litteraires  II,  1904,  p.  403.) 

Carton.  Une  campagne  de  fouilles  a  Dougga.  Lille,  1894.  8vo.  (Bulletin  de  la  So- 
ciete  de  Geographic  de  Lille,  Mai-Juin,  1894.) 

hamma:m  d'ihra 

Charles  Norman.  Une  \'ille  antique  incdite.  Aquae  Calidae  Colonia  ou  Hammam  dThra. 
(In  L'anii  des  monimients  et  des  arts,  1889-1900,  vols.  13-14.)  —  An  unsatisfactory  pubhcafion. 

HENCHIR  j\LUTRL\  [NUMBULI] 

Carton  et  Denis.  Numbuli  (Henchir-Maatria)  et  son  capitole.  (Bull  arch,  du  Comite, 
1893,  p.  73  seq.) 

KUBR    ROLTMEiA 

A.  Berbrugger.  Le  tombeau  de  la  chretienne.  Alger,  1867.  —  A  monograph  on  the  Kubr 
Roumeia. 

SOL'K-EL-ARBA 

M.  D.  Carton.  Essai  de  topographic  archeologique  sur  la  region  de  Souk-el-Arba.  (In 
Bulletin  archeologique  du  comite  des  travaux  historiques  et  scientifiques,  1891,  p.  207  seq.) 

THEVESTE 

p.  Castel.  Tebessa.  Histoire  et  description  d'un  territoire  algerien.  Paris,  H.  Paulin 
et  Cie.,  1905. 

Leironne.  Sur  I'arc  de  triomphe  de  Theveste  dans  la  pro\ince  de  Constantine.  (In  Re\'ue 
archeologique,  1847,  vol.  7,  p.  360  seq.) 

TBIG.\D 

Boesivillwald,  Cagnat,  Ballu.  Timgad.  Une  cite  africaine.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux,  1905. 
FoUo.  —  A  superb  monograph. 


C.    MONOCillAPHS 

//.  Holtztnger.  Timgaci  iinil  die  riimische  Provinzialarcliitektiir  in  Nordafrika. 
(Die  Baukunst,  lirsj;.  v.  Homaiin  uikI  Graul,  3  Serie,  Heft  1.)  Stuttfjart,  Speniann,  1906. 
4to. 

II.  liallu.     Les  ruines  de  Tinigad.     189'-2.  —  A  new  edition  was  published  in  1903. 

Am.  Milim/.  Ville  roniaine  de  Thamagas.  (Discours  de  reception  a  la  Societe  des 
antiquaires  de  Picardie.)     Amiens,  1890. 

//.  Pensa.     Une  ville  romaine  nouvellement  decouverte.    (Nouvelle  revue,  1889,  p.  808  seq.) 

ENGLAND 
APETHORPE 

Edward  TroUope.  The  Roman  house  at  Apethorpe.  (In  Associated  architectural  soci- 
eties. Reports  and  papers,  vol.  5.)  —  Tedious  and  unimportant. 

BATH. 

Rev.  II.  M.  Scarth.  Aquae  solis;  or,  Notices  of  Roman  bath.  London,  Simpkin  Marshall 
&  Co.,  1804.     4to.  —  Little  about  architecture. 

BIGNOR 

Samtifl  Lysons.  An  account  of  the  remains  of  a  Roman  villa  at  Bignor.  London,  T. 
Bensley,  1820.     li°.  —  Unimportant. 

Rev.  Thomas  Dubarry.  Roman  mosaic  pavements  at  Bignor.  (In  Sussex  archseological 
society.  Collections,  vol.  30,  p.  63  seq.) 

CAERLEON 

J.  E.  Lee,  Roman  remains  lately  found  at  Caerleon.  (In  ArchiEologia  Cambrensis,  1849, 
Ser.  I,  vol.  4,  p.  73  seq.)  Published  in  pamphlet  form,  London,  J.  R.  Smith,  1850.  —  Publica- 
tion of  unimportant  remains. 

CAERWENT 

Ashbij  and  Martin.  Excavations  at  Caerwent,  Monmouthshire,  1899.  (In  Archaeologia, 
1901,  p.  '295;  1902,  p.  1'20:  1903,  p.  391;  1905,  p.  289;  1906,  p.  111.)  —  For  each  year  a  report 
on  tlie  progress  of  tlie  excavations. 

CIRCENCESTER 

Buck-man  and  Neu-march.  Illustrations  of  the  remains  of  Roman  art  in  Circenccster,  etc- 
Ijondon,  1850.     Folio.  —  An  adequate  pul)li(ation,  a  little  old-fashioned. 

T.  P.  Baily.  History  and  antiquities  of  the  town  of  Circencester  in  the  county  of  Glouces- 
ter.    Circencester,   1842. 

T.  P.  Baily.  Handljook  for  Circencester.  Circencester,  Baily,  [1842  ?].  —  Some  account 
of  the  antiquities. 

CLAUVILLE 

Rev.  G.  II.  Enfirlhcart.  On  some  buildings  of  the  Romano-British  period  discovered 
at  ClauWIle,  etc.  (.Vrchn-ologia,  1898,  vol.  56',  pp.  1-20.)  — An  account  of  unimportant  dis- 
coveries. 

COLCHESTER 

George  Bwhlcr.     Colchester  castle:  a  Roman  building.     Colchester,  1877.     8vo. 
Rev.  Ilenrt/  Jenkins.     Colchester  castle.     London,  1853.     8vo.     2nd  edition,  1861. 
T.  K.  Cromwell.     History  and  tlescription  of  the  ancient  town  and  borough  of  Colchester 
in  Essex.     Ix)ndon,  1825.     2  vols.     8vo. 

367 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

DORCHESTER 

James  Savage.  History  of  Dorchester  during  the  British,  Roman,  Saxon,  and  Norman 
periods  with  an  account  of  its  present  state.     Dorchester,  1833.     hi°. 

FARLEY 

Sir  Richard  Cold  Hoare.  Roman  bath  at  Farley  in  Wiltshire.  (Iii  Gentleman's  Mag- 
azine for  February,  18'23.) 

GARIANORU.M 

John  Ives.  Remarks  upon  the  Garianorum  of  the  Romans,  the  site  and  remains  fixed  and 
described.     2nd  ed.,  Yarmouth,  1803.     8vo. 

LONDON 

Charles  Roach  Smith.  Illustrations  of  Roman  London.  London,  Printed  for  the  sub- 
scribers, 1859.  4to.  —  An  exhaustive  account  of  Roman  antiquities  discovered  in  London  prior 
to  the  date  of  publication. 

NEWCASTLE 

John  Clayton.  The  temple  of  the  goddess  Coventina.  Newcastle  on  Tyne,  A.  Reid, 
1878.  —  Unimportant. 

MORTON 

Price  and  Price.  Remains  of  Roman  buildings  at  Morton,  Isle  of  Wight.  (In  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects,  Transactions,  1880-81.)  —  Adequate  publication. 

NORTHLEIGH 

H[enry]  H[akeu-il[\.  Account  of  the  Roman  villa  discovered  at  Northleigh,  0.\fordshire 
in  .  .  .  1813-16.     London,  1826.     Folio. 

PICT'S  W.ALL' 

Rev.  J.  C.  Bruce.    The  Roman  Wall.     London,  1851.     8vo. 

PORCHESTER 

Rev.  C  H.  Hartshorne.  On  tlie  history  and  architecture  of  Porchester  castle.  (In 
Archaeological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Proceedings  at  the  annual  meeting  at 
Winchester,  18i6.) 

RUTUPINA 

ReiK  John  Batteley.  Antiquitates  Rutupinse,  opus  posthumum.  Oxoniae,  [T.  Terry], 
1711.     8vo. 

SILCHESTER 

Rev.  J.  G.  Joyce.  On  the  excavations  at  Silchester.  (In  Archaeologia,  vol.  40  ■,  46  ')•  — 
An  entirely  adequate  publication  of  the  first  excavations,  though  Mr.  Joyce  has  misunderstood 
the  plan  of  the  basilica. 

F.  S.  H.  Price.  Further  notes  upon  excavations  at  Silchester.  (In  Archoeologia,  vol.  50, 
pp.  263-280.) 

W.  H.  St.  J.  Hope  and  George  E.  Fox.  Excavations  on  the  site  of  the  Roman  city  at 
Silchester,  Hants.  (Archa^jlogia,  1890,  p.  733;  1892,  p.  263;  1893,  p.  539;  1894,  p.  199; 
1895,  p.  439;  1896,  p.  215;  1897,  p.  409;  1898,  p.  103;  1899,  p.  229;  1900,  p.  87;  1901, 
p.  229;  1902,  p.  17;  1903,  p.  413;  1905,  p.  333;  1906,  p.  149.)— For  each  year  a  report  on  the 
progress  of  tlie  excavations. 

'  See  also  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Chap.  I,  p.  220. 
368 


c.  mono(;hai'iis 

SPOONLEY  WOOD 

./.  //.  Middletoii.  On  a  Roman  villa  in  Spooiiley  \V<)(m1,  Gloucestershire,  and  on  Romano- 
Britisli  houses  fjenerally.     (In  Archieoh)f;ia,  vol.  S'i-,  p.  (ijl  seq.)  — A  good  article. 

WOODCHESTKR 

Samuel  Ly.ioiis.  An  account  of  Roman  atiti(iuitics  discoveretl  at  Woodchester.  London, 
Cadell   &  Davies,  etc.,  1797.     Folio.  —  A  f;reat  volume  dc  luxe  with  colored  plates. 

WROXETER 

J.  Corbet  Anderson.  The  Roman  city  of  Uriconium  at  Wro.xeter,  Salop.  London,  J. 
Russell  Smith,  1867.     H".  —  Contains  an  account  of  the  Roman  remains. 

YORK 

Joseph  Halfpenny.  Frafjmenta  vetusta,  or  the  remains  of  ancient  buildings  in  York,  drawn 
and  etched.     York,  1807.     Folio. 

FR,\NCE,  ETC. 
ALISE 

Heron  de  iillefosse.  L'emplacement  du  theatre  romain  d'Alise.  (Academic  des  incrip- 
tions  et  belles-lettres,  Comptes-rendus,  1906,  p.  253.) 

Set/tnour  de  Ricci.  Des  fouilles  executees  a  Alise.  (Academic  des  inscriptions  et  belles- 
lettres,  Comptes-rendus,   1906,  p.  264.) 

Anonymous.  Pro  Alesia.  Revue  mensuelle  des  fouilles  d'Alise  et  des  questions  relatives 
a  Alesia.     lere  annee,  1906. 

ALLEAIBIE 

Abbe  Adam.  Notice  historique  sur  la  chapelle  de  Notre-Dame  de  la  Victoire.  Valognes, 
E.  Martin,  1891. 

De  GerviUe.     Monuments  roniains  d'Alleaume.     Valognes,  1844. 

ARLES 

Louis  Jaequemin.  Monographic  du  theatre  antique  d 'Aries.  Aries,  1862-€3.  2  vols. 
8vo.  —  Very  prolix  and  not  at  all  to  the  point  from  an  architectural  standpoint.  No  illustra- 
tions. 

AUBIGNfi 

Robert  Charles.  Le  tlieatre  antique  d'Aubigne,  et  la  ville  de  Roches  a  Sceaux.  Mamers, 
1877.     12°. 

BESANgON 

A.  Castau.  Besan9on  et  ses  enWrons.  2me  edition  abregee,  Besanyon,  Morel,  1887. 
18°.  —  Excellent. 

A.  Castau.  I>e  Capitole  de  Vesontio  et  les  capitoles  provinciaux  du  monde  romain, 
1869. 

./.  ./.  Chi/Pet.  Vesontio  civitas  imperialis  libera.  Sequanorum  metropolis.  .  .  .  Lug- 
<luni,  1618.     2  vols.     8vo. 

BOURGES 

Albert  des  Miloizes.  Notes  archeologi<|ues  snr  Ics  fouilles  faites  a  Bourges  en  1884-85.  (In 
Societe  des  anti<|Uaircs  du  centre,  Memoire.s,  1885,  vol.  13,  p.  109  seq.) 

369 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAMPLIEU 

Achille  Peigue-Delacourt.  Le  theatre  de  Champlieu.  (In  Societe  academique  d'archeo- 
logie  du  departement  de  I'Oise,  Memoires,  vol.  3,  p.  558  seq.;  vol.  4,  p.  375  seq.)  — A  resume 
of  the  famous  controversy  as  to  whether  the  ruins  of  Champlieu  are  Roman  or  Merovingian. 

DREVANT. 

Gustave  Mallard.     Le  theatre  de  Drevant.     (Bulletin  archeologique,  1906,  p.  43.) 

FRfiJUS 

Victor  Petit.  Esquisses  des  monuments  romains  de  Frejus.  (In  Bulletin  monumental, 
vol.  30,  pp.  569-61^,  681-704,  761-794:  vol.  31,  pp.  209-248.)  —  Very  disappointing. 

Gerardin.     L'histoirede  la  villeetdel'cglisede  Frejus.     1729.  —  " Simple  et  vrai."     (Petit.) 

LILLEBONNE 

M.  F.  Rever.     Memoires  sur  ies  mines  de  Lillebonne.     Rouen,  Frere,  1822.     8vo. 

LYON 

T.  Pierrot  Deseilligny.  L'amphitheatre  de  Lyon.  (In  Bulletin  monumental,  1887, 
6me  serie,  vol.  3,  p.  415  seq.)  —  An  adequate  report,  though  disproportionate  space  is  devoted 
to  a  summary  of  disproved  theories,  and  there  is  no  discussion  of  the  date  of  the  monument. 

Steyert.  Nouvelle  histoire  de  Lyon  et  des  provinces  du  Lyonnais,  Forez,  Beaujolais,  Franc- 
Lyonnais  et  Dombes.  Lyon,  Bernoux  et  Cumin,  1895-99.  3  vols.  8vo.  Tome  I.  Anti- 
quite. 

Dominique  de  Culonia.  Antiquites  de  la  ville  de  Lyon,  ou  explication  de  ses  plus  anciens 
monumens.     Lyons,  1733. 

NlMES 

Hippolyte  Bazin.     Nimes  gallo-romain.     (Peyre.) 

Deyron.  Antiquites  de  Nimes.  Grenoble,  1656.  4to.  2me  edition  tres  augmentee, 
Nimes,  1663.  —  Important  as  containing  a  description  of  the  second  chateau  d'eau  of  Nimes, 
all  trace  of  which  has  now  disappeared. 

Auguste  Pelet.  Essai  sur  le  Nymphee  de  Nimes.  Nimes,  1852.  8vo. — A  publication 
of  certain  inscriptions  which  give  some  sliglit  indications  for  dating  the  monument. 

Remil.     Rapport  sur  Ies  fouilles  de  l'amphitheatre  de  Nimes. 

Clerisseau.    Antiquites  de  Nimes.     1776  and  1806.     2  vols.     Folio. 

Dom  Vaissctie.     Eclaircissements  sur  Ies  antiquites  de  la  ville  de  Nimes. 

Jacobus  Grasserus.  De  antiquitatibus  Nemausensebris  dessertatio.  Ad  usum  peregri- 
nantium.  Lyon,  1617.  12°.  —  "  Ou vrage  reuni  en  general  a  I'ltinerarium  Galliae  de  Jodocus 
Sincerus."     (Peyre.) 

Albinos.  Discours  historial  de  I'antique  et  illustre  cite  de  Nimes  en  la  Gaule  Narbonnaise 
avec  Ies  pwrtraits  des  plus  antiques  bastiments  du  dit  lieu  reduitz  a  leur  vraye  mesure  et  propor- 
tion: ensemble  de  I'antique  et  moderne  ville.     Lyon,  Guillaume  Roville,  1560. 

ORANGE 

A.  N.  Caristie.  Monuments  antiques  a  Orange,  France.  Paris,  1856-57.  Folio.  — 
Excellent  measured  drawings. 

C.  de  Fourcaud.  A  propos  du  theatre  antique  d'Orange.  (Musees  et  monuments  de 
France,  1906,  p.  76.) 

A.  N.  Caristie.  Notice  sur  I'etat  actuel  de  Tare  d'Orange,  et  le»  theatre.*  antiques 
d'Orange  et  d'Arles.      [Paris,  1839.]     4to.  —  A  project  of  restoration. 

J,  Masqueray.     De  Monte  Aurasio.     Paris,  1886. 

370 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

PARIS 

Charles  Normand.  Les  arenes  de  I^utece.  Paris,  aux  bureaux  de  I'Ami  <Ies  Arts,  [c. 
1900].  —  An  adequate  puMication  with  bibliography. 

Maurice  du  Seigneur.  Uapport  au  sujet  des  fouilles.  Bulletin  municipal  official  de  la 
ville  de  Paris,  1884-86.  —  "Notices  precisant  la  conduits  suivie  dans  les  derniers  travaux"  [sur 
les  arenes  de  Lutece  a  Paris].     (Normand.) 

Ruprich-liohert.  Les  arenes  de  I'antique  Lutece  —  rapport  fait  a  la  Societe  centrale  deg 
architectes  fran^ais  dans  la  premiere  reunion  du  congres  (1873).  —  "C'est  le  travail  le  plus 
serieux  sur  la  moitie  des  arenes  decouverte  en  1870;  par  suite  des  fouilles  nouvelles,  le  livre 
tres  incomplet  n'a  plus  qu'un  interet  documentaire."     (Normand.) 

Stanislas  Ferrand.     Les  arenes  de  la  rue  Monge  et  les  mortiers  remains.     1870.     12°. 

Aime  d'Alizon.    Les  arenes  de  la  rue  IMonge.     Paris,  Lacroix,  1870. 

Henri  Afartin.     L'araphifheatre   romain  a  Paris.     (Siecle,  7  avril,  1870  —  6  Juin,  1870.) 

Charles  Head.     Un  amphitheatre  gallo-romain  a  Paris.     (In  Les  Debats,  12  avril,  1870.) 

Timothee  Trumer.     Le  cirque  romain  decouvert  a  Paris.     (Petit  Moniteur,  13  avril,  1870.) 

Vifomte  Poniou  d'Amecourl.  Rapport  au  ministre  de  I'instruction  publiqne  au  nom  de  la 
societe  fran^aise  de  numismatique.     (L'international,  28  mai,  1870.     4  columns.) 

Henri  Chabrillat.  Les  arenes  de  Paris.  (Figaro,  14  avril,  1870.  Courte  note  comple- 
mentaire  dans  le  n°  du  15  a\Til,  1870.     Le  Soir,  12  avTil,  1870.) 

L.  de  Thalarieu.    Les  fouilles  des  arenes  de  Paris. 

Jollois.  Memoires  sur  les  antiquites  romaines  et  gallo-romaines  de  Paris.  Publics  dans 
les  "Memoires  presentes  par  divers  savants  a  1 'Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lcttres." 
1843. 

POITIERS 

Dufjatid.  Notice  sur  les  aqueducs  romains  de  Poitiers.  (In  Societe  des  antiquaires  de 
I'ouest,  Memoires,  1855,  vol.  21,  p.  55  seq.)  —  A  report  on  the  practicability  of  using  the 
old  aqueducts  for  modem  water  supply,  containing  many  scattered  crumbs  of  information,  val- 
uable in  the  lack  of  any  better  publication. 

Leon  Babinet.  Poitiers,  place  forte,  les  anciens  remparts,  portes  et  ponts,  chateau.  (In 
J.  C.  Robuchon,  Paysages  et  monuments  du  Poitou,  1890,  vol.  1,  p.  122  seq.) 

Bourgnon  de  Layre.  L 'amphitheatre  ou  les  arenes  de  Poitiers.  (In  Societe  des  anti- 
quaires de  I'ouest,  Memoires,  1844,  vol.  10,  p.  137  seq.) 

Maugon  de  Lalande.  Les  arenes  de  Poitiers.  (In  Societe  des  antiquaires  de  I'ouest, 
Memoires,  1838,  vol.  3,  p.  124  seq.) 

PL^'-DE-DOME 

J.  B.  BouiUet.  Rapport  sur  les  monumens  de  Puy-de-D6me.  (In  Bulletin  Monumental, 
\o\.  4,  pp.  473-500.)  —  Very  meager  information. 

REIMS 

/.  Taylor.     Reims,  la  Wile  des  sacres.  .  .  .  Paris,  1860.     4to. 

Prosper  Tarbc  et  .J.  J .  Maijuart.  Reims,  essais  historiques  sur  ses  rues  et  ses  monuments. 
Reims,  Quentin-Dailly,  1844.     Folio.  —  Mediocre. 

F.  Rothier.  Guide  de  la  ville  de  Reims.  Reims,  F.  Rofhier,  no  date.  —  Inaccurate  and 
worthless. 

Nicolas  Carbon.  Dissertation  sur  les  arcs  de  triomphe  de  la  ville  de  Reims.  Reims, 
Regnault  Florentain,  1739,  12°. 

SAINTES 

[Antnine  Bnurricaud].  Association  pour  I'avancement  des  sciences,  session  dc  1882; 
excursion  archcologiquc  a  Saintes.     Saintes,  1882.     8vo. 

371 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

TRIER  AND  IGEL 

Christoph  Hawicli.  Abbildung  des  romischen  Monuments  in  Igel.  Trier,  1826.  Folio. 
—  Good  drawings. 

H.  Zumpft.  Das  riimische  Denknial  in  Igel  und  seine  Bildwerke.  Coblenz,  Karl  Bae- 
deker, 1829.     4to.  —  Fairly  good  drawings. 

Christian  fl'ilhelm  Schmidt.  Baudenkmaler  der  romischen  Periode  und  des  Mittelalters 
in  Trier  und  seiner  Unigebung.  Trier,  Lintz,  1836.  Folio.  —  Fine  drawings;  but  the  book 
contains  many  inaccuracies. 

31.  F.  Mailer.  Litteratur-Anzeiger  iiber  die  in  Trier  bestehenden  und  zerstorten  Bauten 
aus  der  altesten  und  mittleren  Zeit.     Trier,  1840. 

Carl  Friedrich  Qufdnow.  Beschreibung  der  Altertliiimer  in  Trier.  Trier,  Wittwe  Leisten- 
schneider,  [1820].     8vo.  —  Some  of  the  drawings  are  still  useful. 

G.  Schiieemann.  Das  romische  Trier  und  die  Umgegend.  Trier,  Fr.  Lintz,  1852.  12°. 
• —  Out  of  date. 

ST.   DIZIER 

Grignon.  Bui  tin  des  fouilles  .  .  .  d'une  \-ille  romaine  sur  la  petite  montagne  du  chatelet 
entre  St.  Dizier  et  JoinWlle  en  Champagne.  Bar-le-Duc,  Christophe,  1774.  12°.  —  As  far  as 
I  know,  the  only  publication  of  these  unimportant  ruins. 

ST.-MAUR-DE-GL.\NFEUIL 

De  la  Croix.  Trouvaille  d'une  \-illa  gallo-romaine  et  d'un  nymphee.  (In  L'ami  des 
monuments  et  des  arts,  1899-1900,  vols.  13  and  14,  p.  120.)  —  Mediocre  publication. 

VIENNE 

A.  J.  Barnard.     Le  Temple  d'Auguste  et  la  nationalife  gauloise.     Lyon,  1863.     Folio. 

Ftienne  Rey.  Monuments  remains  et  gothiques  de  Vienne  en  France.  Paris,  Firmin- 
Didot  Freres,  1831.     Folio.   —  Very  fine  drawings. 

D.  GREECE,  ASL\  MINOR,  MONTENEGRO,  ETC. 
ARGOS 

Edward  Lippincott  Felton.  The  architecture  of  the  Argive  Herjeum.  Section  I  of  "The 
Argive  Hera^um "  by  Charles  Waldstein.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 
1903.  —  An  excellent  work,  deahng  chiefly  with  Greek  monuments. 

ATHENS 

A.  R.  Ranqabe.  Das  Erechtheion.  (In  Deutsches  archaologisches  Institut,  Mittheilungen, 
vol.  7,  pp.  257-273,  321-334,  pi.  10.) 

n'.  p.  Tuchermann.  Das  Odeum  des  Herodes  .\tticus  und  der  Regilla  in  Athen  restauriert. 
Bonn,  Adolph  Marcus,  1868.  —  Not  an  important  work. 

A.  Koester.     Das  Stadion  von  Athen.     Berlin,  Albrecht-Durer  Haus,  1906.     8vo. 

DOCLEA 

Munro,  Anderson,  Milne,  and  Haverfield.  On  the  Roman  town  of  Doclea  in  Montenegro. 
(In  Archax)logia,  1896,  vol.  55,  p.  33  seq.)  —  Important. 

CYRENE 

Smith  and  Porcker.  History  of  the  recent  discoveries  at  CjTcne.  London,  Day  and  Son, 
1864.  —  A  very  unsatisfactorj'  publication  of  important  discoveries,  but  as  far  as  I  know  the 
only  work  available  on  this  subject. 

372 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

EPHESUS 

J.  T.  Wood.  Discoveries  at  Ephesus.  Boston,  James  R.  Osgood  &  Co.,  1877.  —  A  nar- 
rative of  Wood's  famous  excavations. 

G.  Radet.     La  topographic  d'^>pllcse.     (Journal  des  savants.  N.  S.  IV,  1906,  p.  251.) 

Edward  Falkener.  Ephesus  antl  the  Temple  of  Diana.  London,  Day  and  Son,  1862.  — 
Verj'  prolix,  but  important. 

G.  Weber.  Guide  du  voyageur  a  Ephese.  Smyrne,  "La  Presse,"  1891.  —  Not  exhaustive 
but  handy. 

CORLNTH 

S.  P.  Lampros.  Cber  das  korinthische  Amphitheater.  (In  Deutsches  archaologisches 
Instifut,  Mittheilungen,  Athenische  Abtheilung,  vol.  2,  pp.  282-88.)  —  A  good  concise  account. 

LESBOS 

Robert  Koldeicey.  Die  antiken  Baurcste  der  Insel  Lesbos.  Berlin,  Georg  Reimer,  1890.  — 
A  most  excellent  monograph  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  remains  of  Lesbos. 

Bouian.  Rapport  sur  la  topographic  et  I'histoire  de  I'ile  de  Lesbos.  (Archives  des  mis- 
sions scicntifiques  V,  18o6.) 

Plehn.     Lesbiacorum  liber  composuit  Severus  Luciannus  Plehn.     Berolini,  1826. 

Zander.     Beitrage  zur  Kmide  der  Insel  Lesbos.     Hamburg,  1827. 

OLYMPIA 

Ernst  Curtius  und  Friedrich  Adler.  Olympia.  Die  Ergebnisse.  Berlin,  A.  Asher  & 
Co.,  1890-97.     5  vols.     4fo  and  Folio.  —  A  monumental  work. 

Ernst  Curtius  et  als.     Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olympia.     Berlin,  1875-81.     5  vols. 

Laloux  et  Monceaux.  Restauration  d'Olympie;  I'histoire,  les  monuments,  le  culte,  et  les 
fetes.     Paris,  1889. 

C.  Gaspar.  Olympia.  Paris,  Hachette  et  Cie.,  1905.  8vo.  Reprinted  from  the  Dic- 
tionnaire  des  antiquUes  grecques  et  romaines  of  Daremberg,  Saglio,  et  Pettier. 

G.  Kawerau.  Bericht  iiber  den  Wiederaufbau  zweier  Saulen  des  Heraions  in  Olympia. 
(Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts,  Athenische  Abtheilung  XXX, 
1905,  pp.  157-712.) 

Boetticher.     Olympia,  1883. 

R.  Weil.  Vlyer  die  Ausgrabungen  in  Olympia.  (In  Deutsches  archaologisches  Institut, 
Mittheilungen.  Athenische  Abtheilung,  vols.  2,  3.) 

Emil  Scltnippel.  Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Ol^ipia  und  des  Hermes  des  Praxiteles.  Vor- 
trag  ...  in  der  Aula  des  Gymnasiums  zu  Oldenburg.  Separatabdruck  aus  der  Oldenbiu'ger- 
zeituiig.     Oldenburg,  1880.  —  A  pamphlet. 

If.  Dorpjeld.  Die  Altismauer  in  Olympia.  (In  Deutsches  archaologisches  Institut, 
Athenische  Abtheilung,  vol.   13,  pp.  327-336.) 

Fratiz  Rirhter.  De  thesauris  Olympiae  ex  fossis.  Berolini,  1885.  A  doctor's  disserta- 
tion at  Berlin  University.     Pamphlet. 

G.  D.  K.  Treu.  Zu  den  Funden  von  Olympia.  (In  Arcliaologische  Zeitung,  vol.  34, 
p.  40.) 

R.  Engelinann.  Die  Ausgrabungen  in  Olympia.  (Ih  Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissensrhaft, 
1879,  vol.  2.) 

C.  C.  Perkins.  Oljinpia  as  it  was  and  as  it  is.  (In  American  art  review,  1880,  vol.  1, 
part  1;  vol.  1,  part  2.) 

John  Spencer  Stanhope.     Oljanpia,  or  topography  illustrative,  etc.     Ixjndon,  1824. 

PERGAMON 

Cortze,  Ilumatm,  et  als.     Alterthiimer  von  Pergamon.     Berlin,  W.  Spemann,   1890  seq. 

373 


ROMAN    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Eifjlit  parts,  several  of  two  volumes.  —  A  monograph  of  colossal  dimensions  and  of  great  schol- 
arship, issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  Berlin  Museum.  — In  course  of  publication. 

PontremolietCoUignoii.  Perganie.  Restauration  et  description  des  monuments  de  I'acro- 
pole.  Paris,  Societe  franfaise  d'editions  d'art,  L.  Henri  May,  1900.  —  An  excellent  work, 
which  will  be  found  quite  sufficient  for  the  many  from  whom  Conze's  work  is  barred  by  its  pro- 
hibitive price. 

Conze,  Humann,  et  cds.  Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Pergamon,  und  ihre  Ergebnisse.  Jahrbuch 
der  konigl.  Preuss.  Kunstsammlungen.  First  Report,  vol.  1,  1880;  Second  Report,  vol.  3, 
1882;  Third  Report,  vol.  9,  1888.  —  A  series  of  preliminary  reports. 

Come.  Pro  Pergamo.  Berlin,  Reimer,  1898.  —  "Contains  a  very  hvely  and  agreeable 
resume  of  the  principal  results  of  the  excavations."     (Collignon.) 

Come  und  Schuchliardt.  Die  Arbeiten  zu  Pergamon.  (Deutsches  archaologisches 
Institut,  Mittheilungen,  Athenische  Abtheilung,  vol.  24,  pp.  97-246.) 

J.  L.  Ussi7i{j.  Pergamos  dens  Historic  og  Monumenter.  Copenhagen,  1897.  German 
translation  under  title,  Pergamos,  seine  Geschichte  und  Monumente.  Berlin  and  Stuttgart, 
Speraann,  1899. 

Berlin  Museum  Authorities.     Fiihrer  durch  die  Ruinen  von  Pergamon.     Berlin,  1885. 

Thiersch.  Die  Konigsburg  von  Pergamon.  Engelmann,  Stuttgart.  —  "A  summary 
accompanied  by  a  restoration  in  doubtful  taste."     (Collignon.) 

SPALATO 

R.  Adam.  Ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian  at  Spalato.  1864.  Folio. — 
"  The  only  complete  description  of  this  palace."     (Anderson  and  Spiers.) 

THERA 

Dorpjeld  et  als.  Thera.  Untersuchungen,  Vermessungen,  imd  Ausgrabimgen,  1895-1902. 
Berlin,  Georg  Reimer,  1904.  3  vols.  —  An  exhaustive  monograph,  mainly  on  the  Greek 
remains. 

E.  HERCULANEUM 
GENERAL ■ 

Galatite.  De  Herculanense  regione  Neapoli.  Napoli,  Giannini,  1879.  4to.  "Estratto 
del  volume,  Pompeii  e  la  regione  sotterrata." 

Carlo  Bonucci.     Ercolano.     Con  figure.     Napoli,  Stamperia  del  Filreno,  1835.     4to. 

[Bequier]  .  .  .  Recueil  general,  historique,  et  critique  de  tout  ce  qui  a  ete  public  de  plus 
rare  sur  la  \-ille  d'Herculane  depuis  sa  premiere  decouverte  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  etc.  Paris, 
Duchesne.  1754.     16°.  —  Of  no  value  to-day. 

Bellicard.  Observations  upon  the  antiquities  of  Herculaneum.  42  plates.  London, 
Wilson  and  Durham,  1753  and  1756.     8vo. 

Cochin  et  Bellicard.  Observations  sur  les  antiquites  d'Herculanum.  Naples,  Jean 
Gravier,  1757. 

Cliarles  de  Brasses.     Lettres  sur  1  'etat  actuel  de  la  \ille  souterraine  d'Herculee. 

De  Boudaroy  Fnugeroiix.  Recherches  sur  les  mines  d'Herculanum  et  sur  les  lumieres  qui 
p)euvent  en  resulter,  etc.     Paris,  Desaint,  1770.     12°. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  EXCAVATIONS 

Rtiggiero.  Storia  degli  .«cavi  di  Ercolano  ricomposta  su'  documenti  supcrstiti.  Napoli, 
Accad.  Reale  delle  Scienze,  1885.     4to. 

Andrea  de  Jorio.  Notizie  sugh  sca\'i  di  Ercolano.  Napoli,  Stamperia  Francese,  1827. 
8vo.  —  Very  good  for  its  date. 

'  For  additional  works  on  Herculaneum  see  Addenda. 
374 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

Marcello  de  Venuii.  Descrizione  delle  prime  scoperte  dell'  antica  citta  di  Ercolano,  etc. 
Roma,  Bernaba  e  Lazzarini,  1748.  4to.  2nd  edition,  Venice,  1749.  —  "The  first  publication 
of  the  excavation.s  of  Herculaneum  by  the  first  director."  English  translation  by  Wickes  Skur- 
ray.     London,  1750.     8vo. 

A.  F.  Gori.  Nolizie  del  memorabile  scopimento  dell'  antica  cittii  di  Ercolano,  etc. 
Krenze,  Staniperia  Imperiale,  1748.     8vo  — "One  of  the  earliest  works  on  Herculaneum." 

Winckelmann.  Sendschreiber  von  den  herculanischen  Entdeckungen  an  den  hochgeb. 
Herrn  Reichsgrafen  von  Briihl.  Dresden,  Walther,  176'2.  4to.  Neue  Ausgabe,  Selten,  1792. 
French  translation,  Paris,  Tilliard,  1764.     4to. 

Winckelmann.  Nachrichten  von  den  neusten  herculanischen  Entdeckungen.  Dresden, 
Walther,  1764.     4to.  —  A  continuation  of  the  afore-mentioned  work. 

D'Atoe.     Degli  scavamenti  ercolanesi  nel  secolo  presente.     4to. 

//.  M.  A.  Cramer.  Nachrichten  zur  Geschichte  der  herculanischen  Entdeckungen.  Halle, 
Gebauer,  1773.     8vo. 

Seigneux.  Lettres  sur  la  decouverte  de  I'ancienne  ville  d'Herculane  et  de  ses  principales 
antiquites.     Yverdon,  1730.     2  vols.     12°. 

MONOGRAPHS   ON   PARTICULAR   BUILDINGS 

Piranesi.     Teatro  di  Ercolano.     Roma,  1783.     Folio.  —  Flamboyant  drawings. 
Comparetti  e  De  Petra.     La  villa  ercolanese  dei  Pisoni,  i  suoi  monumenti,  e  la  sua  biblioteca. 
Ricerche  e  uotizie.     Torino,  Loescher,  1883.     Folio. 


ITALY,   EXCEPT  HERCULANEUM,   POMPEII,  AND  ROME' 
ANCONA 

Morelli.     Guida  di  Ancona  e  de'  suoi  dintomi. 

AOSTA 

Aiumtfmous.  Riassunto  della  relazione  presentata  intorno  ai  restauri  di  Porta  Pretoria  di 
Aosta.  (Atti  della  Societa  di  archeologia  e  belli  arti  di  Torino  III,  1883,  p.  250.)  —  Contains 
one  plan. 

Promts.     Le  antichita  di  Aosta. 

ASSIST 

Gioi-anni  Aniolini.  11  Tempio  di  Minerva  in  Assisi  accresciuta  di  una  disamina  d'altr' 
antichi  monumenti.  2a  edizione,  Milano.  1828.  Folio,  la  ed.,  1803.  —  Good  drawings  and 
an  amusing  expose  of  the  careless  measurements  of  Palladio. 

BAU 

J.  Schmatz.  Baia?,  das  erste  Luxusbad  der  Riimer.  Teil  I.  Regensburg  Programm. 
1905.     8vo. 

BOVILLE 

Guiseppe  Tamhroni.  Intorno  alcuni  edificii  ora  reconosciuti  dell'  antica  citta  di  Boville. 
(In  .Aceadeuiia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1829,  vol.  3,  p.  119  seq.) 

CAERE 

Canina.     [Monograph  on  Caere.]     (Hemans.) 

'  The  monographs  on  these  three  cities  are  .so  numerous  that  for  the  .sake  of  clearer  class- 
ification they  arc  here  listed  separately  and  will  be   found  respectively  on   pages  374,  378,  381. 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGIIAIHY 

CAMPAGNA 

17.  Fleres.  Campagna  roraana.  Collezione  di  monographie  illustrate,  no  7.  Bergamo, 
Istituto  Italiano  d'Arti  Grafiche,  [c.  1906  ?].     4to. 

R.  Laiiciarii.  Di  alcune  opere  di  risanamento  dell'agro  roraano.  Roma,  Salviucci,  1879. 
Folio.  —  An  able  topographical  pamplilet. 

N.  M.  Nicolai.  Storia  de'  luoghi  ima  volta  abitati  iiell'agro  romano.  (In  Accademia 
romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1821-36,  vol.  1,  pt.  1.) 

Christian  MiiUer.     Roms  Campagna.     [1824.] 

Stejano  Piale.  Delia  suburba  antica.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli,  1833.  —  Of  no  value 
to-day. 

CORI 

Giovanni  Antotini.  II  tempio  di  Ercole  in  Cori.  2a  edizione,  Milano,  1828.  Folio.  — 
The  drawings  are  valuable. 

FIESOLE 

Ham  Diiischke.  Das  antike  Theater  von  Fiesole.  (In  Archaologische  Zeitung,  vol.  34, 
p.  93  seq.)  — A  very  wordy,  but  adequate  publication,  and  the  only  one  available. 

Inghirami.     Guida  di  Fiesole. 

HERCULANEUM 

The  monographs  on  this  city  are  so  numerous  they  are  classed  separately,  and  will  be  found 
above,  page  374. 

INDUSTRIA 

Fabretti.  Dell'  antica  citta  d'lndustria  detta  prima  Bodincomago,  e  dei  suoi  monumenti 
(Societa  di  archeologia  e  belle  arti  de  Torino,  Atti  III,  1880,  pp.  17-115.)  — A  learned  and 
prolix  account. 

IVREA 

Carlo  Promis.  Memorie  sugli  avanzi  del  teatro  romano  d'lvrea.  (In  Torino,  Societa  di 
archeologia  et  belli  arte,  Atti  III,  1883,  p.  87.)  — A  short  article  with  one  plate. 

OSTL\ 

Pierre  AndrS.  Theatre  et  forum  d'Ostie.  (In  Melanges  d'archeologie  et  d'histoire,  1891, 
p.  492  seq.) 

Canina.     Indicazione  delle  rovine  di  Ostia  e  di  Porto. 

Lanciani.  Scavi  di  Ostia.  Roma,  Salviucci,  1881.  4to.  —  Two  pamphlets  of  the  same 
date  and  title,  the  later  correcting  the  former. 

E.  Rocchi.  Baccio  Pontelli  e  la  rocca  d'Ostia.  (In  L'arte  gia  archi\'io  storico  dell'  arte, 
1898,  vol.  1,  p.  27  seq.) 

P^STUM 

Anonymous.  Raccolta  degli  antichi  monumenti  esistenti  nelia  citta  di  Pesto.  Roma, 
Agapito  Franzetti  al  Corso,  no  date.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  poor  engravings. 

POMPEII 

The  monographs  on  this  city  are  so  numerous  that  they  have  been  separately  hsted  and 
will  be  found  below,  page  378. 

376 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

POZZUOLI 

De  Jorio.  Rioerclie  sul  Tcmpio  di  Serapide  in  Pozzuoli.  Naples,  1820.  4to.  —  Im- 
portant since  it  contains  drawings  of  portions  tliat  have  now  disappeare<l. 

Paulo  Antonio  I'auti.  .\iitichita  di  I'ozznoli.  [Naples,  1798.]  Folio.  —  Contains  some 
very  good  engravings. 

Guisseppe  Monnile.  Descrittione  della  citta  di  Napoli  e  dell'  anticha  della  citta  di 
Pozzuolo.     IG'25. 

PIL4ENKSTE  [PALESTRINA] 

O.  Marurchi.  Nuovi  studi  sul  tempio  della  Fortuna  in  Preneste  e  sopra  i  suoi  musaici. 
Roma,  1905.     8vo. 

Paid  Blondel.  fitat  actuel  des  mines  du  temple  de  la  Fortune  a  Preneste.  (In  Melanges 
d'aroheologie  et  d'histoire,  1882,  pp.  168-198.) 

J.  M.  Suarh.     Praeuestes  antiquae  libri  duo.     Romae,  1655.     8vo. 

RIMINI 

Luigi  Nardi.  Descrizione  antiquario-arcliitettonica  con  rami  dell'  arco  di  Augusto, 
ponte  di  Tiberio,  e  tempio  Malatestiano  di  Rimini.  Rimini,  1813.  Folio.  —  Contains  some 
good  drawings. 

Luigi  Totiini.  Dell'  anfiteatro  di  Rimini,  —  osia,  Relazione  degli  scavi  fatti,  nel  1843-44, 
alia  scoperta  di  questo  monumento  con  alcune  osservazioni  storiche.     Rimini,  1844.     8vo. 

ROME 

The  monographs  on  Rome  are  so  numerous,  they  have  been  listed  separately  below,  page 


STABIA 

Ruggiero.  Degli  scavi  di  Stabia  dal  1749-82.  Napoli,  Reale  Accad.  delle  Scienze, 
1881.     4to. 

SUSA 

Ermanno  Ferrero.  L'arc  d'Auguste  a  Suse.  Turin,  Bocca  Freres,  1901.  Folio.  —  A 
splendid  monograph. 

Paol'  Antonio  Massazza.  L'arco  antico  di  Susa.  Torino,  Stamperia  Reale,  1750.  —  Of 
slight  value. 

TIVOLI 

Coiissin.  Temple  de  Vesta  (restauration  executee  en  1802).  Restaurations  des  monu- 
ments anti(|iies  par  les  .  .  .  pensionnaires  de  I'academie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  Firmin- 
Didot  et  Cie.,  1879.  Folio.  Boinid  with  Dubut,  Temple  de  la  Pudicite.  —  The  drawings  are 
beautiful,  but  the  restorations  are  incorrect. 

A.  Nibby.  Descrizione  della  villa  adriana.  Roma,  Angelo  Ajani,  1827.  8vo.  Pamph- 
let. —  Still  of  value. 

TRIESTE 

Giulio  Caprin.  Trie.ste.  CoUezione  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie  Italica  artistica. 
no.  22.     Bergamo,  Istituto  Italiano  d'Arti  Grafiche,  [1906?].     4to. 

TUSCULUM  FRASCATI 

Canina.     [Monograph  on  Tusculum.] 

377 


ROMAN    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

VEn 

Canina.  L'antica  citta  di  Veii  descritta  e  dimostrata  con  i  monumenti.  Roma,  Canina, 
1847.     Folio.  —  An  elaborate  publication. 

VELEU 

Giovanni  Aniolini.  Le  rovine  di  Veleia,  misurate  e  disegnate.  Milano,  Societa  Tipo- 
grafica  de'  Classici  Italiani,  1819.  '2a  edizioue,  1831.  —  A  very  valuable  work,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  it  contains  many  errors. 

\t;rona 

Antonio  Pompei.  Sopra  un  regionato  ristauro  dell'  anfiteatio  di  Verona.  Verona,  G. 
Franchini,  187iJ.     Folio.  —  Not  scholarly. 

Giuseppe  Benmissuii.  Del  teatro  antico  Veronese.  Verona,  Bennassuti,  \?>il.  4to.  — 
Imaginative. 

Majjei.     Verona  illu.strata. 

Mafjei.  Compleat  history  of  the  ancient  amphitheaters;  more  particularly,  regarding  the 
architecture  of  .  .  .  that  of  Verona,  made  English  by  A.  Gordon.     London,  1730.     8vo. 


POMPEn 
GENERAL 

August  Man.  Pompeii,  its  life  and  art.  Translated  into  English  by  Francis  W.  Kelsey. 
New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1902.  —  Aii  excellent  account,  that  will  be  found  to  be  of  the 
greatest  value.  The  English  edition  is  called  a  translation,  but  the  work  has  not  appeared  in 
any  other  language. 

H.  Thedenat.  Pompeii.  L  Histoire;  vie  privee.  IL  Vie  publique.  Paris,  Laurens, 
1906.     Bvo. 

F.  von  Duhn.  Pompeji  —  eine  hellenistische  Stadt  in  Italien.  Leipzig,  B.  G.  Teubner, 
1906.     8vo. 

A.  Sambon,  Toudouze,  et  FoviUe.  La  banlieue  de  Pompei,  Boscoreale,  Boscotrecase,  et 
la  marine  du  Sarno.     (Le  Musee  lU,  1906,  p.  159.) 

Ruggiero,  etc.  Pompei  e  la  regione  sotterrata  dal  Vesuvio  nel'  anno  79.  Memorie  e  no- 
tizie  pubblicate  dall'  ufficio  tecnico  degli  sca\i  delle  provincie  meridionali.  Napoli,  Giannini, 
1879.     4to. 

Antmiio  Sagliano.  Pompei  nella  letteratura.  Conferenza  tenuta  al  Circolo  Filologico  di 
Napoli.     Napoli,  Morano,  1888.     16°. 

Luigi  Fischitti.  Pompeii,  past  and  present,  illustrated  by  photographs  of  the  ruins  as  they 
are,  with  sketches  of  their  original  elevations.  Naples,  Vaglio,  IBB'i.  London,  William  Clowes 
&  Sons,  1884.  4to.  Reprinted,  Naples,  Raimondi,  1889.  French  translation:  Pompei 
en  ruines  et  en  restauration  .  .  .  Naples,  Giannini,  1886. 

August  ilau.     Pompejanische  Beitrage.     Berlin,  Georg  Reimer,  1879. 

Goto.  Wanderungen  durch  Pompeii.  Wien,  Mcirschner  und  Jasper,  1825.  Folio.  —  "A 
valuable  work,  with  notices  on  preceding  works  of  literature."     (Furchheim.) 

Gell  and  Gaudy.  Pompeiana:  the  topography,  edifices,  and  ornaments  of  Pompei.  London, 
Rodwell  and  Martin,  1817-19.  8vo.  2nd  edition,  1821.  2  vols.  3rd  edition,  1852.  — "One 
of  the  most  curious  and  carefully  illustrated  earlier  works  on  Pompeii.     (Furchheim.) 

Gusiave  Bascle  de  Lagreze.  Pompei,  les  catacombes,  I'Alhambra.  3me  edition,  Paris, 
Firmin-Didot,  1889.     8vo.     l^re  edition,  1872. 

Gaspard.  Une  visite  a  Pompei  en  decembre,  1869.  (In  Societe  academique  de  Tarchi- 
tecture  de  Lyon,  Annales,  1871,  vol.  2,  pp.  131-170.) 

Giuseppe  Fiorelli.  Descrizione  di  Pompei.  Napoli,  Tipografia  Italiana,  1875.  12°.  — 
A  very  long  and  uninteresting  description.     The  illustrations  are  of  no  value. 

378 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

William  Clarl-e.  Pompeii,  its  prast  and  present  state:  its  public  and  private  buildings,  etc. 
London,  Nattali  and  Bond,  1849.  i  vols.  8vo.  1st  edition,  1847.  2  vols.  16°.  —  A  very 
fair  description  with  small  but  goixl  engravings. 

W .  Butler.  Pompeii  descriptive  and  picturesque.  Ijondon,  Blackwood,  1886.  8vo.  — 
A  fairly  good  but  very  elementary  description,  without  illustrations. 

Bwrlture  Series.     Ruins  of  Pompeii.     Vol.  3,  No.  5,  May,  1897.  —  Unimportant. 

Anonymous,  ilemoire  historique  et  critique  sur  la  ville  souterraine,  decouverte  au  pied 
du  Mont  Vesuve,  etc.  A\-ignon,  Giroud,  17-48.  12°.  —  One  of  the  earliest  works  on  Pompeii. 
Grerman  translation  by  Eberhard  und  Erfurt,  Leipzig,  Webern,  1749. 

Dyer.  Pompeii;  its  history,  buildings  and  antiquities.  300  woodcuts.  London,  Bell 
&  Daldy,  1867.     8vo.     Other  editions  1875,  1882,  and  1887. 

Pier  Amhrogio  Curti.     Pompei  e  le  sue  rovine.     Milano,  Sau^nto,  1872-75.     3  vols.     16°. 

Fiorelli.  Programma  sulle  regioni  Pompeiane  e  della  loro  antica  distribuzione.  NapoU, 
Giacomo  Limongi,  1858.     4to.     "Estratto  dal  Bulletino  Archeolog.  Napol.,  .\nno  \TI,  1858." 

Johannes  Overbeck.  Pompeji  in  seinen  Gebauden,  Alterthiimern,  und  Kunstwerken 
dargestellt.  4th  edition.  Leipzig,  Engelman,  1884.  1st  edition,  1855;  2nd,  1866;  3rd, 
1875. 

Carlo  Bonucci.  Pompei.  Con  figure  dei  sui  edifizi,  dipinture,  etc.  Napoli,  Guttemberg, 
1837.     4to. 

Carlo  Bonueci.  Pompei  descritta.  3a  edizione  con  nuove  osservazioni  ed  aggiunte. 
Napoli,  Raffaele  Miranda,  1827.  8vo.  la  ed.,  1824;  2a  ed.,  1826.  French  translation,  Naples, 
1830.  —  In  its  day  a  convenient  book,  but  it  has  been  supplanted  by  many  later  publications. 
No  illustrations  of  value. 

Heinrich  IVedell.  Pompeii  und  die  Pompeianer.  Auf  Grundlage  von  M.  Monniers  Werk 
erweitert,  etc.     Leipzig,  Hirt,  1877.     Neue  illustr.  Jugend-Bibliothek. 

C.  Augusio  Vecehj.  Pompei.  2a  edizione,  riveduta  ed  ampliata,  Firenze,  Le  Monnier, 
1868.     12°.     la  ed.,  Torino,  1864. 

Lxiigi  Rossini.  Le  antichita  di  Pompei  delineate  su  le  scoperte  fatte  sino  a  tutto  I'anno 
1830.     Roma,  1830.     Folio. 

P.  F[iimagalli].  Pompeia;  trattato  pittorico,  storico,  e  geometrico.  Firenze,  1824-33. 
4to.     .\  French  translation  was  pubUshed  in  Florence,  c.  1830.  —  Very  mediocre. 

S.  Stier.     Gescliichle  und  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Pompei.     Wittenberg,  1853. 

Engelhard.  Beschreibung  der  in  Pompeii  ausgegrabenen  Gebaude.  Berlin,  Georg  Reimer, 
ia43. 

Gaspare  I'inci.  Descrizione  delle  mine  di  Pompei.  Napoli,  F.  Fernandes,  1827.  12°. 
2nd  edition,  1830;  3rd  ed.,  1831;  4th  ed.  "corretta  ed  accre.sciuta,"  1835;  5th  ed.,  1839;  8th  ed. 
1846.  —  Quite  out  of  date. 

Anonymous.     Pomp)eii  illustrated.     New  York,  John  L'eland,  [1885].  —  Worthless. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

A.  e  F.  F.  Niccolini.  Le  case  ed  i  monumenti  di  Pompei  disegnati  e  discritti.  Napoli, 
1854-91.  8  vols.  Folio.  —  A  great  edition  de  lu.xe.  The  sumptuous  drawings,  however,  are 
said  to  \ie  not  impeccable  archa;ologically. 

('.  Weichardt.  Pompeji  vor  der  Zerstorung.  Reconstructionen  der  Tempel  und  ihre 
Umgebung.  Leipzig,  Koehler,  1896.  Folio.  —  The  most  modern  of  the  great  works  on  Pompeii. 
The  drawings  are  superb. 

F.  Mazois.  Les  ruines  dc  Pompei,  dessinees  et  niesurees  pendant  les  annees  1809,  1810, 
1811.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot,  1824-38.  4  vols.  Folio.  —  Also  a  work  of  the  first  importance, 
notwithstanding  its  early  date.     The  translation  in  Italian  (Milan,  1825,  8vo)  is  of  little  value. 

Anonymous.  Monumenta  Pompeiana.  Leipzig,  G.  Hedeler,  1906.  —  A  great  edition 
de  lu.\e  with  colored  plates. 

A.  Niceolini.  .\rte  Pompeiana.  Monumenti  salti.  Napoli,  .\ntonio  Niccolini,  1888. 
Folio.  —  oo  plates  reproduced  from  the  "  Case  e  Monumenti "  of  the  same  author. 

379 


ROIVIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  Nircolini.  Pompei.  Napoli,  Antonio  Niccolini,  1885.  Album  di  24  tavole  cromo- 
litogr.  in  folio  piccolo  senza  testo  estratte  dalle  "Case  e  Monunienti  di  Pompei." 

G.  e  L.  E.  Solari.     Le  rovine  di  Pompei  disegiiate  e  descritte.     Napoli,  de  Aiigelis,  1876-80. 

—  A  work  which  has  never  been  completed. 

Th.  L.  Donaldson.  Pompeii  illustrated  with  picturesque  \-iews  engraved  by  W.  B.  Cook 
from  the  original  drawings  of  Lieut. -Col.  Cockburn,  etc.  London,  Murray,  1827.  2  vols. 
Folio.  —  ".\  fine  work  with  80  plates."     (Furchheim.) 

Francesco  de  Cesare.  Pompei  et  ses  ruines  les  plus  remarquables,  relevees  d'apres  nature 
et  rapportees  en  45  planches  avec  observations  historiques  et  artistiques.  Naples,  J.  de  Angelis 
et  fils,  1879.  8vo.  —  The  drawings  are  good,  though  some  of  the  plans  are  not  of  unquestion- 
able accuracy.  An  Italian  edition  with  the  title:  "Le  piu  belle  mine  di  Pompei"  (Napoli, 
Del  Sebeto,  1845,  4to)  is  preferable. 

/.  IV.  Huber.  Vues  pittoresques  des  ruines  les  plus  remarquables  de  I'ancienne  ville  de 
Pompei.     Zurich,  chez  I'auteur,  1824.  —  "Assez  bien  execute." 

William  Light.     A  series  of  ^^ews  of  Pompeji.     London,  J.  Carpenter  and  Son,  1828. 

Raimondo  Guarini.  Illustrazioni  di  alcuui  mouumenti  di  Pompei.  Napoli,  Stamperia 
della  Societa  Filomatica,  1825.     8vo. 

T.  H.  Dyer.  Pompeii  photographed.  London,  Bell  &  Daldy,  1867.  4t().  1st  edition, 
1866,  bore  title  "  Ruins  of  Pompeii ".  —  Eighteen  views  with  mediocre  descriptive  matter. 

GUIDE   BOOKS 

E.  N .  Rolf.  Pompeii  popular  and  practical.  An  easy  book  on  a  difficult  subject.  Naples, 
Furchheim,  1888.     8vo.  —  A  guide  book,  better  than  might  be  expected  from  the  title. 

Nicola  Pagano.  Guida  di  Pompei.  Settima  edizione,  Napoli,  Fratelli  Testa,  1876. 
16°.  —  Almost  too  brief. 

Gustave  Bascle  de  Lagreze.     Une  \nsite  a  Pompei.     Paris,  Firmin-Didot,  1887.     8vo. 

Marc  Monnier.  Pompei  et  les  Porapeiens.  2me  ed.,  Paris,  Hachette,  1865.  12°. 
3me  ed.  abregee  a  I'usage  de  la  jeunesse.  Italian  translation,  Milano,  Treves,  1875.  —  A  medi- 
ocre guide  book. 

R.  Schowner.     Pompeji.     Stuttgart,  W.  Spemann,  1876.     12°.  —  Out  of  date. 

Andrea  de  Jorio.  Plan  de  Pompei  et  remarques  sur  ses  edifices.  Naples,  G.  Martin, 
1828.  8vo.  Another  edition,  1839.  Italian  translation  by  Ercole  Carrillo,  Napoli,  1836.  — • 
The  usefulness  of  this  book  has  passed. 

REPORTS  OX  THE  EXCAVATIONS 

Sogliano.  Dei  lavori  eseguiti  in  Pompei.  Relazione  a  S.  E.  il  Ministro  della  Instruzione 
Publica.     Napoli,  1906.     8vo. 

Richard  Engelmann.  Die  neuen  Ausgrabungen  in  Pompeji.  (In  Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende 
Kunst,  1901,  N.  F.,  vol.  12,  pp.  287-291.) 

August  Mail.  Die  Ausgrabungen  von  Pompeji.  (Kaiserlich  deutsches  archaologisehes 
Institut,  Mittheilungen,  RiJmische  Abtheilung,  vol.  1-t,  1884-90.) 

Ludovico  Pepe.  Gli  scavi  di  Pompei.  Notizie  tratte  dai  document!  originali.  ^'alle  di 
Pompei,  Bartolo  Longo,  1887.  16°.  —  "Composto  sulla  base  dei  documenti  pubblicati  dal 
Fiorelli." 

Emil  Presithn.  Pompeji,  die  neuesten  Ausgrabungen  von  1874  bis  1881  fiir  Kunst-  und 
Alterthumfreunde  .  .  .  2nd  ed.  enlarged,  Leipzig,  1882.     Folio. 

L.  Viola.     Gli  sca\'i  di  Pompei  dal  1873  al  1878.     Napoli,  Giannini,  1879.     4to. 

Fiorelli.     Gli  scavi  di  Pompei  dal  1861  al  1872.     Napoli,  Tipografia  Italiana,  1873.     Folio. 

—  Report  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  containing  some  valuable  plans  and  unusual 
information. 

Finati.  Relazione  degli  scavi  di  Pompei,  1852  e  seq.  (Publicata  in  continuazione  di  quella 
di  Gugl.  Bechi  nei  volumi  XV  (1850)  e  XVI  (1857)  del  Real  Museo  Borbonico.) 

380 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

Finati.  Gioniale  (Jegli  scavi  di  Pompci.  Napoli,  Stamperia  della  Regia  Universita,  1850, 
1861-65,  1868,  1879.  8vo  and  4to.  After  1879,  incorporated  with  "Notizie  degli  scavi  di 
antichita." 

Guglielmo  liechi.  Relazione  degli  scavi  di  Pompoi.  This  official  announcement  was 
pnblished  periodically  by  the  Museo  Borbonico,  from  1824  until  185'2,  when  Bechi  died,  and 
the  work  was  continued  Ijy  I'inato. 

Carlo  Bunucci.     Pianta  degli  scavi  di  Pompei.     Napoli,  1848. 

liippolyte  Vilain.  Sur  une  fouille  recemment  faite  a  Pompei.  Lettre  a  M.  le  Baron  de 
Stassart.     Bruxelles,  1842.     8vo. 

Enrico  Schvh.  Rapporto  intorno  gli  scavi  Pompejani  esseguiti  negli  anni  1835-38.  Roma, 
1839.     8vo. 

[Cumte  F.  de  Clarac].  Fouille  faite  a  Pompei  en  presence  de  S.  M.  la  reine  des  Deux 
Siciles,  1813.     (In  Le  journal  franfais  de  Naples,  les  4-7  avril,  1813.) 

[Comte  F.  de  Clarac].     Fouille  du  ler  Mai.     Supplement.     Naples,  1813.     8vo. 

n'.  Hamilton.  Nachrichten  von  den  Entdeckungen  in  der  Stadt  Pompei  (1777).  Trans- 
lated from  the  English  by  Von  jNIurr.     Niirnberg,  Campe,  1780.     4to. 

ir.  Ilamilton.  Account  of  the  discoveries  at  Pompeii.  London,  Bowyer  &  Nichols, 
1777.     4to.  —  Of  little  value. 

MONOGRAPHS  ON  PARTICULiVR  BUILDINGS 

A.  Brulloff.     Les  thermes  de  Pompei.     Paris,  Firmin-Didot,  1829.     Folio.  —  Important. 

Catalano,  Travaglini,  ei  cts.     Memoria  sul  ristauro  della  casa  detta  del  Fauno  in  Pompei. 

Ely  Talfourd.  House  of  Aulus  Vettius,  recently  discovered  in  Pompei.  (In  Archasologia, 
1897,  vol.  o5,=  pp.  301-318.) 

Desire  Rochetie.  Maison  du  Poete  Tragique  a  Pompei.  Paris,  C.  Leconte,  [1828].  — 
"Ou\Tage  tres  joli  et  pen  commun." 

A.  Nicculini.  Domus  Vettiorum,  la  nouvelle  maison  de  Pompei.  Naples,  1896.  Folio. 
—  A  fine  publication,  especially  valuable  for  the  reproductions  of  the  mural  decorations. 

F.  M.  Avellino.  Descrizione  di  ima  casa  Pompejana,  con  capitelli  figurati  all'  ingreso, 
disotterrata  negli  anni  1830,  1831,  e  1833.  La  terza  alle  spalle  del  Tempietto  della  Fortuna 
Augusta.  Napoli,  Tramater,  1837,  4to.  —  A  publication,  considering  its  date,  surprisingly 
adequate. 

F.  M.  Avellino.  Descrizione  di  una  casa  disotterrata  in  Pompei,  negli  anni  1832^1,  la 
seconda  alle  spalle  del  Tempio  della  Fortuna  Augusta  con  ingresso  sulla  strada  chi  volgesi  verso 
la  Porta  detta  di  Nola,  etc.     Napoli,  1840.     4to. 

F.  J/.  Avellino.  Descrizione  di  una  casa  disotterrata  in  Pompei,  nell'  anno  1833,  la  quarta 
alle  spalle  del  Tempio  della  Fortuna  Augusta,  con  ingresso  sulla  strada  che  volgesi  verso  la 
porta  detta  di  Nola.     Napoli,  Stamperia  Reale,  1835.     4to. 

G.  B.  Finati.  Sepolcro  di  A.  Umbricio  Scauro  duum\-iro  Pompeiano.  Napoli,  Stam- 
peria Reale,  1853.  4to.  —  "Estratto  dal  Bullettino  del  Real  Museo  Borbon.,  vol.  XV." 
(Furchhiem.) 

A.  L.  Millin.  Description  des  tombeaux  qui  ont  ete  decouverts  a  Pompei.  Naples, 
Imprimerie  Royale,  1813.  —  Fairly  adequate  publication. 

Guglielmo  Bechi.  Del  calcidico  e  della  cripta  di  Eumachia  scavati  nel  foro  di  Pompeja 
I'anno  1820.     Napoli.     4to.  —  Entirely  misleading. 

ROME 
DOCUMENTARY  SOURCES 

Baron  II.  von  Geymiillcr.  Documents  ine<lits  sur  les  Thermes  d'Agrippa,  le  Pantheon, 
et  les  Thermes  de  Diocletian.  Ijuisanne,  George  Brindel,  1883.  —  A  publication  of  early  Ren- 
ais.sance  drawings,  valuable  though  often  puzzling  and  even  misleading.  Geymiiller's  book  is 
to  be  approached  with  extreme  caution  by  the  student  not  sure  of  his  ground. 

381 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bramantino.  (1455  P-1530?.)  Le  rovine  di  Roma  al  principio  del  secolo  XVI  .  .  .  fofo- 
cromo-litografate  da  A.  della  Croce  con  .  .  .  note  di  G.  Mongeri.  2d  ed.,  Milano,  1881. 
Folio. 

Mirabilia  urbis  Rcmae.  A  medieval  guide-book  to  Rome,  written  (as  is  deduced  from 
internal  evidence)  in  the  last  part  of  the  XII  century,  and  of  extraordinary  interest  as  the  first 
work  on  the  Roman  ruins,  though  unfortunately  its  descriptions  are  vague. 

Graphia  aurcae  urbis  Romae.  A  XIII  century  recension  of  the  above  work,  making,  however, 
considerable  changes.  The  Graphia  was  first  printed  by  Mautfaufon  in  his  Diarium  Italicum 
1702. 

Efjemeridi  litterarie  di  Roma  with  preface  by  Albert!,  contained  the  first  printed  edition 
of  the  Mirabilia.     The  work  has  been  reprinted  (Roma,  della  Tipografia  Forense,  1()84.     12°). 

Gustaj  Parthey  printed  the  Mirabilia  at  Berlin,  1869.  8vo.  A  late  form  of  the  text  is 
given. 

Charles  Lewis  Urlichs.  Codex  urbis  Romae  topographicus.  1871.  —  Contains  the  best 
edition  of  the  Mirabilia,  giving  all  six  of  its  original  versions. 

Francis  Morgan  Nichols.  The  marvels  of  Rome.  London,  Ellis  and  Elvey,  etc.,  1889. 
4to.  —  A  verj-  accessible  and  good  translation  of  the  Mirabilia  and  parts  of  other  medieval  works 
on  Rome. 

Flavio  Biondo.  Roma  restaurata,  c.  1431-47.  —  Valuable  for  descriptions  of  monuments 
that  have  since  disappeare<I. 

Poggio  Bracdulini.  De  varietate  Fortunae  (c.  1447).  —  "A  philosophical  work  with  im- 
portant allusions  to  the  state  of  decay  and  the  deliberate  injuries  inflicted  on  the  monumental 
wealth  of  the  city  in  his  day." 

Raphael.  Memoir  on  the  means  of  preserving  or  restoring  classic  monuments,  "is  a 
precious  though  brief  document." 

Flaminio  Vacca.  Notes  (1594).  Not  intended  for  publication,  but  containing  informa- 
tion as  to  the  extent  to  which  Roman  antiquities  had  been  despoiled  before  the  years  in  which 
the  author  wrote. 

Andrea  Fidirio.    Antiquitates  urbis  Romae,  per  Andream  FuK-iiira  .  .  .  Pref.  1527.     4to. 

—  A  very  early  work.     A  second  edition  annotated  by  Ferucci  appeared  in  Venice,  Girolamo 
Francini,  1588. 

Raffaele  Majjei.     [Description  of  Rome  and  her  Mirabilia.]     1506. 

J.  Mazzochi.  Epigrammata  antiquae  urbis.  Rome,  1512.  —  With  most  strangely  dis- 
torted engravings  of  buildings,  etc. 

Liuyio  Fanno.    Delle  antichita  della  citta  di  Roma,  libre  V.     Venetia,  Framezzino,  1548. 

—  A  curiosity. 

Anionio  Labbacco.  Libro  appartenente  all'  architettura,  nel  qual  si  figurano  alcune  nota- 
bile  antiquita  di  Roma.  Roma,  1558.  2a  edizione,  Roma,  1567.  3a  edizione,  Venetia, 
Girolamo  Parro,  1576.     Folio. 

M.  Andrea  Palladia.  L 'antichita  di  Roma.  Raccolta  brevemente  da  gli  autori  antichi 
e  modemi.     1574. 

Lucio  Mauro.     Antichitii  di  Roma.     [XVI  century.] 

Bernado  Gamucci.  Le  antichita  della  citta  di  Roma.  Venegia,  1565.  8vo.  An  earlier 
edition  was  published  in  1552  ?.  —  This  work  is  now  interesting  only  as  a  curiosity. 

Pomponio  Leio.     [A  Latin  treatise  on  local  antiquities  of  Rome.     XV  century.] 

Antonio  Lajrery.  Speculum  Romanae  magnificentiae,  omnia  fere  quaecunque  in  urbe 
monumenta  extant,  partim  juxta  antiquam,  partira  juxta  hodiernam  forniam  accuratissime 
delineata.  .  .  .  Romae,  1575.     Folio.  —  An  early  work  with  many  engravings. 

Lvdovici  Demontisiosii  (Louis  de  Montjosieu).  Gallus  Romae  hospes.  Romae,  Apud 
loanem  Osmarinum,  1585.     4to.  —  Contains  several  inaccurate  engravings. 

J.  J.  Boissard.  Romanae  urbis  topographia  et  antiquitates  .  .  .  figurae  ...  in  acre 
incisae  artifice  T.  de  Bry.     Francfordii,  1596-1602.     2  vols.     Folio. 

Alb  Giovannoli.     Roma  antica.     Roma,  1619.     4to. 


c.  MONO(;uAriis    . 

Anonymous.     Discrittione  di  Roma  antica  c  modenia.     Roma,  Andrea  Fei,   1643.     24°. 

—  A  few  very  small  and  very  inaccurate  engravings. 

G.  B.  Casali.     De  urbis  ac  Romaiii  olim  imperii  splendore  .  .  .  Roma,  1650.     Folio. 
Rossi.     De.scrizione  di  Roma  antica.     Roma,  Michel  Angelo  e  Pier  Vincenzo  Rossi,  1597. 

—  A  curious  work  with  queer  distorted  engravings.     The   second    (1654)    and  third    (1688) 
editions  bear  the  title:  Ritratto  di  Roma  antica. 

Alberto  lieimaro.  Abgebildetes  neues  Romm  darinnen  die  heute  verhandene  Kirchen.  .  .  . 
Pallaste,  Gebiiwe,  Gemahlde  .  .  .  auss  dem  Italiennisclien  ins  Hochteudsche  iibergestezt  von 
Alberto  Reimaro.     Arnhem,  166'-2. 

Fiuntrantc  Marfinelli.  Roma  di  nuovo  esattamente  ricecata  nel  suo  sito.  Roma,  per 
gl'  Eredi  del  Corb,  170-2.  '24°.  —  A  curious  little  book  with  miniature  engravings  of  ancient 
and  modem  Rome,  very  quaint,  but  useless  to  the  student. 

GENERAL 

Samuel  Ball  Plainer.  The  topography  and  monuments  of  ancient  Rome.  Boston  and 
Chicago,  .\llyn  &  Bacon,  [1904].  —  An  excellent  work.  The  numerous  references  are  of 
especial  value. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Middleton.     The  remains  of  ancient  Rome.     1892.     2  vols.     8vo. 

R.  Lanciani.  New  tales  of  old  Rome.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 
1901.     4to.     Illustrated  with  half  tones.  —  A  book  popular  in  tone,  but  of  scientific  value. 

R.  Lanciani.  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.     8vo.  —  A  popular  account,  but  of  value. 

R.  Latwiani.  Ruins  and  excavations  of  ancient  Rome.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton 
Mifflin   &  Co.,  1897.     8vo. 

R.  Lanciani.  Ancient  Rome  in  the  light  of  recent  discoveries.  Boston  and  New  York, 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

R.  Lanciani.     The  destruction  of  ancient  Rome.  —  Well  kno^Ti. 

Bunsen  et  als.  Beschreibung,  etc.,  der  Stadt  Rom.  1830. — A  work  that  in  its  day  has 
been  very  famous.  —  .\  compendium  by  Plainer  and  Urlichs  "supplies  for  practical  use  all  that 
can  be  briefly  given." 

John  Henry  Parker.  The  archaeology  of  ancient  Rome.  2d  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
London,  John  Murray,  1879.  12  vols.  8vo.  —  I.  The  primitive  fortifications.  H.  Walls 
and  gates  of  Rome.  IH.  Historical  construction  of  walls.  IV.  The  twelve  Egyptian  obelisks. 
V.  Forum  Romanum  et  magnum.  \T.  The  Via  Sacra.  VII.  The  Colosseum  at  Rome.  VIII. 
The  aqueducts  of  Rome.  IX  and  X.  Tombs  in  and  near  Rome:  mythology  in  funeral  sculp- 
ture and  Early  Christian  sculpture.  XI.  Church  and  altar  decorations  in  Rome.  XII. 
The  catacombs.  XIII  and  XIV.  Early  medieval  ca.stles:  The  Temple  of  Rome  and  the  marble 
plan  of  Rome.  —  A  work  of  great  breadth  of  purpose,  unfortunately  not  always  well  executed, 
and  now  in  many  ways  greatly  out  of  date. 

yVilliam  Weimore  Story.  Roba  di  Roma.  New  edition.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.     2  vols.  —  "Only  in  part  devoted  to  artistic  matters." 

William  ll'ctmore  Slary.  Castle  St.  Angelo  and  the  evil  eye,  being  additional  chapters 
to  the  Roba  di  Roma.     London,  Chapman  and  Hall,  1877. 

Henri  Beyle  de  Stcndltal.    Promenades  dans  Rome.     Paris,  Delaunay,  1829.     2  vols. 

Emile  Bcrtaur.     Rome.     Antiquite.     Villes  d'art  celebres  series.     Paris,  Laurens.     4to. 

J/.  A.  R.  Tucker.     Rome.     (Twenty  shillings  series.') 

John  Dennie.  Rome  of  to-day  and  yesterday.  3d  edition.  New  York,  Putnam,  1896.  — 
"Pretends  to  no  originality  of  research."     (Sturgis.) 

J.  Salmon.  .\n  historical  description  of  ancient  and  modem  Rome.  London,  J.  Taylor. 
1800.  —  Of  no  especial  value.     The  illustrations  arc  small. 

H odder  M.  Westropp.  Early  and  imperial  Rome,  or  promenade  lectures  on  the  archaeol- 
ogy of  Rome.     Ixjndon,  Elliot  Stock,  1884.     8vo.  —  Out  of  date. 

Francis  IV ey.  Rome.  New  York,  Appleton  &  Co.,  1872.  Folio.  —  A  tiresome  description. 
383 


rojman  bibliography 

Arthur  Shadwell.  The  architectural  history  of  the  city  of  Rome.  Based  on  J.  H.  Parker's 
"Archaeology  of  Rome."  Oxford  and  London,  Parker  &  Co.,  1883.  12°.  —  In  effect  an 
abridgment  of  Parker's  work,  with  all  the  faults  of  the  original. 

Arthur  Schneider.  Das  alte  Rom.  Entwickelung  seines  Grundrisses  und  Geschichte 
seiner  Bauten.     Leipzig,  Teubner,  189<).     Folio.  —  An  atlas  of  no  scientific  value. 

Becker.     Callus,  or  Roman  scenes  in  the  time  of  Augustus. 

Anonymous.  Rome.  Histoire  de  ses  monuments.  Citeaux,  Imprimerie  St.  Joseph, 
1890.     8vo.  —  "Ce  livre  est  destine  tout  specialement  a  la  jeunesse." 

C.  A.  Bonrwval.  Antiquites  romaines  expliquees  dans  les  memoires  du  Comte  de 
Bonneval,  contenant  ses  aventures  et  ses  decouvertes  sur  les  antiquites  de  la  ville  de  Rome. 
La  Have,  1750.     8vo. 

Abbe  Raguet.  Observations  nouvelles  sur  les  ouvrages  de  peinture,  de  sculpture,  et  d'archi- 
tccture  qui  se  voyent  a  Rome  et  aux  environs  pour  servir  de  suite  aux  memoires  du  comte  de  B.  a 
Rome.     Londres,  1765.     8vo. 

Giuseppe  Antonio  Gwiitani.  Monumenti  anticlii  inediti  owero  notizie  sulle  antichita  e 
belle  arti  di  Roma.  Roma,  Stamperia  Pagliarini,  1784.  4to.  —  Contains  several  plans  and 
restorations  of  value. 

Pirro  Ligorio.  [Work  on  Roman  antiquities  illustrated  bj'  designs  "which  are  more  to  be 
relied  upon  than  the  text  .  .  .  many  of  whose  theories  might  raise  a  smile."] 

G.  A.  Guattani.  Roma  antica.  Bologna,  1795.  4to.  —  A  work  characteristic  of  the  XVIIl 
century. 

Francesco  de  Ficoroni.     Le  vestigie  e  rarita  di  Roma  antica.     Rome.  1744.     4to. 

Milizia.     Roma  delle  belle  arti.     1787. 

Georg  Christian  Adler.  Ausfiihrliche  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Rom.  Altona,  Carl  Ernst 
Bohm,  1781.     8vo. 

Alexandra  Donato.  Roma  vetus  ac  recens.  Romae,  Fausti  Amidei,  1738.  8vo.  —  A 
typical  XVIII  century  work  with  engravings  rather  more  inaccurate  than  usual. 

Rev.  Stephen  IVeston.  Viaggiana,  or  detached  remarks  on  the  buildings,  pictures,  statues, 
inscriptions,  etc.  of  ancient  and  modern  Rome.     London,  1790.     12°.  —  Quite  worthless. 

GUIDE-BOOKS 

Charles  Iliilsen.  Das  Forum  Romanum.  Seine  Geschichte  und  seine  Denkmaler.  Rom, 
Loescher  &  Co.,  1904.  12°.  A  2d  edition,  1906.  French  translation  by  J.  Carcopino,  Rome, 
Loescher  &  Cie.,  1906.  12°.  English  translation  by  J.  B.  Carter  from  the  2d  German 
edition,  under  title  "The  Roman  Forum,  its  history  and  its  monuments."  Rome,  Loescher 
&  Co.,  1906.     12°.  —  An  ideal  guide-book,  with  bibliographical  references. 

Th.  Gsetl-Fels.  Rom  und  die  Campagna.  (Meyer's  Reisebiicher.)  6  Aufl.,  Leipzig 
und  Wien,  Bibliographisches  Institut,  1906. 

Amelung  and  HoUzinger.  The  museums  and  ruins  of  Rome.  The  English  edition 
revised  by  the  authors  and  Mrs.  S.  A.  Strong.     London,  Duckworth,  1906.     2  vols. 

Ball.  Rome.  A  practical  guide  to  Rome  and  its  environs.  London,  Black,  1906. 
8vo. 

Orazio  Marucchi.  Descrizione  del  Foro  Romano  c  guida  per  la  visita  dei  suoi  monumenti. 
Roma,  Bifani,  1881.  8vo.  2d  edition  in  French,  Rome,  1885;  in  Italian,  Rome,  1896. 
The  last  edition  greatly  re\'ised  and  enlarged  was  published  under  the  title,  Le  Forum 
Romain  et  le  Palatin,  d'apres  les  dernieres  decouvertes.  Paris  and  Rome,  Desclee  Lefebre  & 
Cie.,  1902.     8vo.  —  This  is  a  capital  guide-book  with  bibhography. 

Marucchi.     Guide  du  Palatin.     1898. 

Visconti  e  Lanciani.     Guida  del  Palatino.     1873. 

Charles  Isidore  Ilemans.  Historic  and  monumental  Rome.  A  handbook  for  the  student 
of  classical  and  Christian  antiquity  in  the  Italian  capital.  London  and  Edinburgh,  Williams 
&  Norgate,  1874.  4to.  —  Contains  a  chapter  on  "illustrative  hterature";  otherwise  of  httle 
value. 

384 


C.    MONOGRAPHS 

I'hiltipjw  Mercurii.  Nouvelle  description  de  Rome  etdes  environs  d'apres  les  ouvrages 
de  Nibby,  Vasi,  etc.  Rome,  L.  Piale,  1854.  2  vols.  12°.  —  A  guide,  out  of  date,  but  which 
in  its  time  was  unsurpassed  for  clearness  and  scholarship. 

Rev.  Jeremiah  Donovan.  Rome,  ancient  and  modern,  and  its  environs.  Rome,  Cris- 
pino  Puccinelli,  1842.  4  vols.  8vo.  —  A  very  copious  guide-book,  now  of  course  behind  the 
times. 

A.  Nibhy.  Itiiierario  di  Roma  e  delle  sue  vicinanze,  secondo  il  metodo  di  M.  Vasi.  3a 
edizione,  Roma,  Aurelie,  1830.     2  vols.     12°.  —  An  excellent  guide  in  its  day. 

Humphreys  and  Cooke.  Rome  and  its  surrounding  scenery.  London,  Charles  Tilt,  1840. 
4to.  —  Half  guide,  half  book  of  travel. 

A.  E.  Braun.  Die  Ruinen  und  Museen  Roms.  Braimschweig,  1854.  12°.  There  is 
also   an  English  translation. 

C.  Fea.  Description  de  Rome,  traduite  de  ITtalien  .  .  .  et  .  .  .  publiee  par  A.  Bonelli. 
Rome,  1821.     3  vols.     12°.  —  A  guide-book  whose  day  of  usefulness  has  passed. 

Becker.     Handbuch  der  romischen  Alterthlimer,  ler  Theil.     Lipsia,  1843. 

Pietro  Rossini.  II  Mercurio  errante.  Roma,  Fausto  Amidei,  1750.  24°.  —  A  worth- 
less guide-book. 

Anonymous.  Roma  antica  e  mixlerna.  Roma,  Niccola  Roisecco,  1745.  3  vols.  12°.  — 
A  worthless  guide-book. 

Franfois  Leon.  Les  merveilles  de  la  ville  de  Rome,  oil  est  traite  des  eglises,  stations,  et 
reliques  des  corps  des  saints,  etc.  Rome,  Jean  Franfois  de  Buagni,  1690.  12°.  —  One  of  the 
very  earliest  of  the  guide-books  illustrated  with  hopelessly  inaccurate  engravings. 

DRAWINGS 

A.  Desgodetz.  Les  edifices  antiques  de  Rome.  2nd  ed.,  Roma,  1843.  4  vols.  Folio.  — • 
A  well-known  series  of  drawings,  whose  accuracy  is  not,  however,  always  to  be  relied  upon. 

J.  C.  A.  Moreau.  Fragmens  et  ornemens  d'architecture.  Paris,  1800.  Folio.  —  A  sup- 
plement to  Desgodetz. 

Canina.  Aggiunta  e  correzione  procurate  in  parte  dal  Cav.  Giuseppe  Valadier  compile 
e  dichiarate  dal  Canina.     Roma,  1843.     Folio.  —  A  further  supplement. 

Canina.     Gli  edifezj  di  Roma  antica.     Rome,  1848-56.     6  vols.     Folio. 

Francesco  Turconi.  Fabbriche  antiche  di  Roma  disegnate  e  ristaurate.  Milano,  Tipo- 
grafia  Molina,  1857.     Folio.  —  Excellent  measured  drawings. 

G.  S.  Taylor  and  E.  Cresy.  The  architectural  antiquities  of  Rome.  London,  G.  S.  Tay- 
lor, etc.,  1821-22.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  A  series  of  good  engravings  showing  the  best  archaeological 
work  of  which  the  age  was  capable. 

Bonarenlure  d'Overbeke.  Les  restes  de  I'ancienne  Rome.  Amsterdam,  Jean  Crellius, 
1708.  3  vols.  Folio.  2d  edition,  1709.  — A  series  of  good  engravings  showing  the  best  work 
of  which  the  age  was  capable. 

Bonaventure  d'Overbeke.  Stampe  degli  avanzi  dell' antica  Roma.  Londra,  1739.  —  The 
plates  of  the  foregoing  work  without  text. 

Achille  e  Pieiro  Parbuni.  Nuova  raccolta  delle  principal!  vedute  .  .  .  di  Roma.  Roma, 
Antonelli,  no  date.     4to. 

G.  B.  e  F.  Piranese.  Antichita  romane.  1748-78.  [Illustrating  the  principal  buildings 
and  antiquities  of  classic  Rome  and  its  environs.]  Unreliable  in  detail,  but  often  valuable  as 
showing  the  condition  of  monuments  in  the  XVIII  century. 

M.  Duhourg.  Views  of  the  remains  of  ancient  buildings  in  Rome  and  its  vicinity  with  a 
descriptive  and  historical  account  of  each  subject.     Ix>ndon,  1844.     Folio. 

Giuseppi  Vasi.  Delle  magnificenze  di  Roma  antica  e  moderna  .  .  .  disegnate  ed  incise 
in  rame  .  .  .  con  una  spiegazione  istorica  di  tutte  le  cose  notabili  .  .  .  composta  dal  G.  Bian- 
chiiii.  Roma,  1747-61.  10  vols.  —  A  very  famous  work  in  its  day.  Some  of  the  engravings 
are  still  of  value. 

Abate  Uggeri.  Journces  pittoresques  des  edifices  de  Rome.  [c.  1800-04.]  .\n  Italian 
385 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

edition  bears  the  title,  "Giornate  piftoresche  degli  edifizi  antichi  di  Roma  e  dei  contorni.  Roma, 
1800.     Folio.  —  "Well  illustrated." 

Dominique  Magnan.  La  ville  de  Rome,  ou  description  abregee  de  cette  superbe  ville.  .  .  . 
Rome,  1778.     4  vols.     Folio.  —  Many  engravings. 

Domenico  Amici.  Raccolta  dei  principali  vedute  di  Roma.  Roma,  1855.  Folio.  —  43 
engravings. 

BarbauU.  I.,es  plus  beaux  monuments  de  Rome  ancienne.  Rome,  Bouchard  et  Gravier, 
1761.     Folio.  —  A  series  of  engra\'ings  good  for  the  date. 

Domenico  Front i.  Nuova  raccolta  di  100  vedutine  antiche  della  citta  di  Roma.  Roma, 
Presso  il  Sud*.  Incisore,  1795.  2  vols.  4to.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  mediocre  en- 
gravings. 

Anonymous.  Raccolta  di  320  vidute  si  antiche  che  moderne  della  citta  di  Roma.  Roma, 
Agapito  Franzetti,  [c.  1780  ?].  —  A  collection  of  small  and  mediocre  engravings  of  Rome, 
ancient  and  modern. 

Dominique  Magnan.  La  ville  di  Rome.  Roma,  Archange  Casaletti,  1778.  4  vols.  Folio. 
—  Many  fair  woodcuts. 

G.  B.  Cipriani.  Degli  edifici  antichi  e  moderni  di  Roma  veduti  in  contorno.  Roma, 
1817.     2  vols. 

Cassini  Giovanni.  Xuova  raccolta  delle  megliori  vedute  antiche  e  moderne  di  Roma. 
Roma,  1775.     Folio.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  poor  engra\ings. 

ArMnymous.  Calcografia  di  Roma.  Roma,  Gio.  Uattista,  1779.  7  vols.  8vo.  —  A  col- 
lection of  poor  and  inaccurate  engravings  of  buildings  and  statues,  ancient  and  modern. 

J.  Merigot.  A  select  collection  of  views  of  ruins  in  Rome  and  its  vicinity.  London, 
1796-99.     Folio.  —  Very  inaccurate  engravings. 

Marco  Sadeler.  Vestigi  delle  antichita  di  Roma,  Tivoli,  Pozzulo,  e  altri  luoglii.  Roma, 
1660.     4to. 

Petri  Sclienkii.  Roma  aeterna.  No  date  or  place.  4to.  —  A  collection  of  inaccurate 
engravings. 

Henry  Abbott.  Antiquities  of  Rome;  24  select  views  of  its  principal  ruins.  London, 
Baldwin,  Cradock   &  Joy,  1820.     Folio.  —  Execrably  bad  engravings. 

Jacobi  Lauri.  Antiquae  urbis  splendor  —  hoc  est  praecipua  eiusdem  templia,  amphi- 
theatra,  theatra,  circi,  naumachiae,  arcae  triumphales,  mausolea,  aliaque  sumptuosiora  aedificia, 
etc.,  etc.  Romae,  1612.  —  A  curiosity.  The  engravings  too  inaccurate  to  be  of  any  use  in  sup- 
plying data  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  monuments  in  the  XVII  century. 

Joachim  von  Sandart.  Romae  antiquae  et  novae  theatrum.  Norimbergae,  1684. 
Foho. 

TOPOGRAPHY 

R.  Lanciani.  Forma  urbis  Romae.  Mediolam',  apud  Llricum  Hoepli,  1893-1901- 
Folio.  —  A  monumental  work,  consisting  of  maps  of  Rome  showing  all  the  remains  of  ancient 
and  modern  buildings,  and  giving  details  of  all  the  excavations. 

O.  Gilbert.  Geschichte  und  Topograpliie  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Alterthum.  Leipzig,  1883-90. 
3  vols. 

Leon  Hotno.     Lexique  de  topographic  romaine.     1900.     12°. 

H.  Jordan.  Topographic  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Alterthum.  Berlin,  Wiedmannsche  Buch- 
handlung,  1871-85.  4to.  —  A  work  of  great  learning,  which  is  notable  as  containing  the  first 
really  critical  edition  of  the  Mirabilia. 

R.  Lattciani.  Topografia  di  Roma  antica  —  i  commentarii  di  Frontino  intorno  le  acque 
e  gli  aquedotti.     Roma,  Salviucci,   1880.     Folio.  —  Extremely  learned. 

Gibbon.  Dechne  and  fail  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Chap.  71  is  devoted  to  the  topography 
and  monuments  of  Rome. 

Richter.     Topographic  der  Stadt  Rom.     1889.      2d  edition,  Miinchen,  1901. 

Charles  Lewis  Urlichs.     Codex  urbis  Romae  topographicus.     1871. 
386 


C.    MONOCRAPHS 

Gori  and  Parker.  The  ancient  streets  of  Rome  and  roads  in  tlie  suburbs;  —  a  lecture. 
Rome,  1869.     8vo.     Pamphlet. 

Ludirig  Preller.  Die  Hegionen  der  Stadt  Rom;  nach  den  bestcn  Ilandsoliriften  bericlitet, 
etc.     Jena,  IS+O.     8vo. 

Rfv.  liichard  Burgess.  Topography  and  antiquities  of  Rome,  in<luding  the  recent  dis- 
coveries made  about  the  Forum  and  Via  Sacra.     London,  1831. 

Canina.  Indicazioiie  topografica  di  Roma  antica  distribuita  nclle  XIV  regioni.  3a  ed., 
Roma,  1844.     la  ed.,  l&il.     8vo.  —  Out  of  date. 

Sir  William  Gell.     Topography  of  Rome  and  the  Campagna. 

Nardini.  Roma  antica.  Edizione  quarta  romana  .  .  .  accresciuta  .  .  .  di  Antonio 
Nibbv.  Roma,  Stamperia  de  Romanis,  1808.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  A  celebrated  work  principally 
on  the  topography  of  Rome.  It  is  of  value  for  the  descriptions  of  ruins  that  have  since  disap- 
peared. Other  editions  by  Ottavio  Falconiere  (Roma,  1666),  etc.  The  original  edition 
(Roma,   1566)  contained  a  few  engravings  of  the  pyramid  of  Cestius,  etc. 

liidolfino  ]'enuti.  Accurata  e  succinta  descrizione  topografica  delle  antichita  di  Roma. 
2d  ed.,  Roma,  1803.     2  vols.     Folio. 

Andrew  Lumisden.  Remarks  on  the  antiquities  of  Rome  and  its  environs,  being  a  class- 
ical and  topographical  survey  of  the  ruins.  .  .  .  London,  W.  Buhner  &  Co.,  1797.  A  '2d  edi- 
tion was  issued  in  1812.  —  A  resume  of  the  topography  known  at  the  period  with  a  few  mediocre 
engra\nngs,  plans,  etc. 

Marliani.  [Topography  of  Rome  in  Latin.]  —  "The  first  work  of  which  the  text  was  illus- 
trated with  engravings."     (Hemans.) 

EXCAV.\TIONS 

Rodoljo  Lanciani.  Storia  degli  sca\i  di  Roma  e  notizie  intonio  le  collezioni  romane  di 
antichita.  Roma,  Ernianno  Ix)escher  &  Co.,  1902  seq.  Folio.  —  A  work  of  admirable  schol- 
arship, highly  valuable  for  reference. 

Rodoljo  Lanciani.  Architectural  results  of  the  latest  excavations  in  the  Forum  at  Rome. 
(In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Journal,  1901,  ser.  3,  vol.  8,  p.  25,  seq.) 

Rodoljo  Lanciani.  Nuovi  scavi  nel  Foro  Romano.  Roma,  Salviucci,  1882.  4to.  —  A 
go<xl  account. 

Th.  Gsetl-Fels.  Romische  .\usgrabungen  im  letzten  Decennium.  Die  Callistus  Kata- 
komben  —  Der  Palatin  —  Die  Lnterkirche  S.  Clemente.  Hildburghausen,  Bibliographisches 
Institut,  1870.  4to.  — A  good  pamphlet,  but  recent  excavations  have  put  out  of  court  several 
of  Gsell-Fels's  theories. 

J.  II.  Parker.   Notices  on  recent  excavations  in  Rome.     (In  .\rcha!ologia,  vol.  42,  pp.  1-26.) 

J.  II.  Parker.  Roman  Exploration  Fund.  Excavations  in  Rome  in  the  season  1870-71; 
a  lecture.     Ixmdon,  1871.      Pamphlet. 

P.  E.  }'isconti.  Relazione  degli  retrovamenti  di  antiche  cose  seguiti  in  Roma  e  suoi 
dintorni  dal  principio  dell'  anno  1823  .  .  .  (In  Accademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Disserta- 
zioni,  1885,  vol.  2.) 

Giiiseppe  Valadier.  Narrazione  artistica  dell'  operato  finora  nel  restauro  dell'  Arco  di  Tito 
letta  .  .  .  20  dcjcnibrc,  1821.  (In  .\ccademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1823, 
vol.  1,  part  2.) 

AR.\   PACIS  AUGUSTAE 

Eugene  Petersen.  Ara  Pacis  .\ugustae.  Wien,  Alfred  Holder,  1902.  Folio.  —  A  sufficient 
publication. 

ARCH  OF  CONSTANTINE 

Anonymous.  Arco  di  Constantino.  1807.  [No  place]  —  Small  drawings  of  this 
monument. 

387 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

ARCH  OF  TITUS 

Hadriani  Relandt.  De  spoliis  templi  Hierosolymitani  in  Arcu  Titiano.  Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  ex  libraria  Guilielmi  Broedelet,  1716.  —  More  curious  than  instructive. 

BASILICA  JULL\ 

Tocco.     Delia  Basilica  Giulia  e  dei  present!  scaW  del  Foro.     1872. 

Stejano  Piale.  Delia  Basilica  Giulia  male  situata  da  moderni  nel  Foro  Romano.  Roma, 
Crispino  Puccinelli,  1833.  4to.  Pamphlet.  —  Piale 's  contentions  have  all  subsequently  been 
disproved  by  excavations. 

BASILICA  ULPL\ 

LesueuT.  La  Basilique  L'lpienne  (1823).  Restaurations  des  monuments  antiques  par  les 
pensionnaires  de  I'acadeinie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  Firrain-Didot  &  Cie.,  1877.  Folio.  — 
Splendid  drawings,  but  the  restorations  are  incorrect. 

Angela  Uggeri.  Delia  Basilica  L'lpia  nel  Foro  Trajano  istoria  e  ristaurazione  agli  amanti 
delle  antichita  romane.  [Roma,  1840?.]  Folio.  —  Splendid  measured  drawings.  The  res- 
torations, however,  are  open  to  question. 

BRIDGES 

Stejano  Piale.  Degli  antichi  ponti  di  Roma.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli.  4to.  Pam- 
phlet. —  Not  up  to  date. 

CAMPUS  MARTIUS 

G.  B.  Piranen.     Campus  Martius  antiquae  urbis.     Romae,  1762.  —  Very  grandiloquent 


CAPITOL 

Rodocanachi.  Le  Capitol  romain,  antique  et  modeme.  Paris,  Hachette  et  Cie.,  1904. 
4to. 

M.  Vermehren.  Der  capitolinische  Jupitertempel  in  Rom.  Jahresbericht  iiber  das  gross- 
herzogliche  Gymnasium.     Jena,  A.  Neuenhalm,  1879.     Progr.  No.  569. 

H.  Jordan.  Capitol,  Forum,  und  Sacra  Via  in  Rom.  Berlin,  Weidmannsche  Buchhand- 
lung,  1881.     8vo.     Pamphlet.  —  A  readable  sketch. 

Luigi  Canina.  Ragionamento,  sul  clivo,  sulla  posizione,  e  sull'  architettura  del  tempio 
di  Giove  capitolino.  (In  Accademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1835,  vol.  6,  pp. 
151-178.) 

CIRCUS  OF  MAXENTIUS 

Luigi  Canina.  Sul  circo  edificato  da  Adriano  %-icino  al  suo  mausoleo  per  celebrare  il  na- 
tale  di  Roma  nell'  anno  874;  dissertazione.  (Accademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni, 
1842,  vol.  10,  pp.  431-170.) 

Rev.  Richard  Burgess.  Description  of  the  circus  on  the  Via  Appia  near  Rome  with  some 
account  of  the  Circensian  games.     London,  1828.     12°. 

COLOSSEUM 

G.  B.  Cipriani.  Anfiteatro  Flavio,  detto  il  Colosseo.  Roma,  1801.  4to.  —  Small  meas- 
ured drawings. 

Pietro  Bianchi.  Osservazioni  suU'  arena  e  sul  podio  dell'  Anfiteatro  Flavio,  illustrate  e 
difese  da  Lorenzo  Re.  (.\ccademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1823,  vol.  1,  part  2, 
pp.  125-150.) 

Fabio  Gori.     Le  memorie  storiche,  i  giuochi,  e  gli  sca\'i  dell'  Anfiteatro  Fla\'io  ed  i  pretesi 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

martiri  cristiani  del  Colosseo.     Roma,  Francesco  Capaccini,  1875.     12°. — A  literary  account 
of  what  has  taken  place  in  the  Colosseum. 

Gioranni  Marangotii.  Delle  memorie  sacre  e  profane  dell'  Anfiteatro  Flavio  di  Roma 
volgarmente  detto  il  Colosseo,  dissertazione.     Roraa,  1746.     8vo. 

COLUMN  OF  ANTONINUS 

Dominique  Magnan.     Calcografia  della  coloima  Antonina.     Roma,  1779.     Folio. 
G .  P .  Bellori .     Columna  Antoniniana.     Roma,  apud  auctorem,  [1672].     Folio. — A  number 
of  very  good  drawings. 

COLUMN  OF  MARCUS  AURELIUS 

Peterson,  Domaszcivsk,  Calderini.  Die  Marcussaule  auf  Piazza  Colonna  in  Rom.  Miin- 
chen,  F.  Bruckmann,  1896.  —  A  superb  monograph  with  beautiful  plates. 

COLUMN   OF  TRAJAN 

W.  Froehtier.  La  Colonne  Trajane  d'apres  le  surmoulage  execute  a  Rome  en  1861-62. 
Paris,  J.  Rothschild,  1872-74.  4  vols.  Folio.  —  A  superb  work,  beyond  question  the  best  on 
this  subject. 

Conrad  Ciehorius.  Die  Reliefs  der  Traianssaule,  hrsg.  und  historisch  erklart.  Berlin, 
1896-1900.     3  vols.     8vo.  and  Folio.  —  A  monumental  work. 

Percier.  La  Colonne  Trajane.  (1788.)  Restaurations  des  monuments  antiques  par 
les  pensionnaires  de  I'academie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1877.  —  Ex- 
cellent. 

G.  B.  Piranese.  Trofeo:  —  o  sia,  magnifica  colonna  di.  .  .  .  Trajano,  colle  colonna  del 
apoteosi  di  .\ntoniiio  Pio  e  colonna  antonina.     [Rome,  1770  ?.]     Folio.  —  Magniloquent  drawings. 

John  Hungerjord  Pollen.  A  description  of  the  Trajan  Column.  London,  Chapman  & 
Hall,  1874.  8vo.  —  A  guide  to  the  casts  in  South  Kensington  Museum,  containing  much  per- 
tinent information  in  inexpensive  guide-book  style. 

Salomon  Reinach.  La  Colonne  Trajane  au  Musee  de  St.  Germain.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux, 
1886,    24°.  —  A  very  brief  and  somewhat  inexact  guide  to  the  sculptures. 

CURL\  JULIA 

R.  Lanciani.  L'aula  e  gli  uffici  del  senato  romano.  (Curia  Hostilia  Julia,  Secretarium 
Senatus).     Roma,  Salviucci,  1883. 

L'rlichs.  De  Curia  Julia  et  continentibus  aedificiis.  (In  Nuove  mem.  dell'  Istituto,  1865, 
p.  77  et  suiv.) 

M.  J.  Gatteschi.     Forum  Romain,  avec  la  Curia  et  la  Basilica  Aemilia.     Restauration. 

THE  FORA' 

R.  Thiele.  Das  Forum  Romanum  mit  besonderer  Riicksichtigung  der  neuesten  Aus- 
grabungen.     2.  Aufl.,  Erfurt,  K.  Villart,  1906. 

Richard  Dclbriick.  Die  drei  Tempel  am  Forum  Holitorium  in  Rom.  Roma,  E.  Loeschei. 
&  Co.,  1903.  —  An  important  monograph  on  the  ruins  imbedded  in  S.  Nicola  in  Carcere. 

H.  Thedenat.  Le  Forum  Romain,  et  les  forums  imperiaux.  1st  ed.,  Paris,  1898.  2d 
ed.,  1900.  —  Excellent. 

//.  Jordan.  Capitol,  Forum,  und  Sacra  Via  in  Rom.  Berlin,  Wcidmannsche  Buchhand- 
lung,  1881.     8vo.     Pamphlet.  —  A  readable  .sketch. 

F.  Dviert.  Le  Forum  Romain  et  les  Forums  de  Julius  Ce.sar,  etc.  Paris,  A  Levy,  1876. 
Folio.  —  Excellent  plans  and  restorations,  remarkably  clear,  but  not  quite  up  to  date. 

A.  N .  Normand.  Restauration  du  Forum  Romain;  le  temple  de  Vespasien.  .  .  .  (In 
L'ami  des  monuments  et  des  arts,  1890,  vol.  4,  p.  316;   1891,  vol.  5,  p.  14  seq.) 

'  See  also  work  of  Ch.  Huelscn  <iuoted  aljove,  p.  384. 

389 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  N.  Caristie.  Plan  d'uiie  partie  du  Forum  Romain  et  des  monuments  sur  la  voie  Sacree. 
Paris,  1821.     Folio. 

Louis  llorsari.  I^e  Forum  Romain  selon  les  dernieres  fouilles.  Rome,  OfBcina  Poligrafica 
Bomana,  1903,  24°.  —  A  concise  and  remarkably  accurate  guide  to  the  Forum. 

M.  J.  Oatteschi.  Mont  Capitolin,  Forum  Romain,  et  Forum  des  Empereurs.  Restaura- 
tions. 

M.  J.  Gaitesehi.  Forum  Romain,  avec  la  Curia  et  la  Basilica  Aemilia.  Restaura- 
tioii. 

T).  Vaglieri.     Gli  scavi  recenti  nel  Foro  Romano. 

L.  R.  C.     Le  Forum  Romain.     (Le  Musee  III,  1906,  p.  215.) 

P.  Kiraby.  Das  Forum  Romanum.  Erzsebet  varos  Programm,  1906.  8vo.  (Hunga- 
rian.) 

Fcrdiiiatido  AlhrrtuUi.  Fregi  trovati  negli  scavi  del  Foro  Trajano  con  altri  esistenti  in  Roma 
ed  in  diverse  cittii  d'ltalia.     Milano,  1824.     Folio.  —  Twenty-five  plates. 

F.  M.  Nichols.  Roman  Forum.  London,  1877.  8vo.  —  "Confond  le  Forum  et  les  comiees 
et  place  mal  les  rostres."     (Marucchi.) 

Ravioli.     Ragionamento  sul  Foro  Romano.     1859. 

Moniiroli.    Sulla  parte  meridionale  del  Foro  Romano.    1859. 

Tocco.     Ripristinazione  del  Foro  Romano.     1859. 

Nibby.  II  Foro  Romano  in  Roma  nell'  anno  1838.  Roma,  1839.  Parte  II.  Antica, 
pp.  40-180. 

Luigi  Canina.  Sul  Porto  Neroniano  di  Anzio  e  sui  rostri  del  Foro  Romano  dissertazione. 
(In  Accademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1838,  vol.  8,  p.  93  seq.) 

Dunsen.     1/e  Forum  Romain.     (In  Bullettino  del  1st.  di  corrisp.  archeol.,  1835.) 

Ciinina.  Descrizione  storica  del  Foro  Romano.  Roma,  Canina,  1834.  4to.  —  The 
illustrations  are  few  and  untrustworthy. 

Stcfano  Piale.  Del  Foro  Romano.  Rome,  Crispino  Puccinelli,  1832.  4to.  Pamphlet. 
• —  Of  slight  value  for  historical  research. 

Christian  MUller.  Das  Forum  Romanum.  Stuttgart  und  Tubingen,  J.  G.  Cotta, 
1824.     4to. 

Fca.    Indicazione  topografica  del  Foro  Romano.     1818. 

A^lbby.  Del  Foro  Romano.  Roma,  Vincenzo  Poggiole,  1819.  8vo.  —  Of  value  for 
liistorical  research. 

Francois  Pallet .  Historia  Fori  Romani:  restituta  illustrata  et  aucta  per  Philip  Broidaevum, 
etc.     Lugdimi,  apud  Franciscus  Fenraeum,  1587.     12°. 

HOUSE  OF  THE  VESTALS 

Orazio  Marucchi.     Nuova  descrizione  della  casa  delle  Vestali.     1887. 
F.  M.  Nichols.     Some  remarks  upon  the   Regia,  the  Atrium   Vestae,   and  the  original 
locality  of  the  Fasti  Capitolini.     (In  Archseologia,  vol.  50,  p.  227,  seq.) 

PALACES  OF  THE  CAESARS 

E.  Haugcu'iiz.  Der  Palatin,  seine  Geschichte  und  seine  Ruinen.  Mit  Vorwort  von 
Chr.  Hiilsen.      Rom.  E.  Loescher  &  Co.,  1901. 

H.  Deglane.  Le  palais  des  Cesars  au  Mont  Palatin.  (In  Gazette  archeologique  XIII, 
1888,  pp.  124,  145,  211.)  —An  important  study. 

Jordan.     Die  Kaiserpalaste  in  Rom.     1868. 

M.  J.  Gatteschi.  Summa  Sacra  Via,  Porticus  Margaritaria,  et  Cli\'us  du  Palatin.  Res- 
taurations. 

Gori.    Sugli  edifizi  palatini.     1867. 

Bianchini.  Del  Palazzo  de' Cesari,  opera  postuma.  Verona,  1738.  Folio.  20  pi.  —  Text 
in  Italian  and  Latin. 

390 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

PANTIIKON 

Luea  ISeltrami.  II  Pantheon.  La  struttura  organica  dclla  cupola  e  del  sottostante  tam- 
buro;  le  fondazioni  dclla  Rotonda,  dell'  avancorpo,  e  del  fK)rtico;  avanzi  degli  editici  anteriori 
alle  costnizioni  adrianee.  Coi  relievi  del  Pier  Olinto  Armaiiini.  Milano,  Umberto  Allegretti, 
1898.  4to.  —  A  clear  and  worthy  publication  of  Chedanne's  discoveries  —  discoveries  which 
have  revolutionized  our  knowledge  of  the  most  famous  of  Roman  buildings.  This  work  is 
indispensable  to  the  serious  student  of  this  monument. 

li.  I'hetie  Spiers.  Monsieur  Chedanne's  drawings  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome.  Summary 
of  his  report  to  the  Academic  des  Beaux-Arts.  (Journal  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects,  1894-95,  3d  series,  vol.  i.)  —  An  excellent  summary  of  the  afore-mentioned  work. 

T.  F.  Luys.  Le  Pantheon  de  Rome;  detail  du  peristyle  de  ce  temple  ancien.  Bnixelles, 
M.  Hayez,  1838.     Folio. — Superb  measured  drawings. 

Frcderii-k  Adler.  Das  Pantheon  zu  Rom.  31es  Programm  zum  Winckelmannsfeste. 
Berlin,  W.  Hertze,  1871.  410.  Pamphlet.  —  The  archteology  is  entirely  out  of  date,  but  the 
article  is  of  value  as  a  study  of  the  persistence  of  certain  Roman  motives  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

R.  Lanciani.  II  Pantheon  e  le  Terme  di  Agrippa.  Prima  e  secunda  relazione.  Roma, 
Salviucci,  1882.  —  An  important  work,  though  Lanciani's  thesis  has  now  been  disproved. 

Cuunt  Nipsi-Landi.  Marco  Agrippa  e  i  suoi  tempii;  —  le  Terme  ed  il  Panteon.  Rome, 
1883.     Folio. 

V.  A.  Btavette.  fitude  sur  le  Pantheon  de  Rome,  restauration  de  la  palestre  des  Thermes 
d'Agrippa.     (In  ^Melanges  d'archeologie  et  d'histoire,  1885.) 

Stefano  Piale.  Del  corpo  rotondo  del  Panteon  di  Agrippa.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli, 
1834.     4to.     Pamphlet.  —  Since  INI.  Chedanne's  discoveries  this  pubhcation  has  lost  all  value. 

Stejano  Piale.  Delle  cariatidi  di  Diogene  Ateniese.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelh,  1834.  4to. 
Pamphlet.  —  Piale's  contention  is  now  known  to  be  erroneous. 

C.  Fea.  Dei  diritti  del  principato  sugli  edifizi  public!  ...  in  occasione  del  Panteon  di 
Marco  .\grippa.     Roma,  1806.     8vo. 

Anomjmous.  Eglises  principales  de  I'Europe.  Milan,  no  date.  —  Contains  colored 
plate  of  Pantheon. 

REGIA 

F.  M.  Nichols.  Some  remarks  upon  the  Regia,  the  Atrium  Vestae,  and  the  original 
locality  of  the  Fasti  Capitohni.     (In  Archseologia,  vol.  50,  p.  '227  seq.) 

SEPTIZONITOI  OF  SEPTIMIUS  SEVERUS. 

Hiilsen.  Das  Septizonium  des  Septimius  Severus.  1898.  46tes  Programm  zum  Winckel- 
mannsfeste.    Berlin,  Georg  Reimer,  1886.  —  An  excellent  account. 

SACRA   Vl.V 

J/.  J.  Gatteschi.     Summa  Sacra  Via  avec  le  Temple  de  Jupiter  Stator.     Restaurations. 

J/.  J.  Gatteschi.  Summa  Sacra  Via.  Portions  Margaritaria  et  Chvus  du  Palatin.  Res- 
taurations. 

STADIL^I 

.Joseph  Strum.  Das  kaiserliche  Stadium  auf  dem  Palatin.  Wiirzburg,  H.  Stiirtz,  1888. 
8vo.     Pamphlet.  —  A  good  account. 

Deglane.     Le  stade  du  Palatin.     (In  Melanges  de  Tecole  franfaise,  1889.) 

TEMPLE  OF  CASTOR  .\ND   POLLUX 

A.  ir.  i-an  Buren.  The  temples  of  Castor  and  of  Concord  in  the  Roman  Forum.  (Ber- 
liner philologische  Wochenschrift  XXVI,  1006,  p.  127.) 

;j9i 


ROiVL\N   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Anonymous.     Tempio  di   Giove  Statore.     Roma,   1796,    4to.  —  Small  engraWngs  of  the 
Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  and  of  the  Temple  of  Saturn,  reproduced  from  earlier  drawings. 
M.  J.  Gatieschi.     Summa  Sacra  Via  avec  le  Temple  de  Jupiter  Stator.     Restaurations. 

TEMPLE  OF  HERCULES 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.  L'ara  massima  ed  il  tempio  d'Ercole  nel  Foro  Boario.  Roma,  1854. 
8vo.     Pamphlet. 

TEMPLE-   OF  JANUS 

Stefano  Piale.  De' tempi!  di  Giano  della  Porta  Januale.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli, 
1833.  —  Not  up  to  date. 

Filippo  Vcnuti.  Dissertazione  .  .  .  sopra  il  tempio  di  Giano.  (In  Accademia  etrusca 
di  Cortona,  Saggi  di  dissertazioni  accademiche,  1743,  vol.  4,  pp.  93-131.) 

TEMPLE  OF  MARS  ULTOR 

Stefano  Piale.  Del  tempio  di  Marte  Litore.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli,  1834.  4to. 
Pamphlet.  —  Not  up  to  date. 

TEMPLE  OF  NEPTUNE 

ViUian.  Temple  de  Marc-Aurele.  (E.xecute  en  1824.)  Restaurations  des  monuments 
antiques  par  les  pensionnaires  de  I'academie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie., 
1881.      Folio.  —  Superb  drawings  but  incorrect  restorations. 

TEMPLE  OF  SATURN 

Dubid.  Temple  de  la  Pudicite.  (Execute  en  1801.)  Restaurations  des  monuments 
antiques  par  les  pensionnaires  de  I'academie  de  France  a  Rome.  Paris,  Firrain-Didot  et 
Cie.,  1879.  Folio.  Bound  with  Coussin,  Temple  de  Vesta.  —  The  drawings  are  beautiful,  but 
the  restorations  are  incorrect. 

Anonymous.  Tempio  di  Giove  Statore.  Roma,  1796.  4to.  — Small  measured  drawings 
of  the  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  and  of  the  Temple  of  Saturn,  reproduced  from  earlier  works. 

TEMPLE  OF  VENUS  AND   ROME 

M.  J.  Gatieschi.  Temple  de  Venus  et  Rome,  construit  par  I'empereur  Hadrien.  Res- 
taurations. 

Victor  Lakmx.  Restaurations  du  temple  de  Venus  et  Rome.  (In  Melanges  d'archeologie 
et  d'histoire,  1882,  p.  362  seq.) 

TEMPLE  OF  VESPASIAN 

Stefatw  Piale.  Degli  anticlii  templi  di  Vespasiano  e  della  Concordia.  Roma,  Crispino 
Puccinelli,  1834.     4to.     Pamphlet.  —  Not  up  to  date. 

TEMPLE   OF  VESTA 

H.  Jordan.  Der  Tempel  der  Vesta  und  das  Haus  der  Vestalinnen.  Berlin,  Weidmann, 
1886.     4to.  —  Excellent. 

THEATER  OF  MARCELLUS 

E.  Caetano-Lovatelli.     II  teatro  di  Marcello.      (Nuova  antologia.  Anno  IV,  1906,  p.  387.) 

THERIVLE  OF  CARACALLA 

G.  A.  Blouet.  Restaurations  des  Thermes  d'.\ntonin  Caracalla  a  Rome.  Paris,  1828. 
Folio.  —  More  correct  esthetically  than  archasologicall}-. 

'  Arch  of  Janus  Quadrifruns. 

392 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

Anonymous.  Baths  of  Caracalla  and  the  Pantheon.  (In  Architect,  1882,  vol.  27,  pp. 
236-238.) 

THERMS  OF  DIOCLETUN 

Edmond  Paulin.  Thermes  <Je  Diocletion  (1879).  Restaurations  des  monuments  antiques 
par  les  jiensionnaires  de  I'academie  de  France  ii  Rome.  Paris,  Firmin-Didot  et  Cie.,  1890. 
Folio.  —  Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  tliis  well-known  series.     The  drawings  are  splendid. 

THERIVLE  OF  TITUS 

K .  Ponce.  Description  des  Bains  de  Titus.  Paris,  1786.  Folio.  —  Fine  reproductions 
of  the  well-known  paintings  foimd  in  this  ruin. 

iV.  Ponce.  Collections  des  tableaux  et  arabesques  antiques  trouves  dans  les  ruines  des 
thermes    de  Titus.      Paris,  Bance  Aine,  1838.      Folio.  —  Engra™igs  of  questionable  accuracy'. 

Giuseppi  Carletii.  Le  antiche  camere  delle  Terme  di  Tito.  Roma,  Per  (Jeneroso  Salo- 
nioni,  1776.     Folio.  —  A  work  of  no  value. 

THERM.E  OF  TRAJAN 

Stefano  Piale.  Delle  terme  Traiani.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli,  1832.  Svo.  —  Not  up 
to  date. 

TOMBS 

Francesco  Bianchini.  Camera  ed  inscrizioni  sepolcrali  de'  liberti,  servi,  ed  ufficiali  della 
casa  di  Augusto.  Roma,  Giovanni  Maria  SaKioni,  1727.  Foho. — With  fairly  good 
drawings. 

P.  S.  Ghezzi.  Camere  sepolcrali  de'  liberti  e  liberte  di  LiWa  Augusta  ed  altri  Cesari  come 
anche  altri  sepolcri  .  .  .  dati  in  luce  .   .  .  da  L.  F.  de  Rossi.     Roma,  1731.     Folio. 

G.  Pietro  Campana.  Di  due  sepolcri  roinani  del  secolo  di  Augusto  scoverti  tra  la  via  Latina 
e  r.\ppia.  Roma,  Presso  Alessandro  Monaldi,  1840.  Folio.  —  An  adequate  publication  of 
these  two  tombs. 

R.  Lanciani.  T\  sepolcro  di  C.  Sulpicio  Platorino.  Roma,  Salviucci,  1880.  4to.  —  An 
excellent  pamphlet. 

Canina.     [Monograph  on  the  sepulchres  of  the  Appian  Way.] 

WALLS 

Stefano  Piale.  Delle  mure  aureliane  di  Roma.  Roma,  Crispiuo  Puccinelli,  1833.  4to. 
Pamphlet.  —  A  good  account. 

Stefano  Piale.  Delle  porte  del  recinto  di  Ser\-io  Tullio.  Roma,  Crispino  Puccinelli,  1833. 
4to.     Pamphlet.  —  A  fair  account. 

n'.  A.  Becker.     De  Romae  veteris  niuris  atque  portis.  .  .  .  Lipsiae,  1842.     Svo. 

W.  H.  Black.  On  the  identification  of  tlie  Roman  Portus  Lemanis.  (In  Archteologia, 
vol.  40,  pp.  361  seq.) 

SPAIN 

MERIDA 

P.  Paris.  Sur  un  sanctuaire  de  Mithra  a  Merida  en'Espagne.  (Compte-rendus  des  seances 
de  I'academie  des  inscriptions,  etc.,  1904,  p.  513.) 

SYRL\ 
BAALBEK 

Heinrich  Frauberger.  Die  .\kropolis  von  Baalbek.  Frankfurt,  M.  H.  Keller,  1892. 
Folio.  —  \  fine  work. 

303 


ROMAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

O.  PwhMein  und  Th.  v.  Liipke.  Ba'albek.  30  Ansichten  der  deutschen  Ausgrabungen. 
Berlin,  G.  Reimer,  1905.     8vo. 

O.  Puchstein.     Fiihrer  durch  die  Ruinen  von  Ba'albek.     Berlin,  G.  Reimer,  1905.     8vo. 

O.  Puchstein.  Erster  Jahrbericht  liber  die  Ausgrabungen  in  Ba'albek.  (In  Jahrbericht 
des  kaiserlich  deutschen  Instituts,  Band  XVI,  1901,  p.  133  f.)  — A  most  important  publication. 

O.  Puchstein  et  als.  Zweiter  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Ausgrabungen  in  Ba'albek.  (Ibid., 
Band  XVII,  1902,  p.  87.)  —  Also  important. 

PALMYRA 

Robert  Wood.  Ruins  of  Palmyra,  otherwise  Tadmor-in-the-Desert.  London,  1753.  Folio. 
—  Apparently  a  partial  edition  of  "Ba'albek  and  PalmjTa,"  containing  most  of  the  plates  on 
Palmyra. 


394 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  GENERAL  WORKS.  COVERING  MORE  OR  LESS  COMPLETELY  THE  ENTIRE 

FIELD 

SOURCES 

Corpus  srriptorum  ecclesiasticorum  Latinorum.     Vienne,  1866  seq. 

I.e  Hlaiit.     Inscriptions  chretiennes  de  la  Gaule.     Paris,  1850-56. 

Kraiis.     Inscriptiones  rhenanae  christianae.     Berlin,  1866  seq. 

Eusebius  Pamphili.  Opera,  recognoNit  Guilieimus  Dindorsius.  Lipsiae,  Teubner,  1867-71. 
Bibliotlieca  scriptorum  Graecoruni.  .  .  .  Another  good  edition  is: 

Eiisebius  Paviphili.  Werke.  Leipzig,  190'2-O6.  4  vols.  8vo.  —  The  works  of  Eusebius, 
especially  the  life  of  Constantine.  are  most  important  sources. 

Gregory  of  Tours  is  of  importance  as  a  source  for  the  early  architectural  history  of  France. 
His  works  are  easily  accessible  in  several  editions. 

ilss.  de  Terribilini.     (Biblioth.  Casanateiise.) 

Mss.  de  Lonigo.     (Bibl.  Barberini  et  Vallicelliana.) 

Philip  SchajJ  and  If'ace.  Select  library  of  Nicene  and  post-Nicene  fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  N.  Y.,  1890-1900.  14  vols.  8vo.  —  The  selections  in  this  valuable  collection 
have  been  most  judiciously  made. 

Eugene  Miintz.  Les  sources  d'archeologie  chretienne  dans  les  bibliotheques  de  Rome,  de 
Florence,  et  de  Milan.     (In  Melanges  d'archeologie  et  d'histoire,  1888,  p.  81-146.) 

P.  Balijjol.     Anciennes  litteratures  chretiennes.     La  litterature  grecque.     Paris,  1897. 

Zaccagni.  Catalogus  magnus  ecclesiarium  scriptorum  veterum  nova  coUectio.  Vol. 
IX.  May. 

Le  Blaut.     Manuel  d'epigraphie  chretienne.     Paris,  1869. 

Ciampini.     Vetera  monumenta  Roniana.     1690. 

Jidius  von  Schlosser.  Quellenbuch  zur  Kunstgeschichte  des  abendlandischen  Mittelalters. 
Wen,  Carl  Gra?ser,  1896.  —  Contains  selected  te.vts  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian buildings  of  Rome,  thus  making  very  easily  accessible  the  most  important  sources. 

HISTORICAL  ACCOUNTS 

Heinricli  Holtzinger.  Die  altchristliche  Architektur  in  systematischer  Darstcllung.  Form, 
Einrichtung,  und  Ausschmiickung  der  altchristlichen  Kirchen,  Baptisterien,  und  Sepulchral- 
bauten.     Stuttgart,  Von  Ebner  und  Seubert,  1889.     4to.  —  A  work  of  great  learning. 

C.  J/.  Kaufmann.  Handbuch  der  christlichen  Archaologie.  Paderborn,  Schiiningle,  1905. 
8vo. 

Henri  Iliibsch.  Monuments  de  I'architecture  chretienne  depuis  Coiistantin  jusqu'a 
Charlemagne.  1860.  —  "In  questa  ragguardevole  opera '1 'Iliibsch  si  mustra  diligeute  osserva- 
tore.  ..."     (Cattaneo.) 

W'Upert.     Principienfragen  der  christlichen  Archaologie.     1892. 

Andre  Perate.  L'archeologie  chretienne.  Bibliotheque  de  I'enseignement  des  beaux- 
arts.  Paris,  Ancienne  Maison  Quantin.  189'2.  \i°.  —  .\n  excellent  elementary  account  more 
particularly  devoted  to  the  decorative  arts  —  especially  mo.saics  —  than  to  architecture. 

J/.  V .  Scliultze.     Archaologie  der  altchristlichen  Kunst. 

Aug.  Essenuein.     Die  Ausgange  der  classischen  Baukunst.     Darmstadt,  1886. 
395 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

P.  Marchi.     Monumenti  delle  arti  cristiane  primitive. 

A.  If.  C.  Lindsay.     History  of  Christian  art. 

Kraus.     Geschichte  der  christlichen  Kun.st.     Fribourg-en-Brisgau,  1895-97. 

Gamicci.  Storia  dell' arte  cristiana,  dal  I  secolo,  al  VIII.  Prato,  1873-81.  —  "L'aiitore 
vi  scrisse  ragguardevoli  pagiiie  intorno  ai  monumenti  dei  primi  secoli."     (Cattaneo.) 

Armellini.     Lezioni  di  archeologia  cristiana.     Roma,  1898. 

Charles  Cahier.  Idee  d'une  basilique  chretienne  des  premiers  siecles.  (Annales  de  philo- 
sophie  chretienne,  1839.) 

Kohault  de  Fleury.     La  messe  et  ses  monuments.     Paris,  1882.     3  vols.     4to. 

L.  Canina.  Ricerche  sail'  architeftura  piii  propria  dei  tempii  cristiani.  Roma,  1846. 
Folio.  —  A  work  of  great  value,  especially  for  its  drawings. 

Augusti.     Denkwurdigkeiteii  aus  der  christlichen  Archiiologie.     Bd.  XI,  1831. 

Antonio  Nibby.  Delia  forma  e  tlelle  parti  tiegli  antichi  tempii  cristiani;  dissertazione  letta 
...  22  gennaio,  1824.  (In  Accademia  romana  di  archeologia,  Dissertazioni,  1825,  vol.  2, 
p.  401  seq.) 

Samelli.     Anfica  basilicograiia.     Napoli,  1686.     4to. 

Ciampini.     De  aedeficiis  a  Constantino  Magno  construetis.     Roma,  1693.     Folio. 

Pieiro  Selvatico.  Le  arti  del  disegno  in  Italia.  Storia  e  critica.  Milano,  Francesco  Val- 
lardi,  no  date.     3  vols.     4to.  —  Unreliable. 

Pieiro  Selvatico.  Storia  estetico-critica  delle  arti  del  disegno.  Lezioni  dette  nella  I.  R. 
Accademia  di  Belle  Arti  in  Venezia.  Venezia,  Pietro  Maratovich,  1856.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  Far 
inferior  to  the  same  author's  "Arti  del  disegno." 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCES 

Kraus.     Realencyklopiidie  des  christlichen  Alterthiimer.     Fribourg,  1880-86.     8vo. 

W.  P.  P.  Longjellou:  Cyclopscdia  of  architecture  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  the  Levant.  New 
York,  1895.  —  Le.ss  useful  for  the  Early  Christian  era  than  for  the  classical  period. 

Smith.     A  Dictionarj'  of  Christian  antiquities.     London,  1876-80. 

Martigny.     Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  cbrctiennes.     2me  ed.,  Paris,  1877. 

BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Bunscn.  Die  Basihken  christlichen  Ronis.  —  Gutensohn  and  Knapp's  .4tlas  is  especially 
valuable. 

Canina.  Ricerche  suU'  architettura  piii  propria  dei  tempi  cristiani.  Roma,  1846.  Folio. 
—  Most  valuable  drawings. 

ORNAMENT  AND   MOS.\ICS 

Gio.  Battista  de  Rossi.  Musaici  cristiani  e  saggi  dei  pavimenti  delle  chiese  di  Roma 
anteriori  al  secolo  XV.  Roma,  Libreria  Spithbver,  1899.  Folio.  —  A  monumental  work  of 
colossal  dimensions  with  superb  colored  plates. 

Caryl  Coleman.     Cosmati  mosaics.     (Architectural  Record,  January,  1902,  p.  202.) 

Friederich  Portheim.  Ueber  den  dekorativen  Stil  in  der  altchristlichen  Kunst.  Stuttgart, 
Spemann,  1886.     8vo.  —  An  adequate  pamphlet,  unillustrated. 

William  Cotton.  On  the  early  use  of  mosaic  and  polychrome  decorations  in  the  primitive 
Church.  (Transactions  of  the  E.xeter  Diocesan  Architectural  Society,  1856,  vol.  5,  p.  54.)  — 
Religious  rather  than  archaeological. 

Viiel.     Etudes  sur  les  mosai'ques  de  Rome.     (Etudes  sur  I'histoire  de  I'art,  lerc  serie.) 

R.  P.  Pullan.  On  the  decoration  of  basilicas  and  Byzantine  churches.  (In  Royal  Institute 
of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1875-76.) 

Gusiave  Clausse.  Basiliques  et  mosalques  chretiennes;  Italic,  Sicile.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux, 
1893.     2  vols.     8vo.  —  A  work  of  poor  scholarship,  treating  of  the  mosaics  of  Italy  at  all  periods. 

Barbel  de  Jouy.     Les  mosalques  chretiennes  de  Rome,  1863. 

Gcrspach.     La  mosaique. 

396 


B.  SPECIAL   WORKS 

Frothingham.  [Une  niosai'que  ooiistantiiiienne  inconnue  a  St.  Pierre  de  Rome.]  (Revue 
Arcliei)lof;i(iue,  1883.) 

Miira.    Lost  mosaics  of  Rome.     (American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  1890.) 

B.  BOOKS  COVERING  ONLY  CERTAIN  ASPECTS  OF  THE  FIELD 
AFRICA,'   (ALGERIA  AND  TUNISIE) 

S.  Gsell.  Rccherches  archeologiques  en  Algerie.  Paris,  1893.  8vo.  —  "Une  tres  im- 
portante  etude  sur  les  basiliques  d'Afrique."     (Enlart.) 

./.  W'iltifj.  Die  Entdeckung  zweier  altchristlichen  Basiliken  in  Tunisien.  (Riimische 
(Jiiartalschrift  fiir  christliche  Altertumskmide  und  fiir  Kirchengeschichte  XX,  1906,  p.  93.) 

ASIA   MINOR 

A'.  Baedeker.     Konstantinopel  und  das  westliche  Kleinasien. 

./o.vf/  Strzi/gowshi.  Kleinasien,  ein  Neuland  der  Kunstgeschichte.  Kirchenaufnahmen 
von  J.  W.  Crowfoot  und  J.  I.  Sueirnov.  Leipzig,  J.  C.  Hinrichs'sche  Buchhandlung.  —  Attempts 
to  derive  the  architecture  of  medieval  Europe  from  Asia  Minor. 

Petersen  und  Luschau.  Reisen  in  Lvkien.  Mcljas  und  Kebyratis.  Wien,  Karl  Gerold's 
Sohn,  1899.  —  A  great  volume  de  luxe. 

Hermann  und  Puehstein.  Reisen  in  Kleinasien  und  Nordsyrien.  Berlin,  Dietrich  Reimer, 
1890.  —  Contains  verj-  little  about  architecture. 

CHERSONESE 

D.  Ainalou:  [Die  Denkmaler  der  christlichen  Chersones.  I.  Die  Kirchenruinen.  Mos- 
kau.  190C.     4to.]  — In  Russian. 

COPTIC  ARCHITECTURE  OF  EGYPT 

Maqrize.  Description  topographique  et  historique  de  I'Egypte  —  traduite  en  franfais 
par  U.  Bouriant.  Memoires  publics  par  Ics  membres  de  la  Mission  Archeologique  Fran^aise 
au  Caire.  Tome  17.  Paris,  Ernest  Leroux,  1900.  Folio.  2  Fascicules.  —  Makes  accessible 
almost  tlie  only  documentary  source  for  Coptic  architecture. 

Alfred  J.  Butler.  The  ancient  Coptic  churches  of  Egypt.  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1884. 
2  vols.     4to.  —  The  liest  work  on  this  subject. 

Al.  Gayet.  L'art  copte.  (In  Revue  de  I'art  IV,  1898,  p.  48  seq.).  — An  excellent  brief 
article. 

Denon.     [Voyages  dans  la  Basse  et  la  Haute  figypte  en  1798-9.]    London,  1807. 

Greiille  Chester.     Notes  on  the  Coptic  DajTS  in  the  Wady  Natriin. 

GreviUe  Chester.     Notes  on  the  ancient  Christian  churches  of  ^lusr  el  Ateekah. 

Curzon.     Monasteries  of  the  Levant. 

Vansleb.    Nouvelle  relation  d'un  voyage  fait  en  Egypte.     Paris,  1698. 

ITALY 

A.Venturi.  Storia  dell' arte  italiana.  The  work  to  be  complete  in  seven  volumes.  Vol- 
ume I,  dai  premordi  dell'arte  cristiana  al  tempo  di  Giustiniano.  Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1901. 
—  Valuable  esix-cially  for  the  accessory  arts. 

Cliarles  A.  Cummings.  A  history  of  architecture  in, Italy  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
the  dawn  of  the  Rcnais.sance.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1901.  2  vols.  —  The  account 
of  the  Early  Christian  period  is  fairly  satisfactory. 

Mothes.     Die  Baukmist  des  Mittelalters  in  Italieii.     1884.     8vo. 

Okely.     Development  of  Christian  architecture  in  Italy. 

Heinrich  Wilhelm  Schulz.     Denkmaler  der  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Unter-Italien.     Dres- 

'  Sec  also  works  quoted  in  the  Roman  bibliography,  p.  395.  For  Egypt,  see  below  under 
Coptic. 

397 


EARLY   CHRISTL\N    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

den,  Eigenthum  von  W.  K.  H.  Schulz,  1860.  Folio.  4  vols,  and  Atlas.  —  A  great  work  de 
luxe,  dealing,  however,  principally  with  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods. 

Vicemo  de  Castro.  L 'Italia  monumentale,  o,  Galleria  delle  principali  fabbriche  antiche 
e  modeme  d'ltalia.     2a  edizione,  Milan,  1870.     Folio. 

Gau.    Neu  entdeckte  Denkmaler  in  Umbrien. 

E.  Forster.     Geschichte  der  italienischen  Kunst. 

C.  Boito.    Architettura  del  medio  evo  in  Italia. 

PALESTINE 

De  Vogiie.  Les  eglises  de  la  terre  sainte.  Paris,  1860.  4to.  (Also  published  in  Allge- 
meine  Bauzeitungen  for  1873.) 

C.  Dickie.  Some  Early  Christian  chiux'hes  in  Palestine.  (In  Journal  of  Royal  Institute 
of  British  Architects,  1899,  3d  series,  vol.  6,  p.  241.)  — Adequate. 

Ermete  Pierotti.  On  Jewish  and  Roman  architecture  in  Palestine  from  the  earliest  period 
to  the  time  of  the  crusades.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1861,  vol.  2,  p. 
149  seq.) 

SYRIA 

Howard  Crosby  Butler.  Architecture  and  other  arts.  Part  II  of  the  publication  of  the 
American  archieological  expedition  to  Syria  in  1899-1900.  New  York,  Century  Co.,  1903. 
Foho.  —  An  invaluable  work  describing  a  great  number  of  early  Christian  monuments  of 
Northern  and  Central  SjTia  hitherto  unknown. 

Melchior  de  Vogiie.  La  Syxie  centrale.  Architecture,  civile  et  religieuse.  Paris,  1867. 
2  vols.     Folio.  —  An  authoritative  work. 

M.  E.  Guillaume  Rey.  Voyage  dans  le  Haouran.  Paris,  Arthur  Bertand.  —  Not  especially 
important. 

E.  Saehan.     Reise  in  SjTien  and  Mesopotamien.     Leipzig,  1882. 

THE  BASILICA:   ITS  ORIGIN  .\NI?  HISTORY 

Dehio.  Die  Genesis  der  christlichen  Basilika.  (Sitzungsberichte  der  hist.  Klasse  d.  k.  b. 
Akademie  der  Wissenschaften.  Munchen,  1882,  Bd.  II.) — An  able  work,  worthy  of  all 
respect,  even  if  its  thesis  be  not  accepted. 

Hugo  Graf.  Neue  Beitrage  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  der  kreuzformigen  Basilika.  (In 
Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1892,  vol.  15,  passim.)  —  A  polemic  against  Deliio's  deriva- 
tion of  the  transept  from  the  ala.  Graf  finds  it  merely  a  logical  development  and  enlargement 
of  the  apse. 

Hugo  Graf.  Herr  Professor  Dehio  and  meine  "Neuen  Beitrage  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte 
der  kreuzformigen  Basilika."  (In  Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1894,  vol.  17,  pp.  128, 
138.) 

Heinrich  Holtzinger.  KunsthistorischeStudien.  I.  I,  ber  den  Ursprung  des  Kirchenbaues. 
Tubingen,  Franz  Fues,  1886.  8vo.  Pamphlet. — An  excellent  summary  vdth  many  biblio- 
graphical references. 

Konrad  Longe.  Haus  und  Halle.  Leipzig,  1885.  —  The  origin  of  the  basilica  is  referred 
to  the  schola.     "In  most  respects  most  excellent."     (Brown.) 

Hdtzinger.  Die  riimischen  Privatbasihka.  (Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1882, 
vol.  5.) 

E.  M.  Wheelwright.  Origin  of  the  cruciform  plan  of  the  medieval  cathedral.  (.Architec- 
tural Re\-iew,  1892,  vol.  I,  pp.  29-32.)  —  An  important  contribution  to  the  basilica  controversy. 

H.  Bogjier.  Uber  die  Emporen  in  christlichen  Kirchen  der  ersten  acht  Jahrhunderte. 
(Zeitschrift  fur  christUche  Kunst  XIX,  1906.  p.  109.) 

V.  Schultze.  Der  Ursprung  des  christhchen  Kirchengebaudes.  (Christliches  Kunstblatt, 
1882.) 

398 


B.  SPECIAL   WORKS 

Laurent.  Les  origines  <le  rarcliitpctiirc  clireticnne  ;i  Rome  et  en  Orient.  (Revue  de 
I'instniction  piiblique  en  Beljjique.     XLVIII,  1905,  p.  145.) 

./.  /'.  liirhter.     Der  Ursprunf;  <ler  alKMidliindisclien  Kircliengebaude.     Wien,  1878.     8vo. 

ShKkhaiuT.  Die  cliristliclie  Kirchenl)au  in  den  ersten  seclis  Jahrhunderten.  Regensburg, 
1874.    8vo. 

J.  P.  Rirlttcr.  Christliclie  Arcliitektiir  und  I'lastik  in  Rom  vor  Constantin  dem  Grossen. 
Jena,  Fric<ieri(li  Frommann,  187i>.     8vo.     Pamphlet.  —  A  readable  summary. 

O.  (lanlillu.     I/e  campanili  di  Ravenna.     (Rassegna  d'Arte,  190'2,  p.  161.) 

Oscar  Mutlics.  Der  Basilikenform  bei  den  Christen  der  ersten  Jahrhunderte,  ihre  Vorbilder 
und  ihre  Entwicklung.  2te  Auflage,  Leipzig,  1869.  8vo.  —  A  book  that  has  been  in  the  past 
of  great  importance  in  the  basilica  controversy. 

Reber.  Leber  die  L'rform  der  romischen  Basilika.  (Mittheilungen  der  k.  k.  centr.  Comm., 
1869.) 

Ilubsch.  Die  altchristlichen  Kirchen  nach  den  Baudenkmalern  und  alteren  Beschrei- 
bungen.     Karlsruhe,  1863.     Folio. 

A.  F.  von  Quasi.  Die  Entwicklung  der  kirchlichen  Baukunst  des  INIittelalters.  Berlin, 
Enist  &  Korn,  1859.  Pamphlet.  —  A  readable  enough  sketch  of  Quast's  well-known  \'iews  on 
this  subject. 

J.  A.  MessncT.  Leber  den  Lrsprung  der  christlichen  Basilika.  (Zeitschrift  fiir  ehristliche 
Archaologie  IL  1859.) 

IVeingdrtner.  Lrsprung  und  Entwicklung  des  christlichen  Kirchengebaudes.  Leipzig, 
1858.     8vo. 

A.  F.  van  Quasf.  Leber  Form,  Einrichtung,  und  Ausschmilckung  der  altesten  christ- 
lichen Kirchen.     Berlin,  Ernst  &  Korn,  1853.     4to.     Pamphlet.  —  A  well-known  polemic. 

A.  C.  A.  Zestermann.  Die  antiken  und  die  christlichen  Basiliken  nach  ihrer  Entstehung 
und  Beziehung  zu  einander  dargestellt  .  .  .  Bearbeitung  der  Preisschrift,  De  basilicis  libri  tres. 
Leipzig,  1847.     4to.  —  The  work  which  started  the  basilica  controversy. 

J.  A.  Messiwr.  Lber  den  Lrsprung,  die  Entwickelung,  und  Bedeutungder  Basilika  in  der 
christlichen  Baukunst.  Leipzig,  T.  O.  Weigel,  1854.  4to.  —  A  polemic  opposing  Zestermann's 
views  of  the  origin  of  the  basilica.     Not  important. 

A.  F.  mil  Quasi.  Die  Basilika  der  Alten.  Mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  auf  diejenige 
Form  derselben,  welche  der  christlichen  Kirche  zum  Vorbilde  diente.  Berlin,  1845.  8vo.  — 
A  work  well  known  in  its  day. 

Krcu.<irr.     Der  ehristliche  Kirchenbau.     Bonn,  1851.     8vo. 

A'.  L.  fon  Urlichs.  Die  Apsis  der  alten  Basiliken.  Greifswald,  1847.  8vo.  —  A  work 
which  modern  excavations  have  rendered  obsolete. 

Johannes  Burkhart.  De  origine  basilicarum  Christianarum  commentatio.  Halis  Saxo- 
rum,  1875.  —  A  worthless  dissertation  in  Latin. 

CIRCULAR  CHURCHES 

R.  Ralin.  Ueber  den  Urspruiig  und  die  Entwickelung  des  christlichen  Zentral-  und  Kup- 
pelbaues.     I-eipzig,  1866.     8vo. 

C.  E.  Isabetle.  Les  edifices  circulaires  et  les  domes.  Paris,  1855. — The  drawings  are 
valuable. 

C.  E.  Isabelle.  Parallele  des  salles  rondes  en  Italic".  Paris,  1831.  —  A  well-known  work 
whose  drawings  are  even  yet  very  valuable. 

ORIENTATION 

//.  Otle.  [On  Orientation.]  (In  Zeitscrifl  f.  chr.  Archaologie  und  Kunst  I,  32  f.  —  Hand- 
buch,  5.  S.  11  IT.) 

Alberdimjk  Thijru.     De  heilige  Linie.     Amsterdam,  1858.  —  On  orientation. 
H.  Niascn.     [Article  in  Rhein.  Museum  f.  Pliilologie,  N.  F.  XXIX,  369  f.] 

309 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

C.  MONOGRAPHS 

AFRICA 
CARTHAGE 

Sophia  Beale.  Christian  Carthage.  (Rehquary  XII,  1906,  p.  162.)  —  Contains  a  brief 
description  of  the  Christian  l>asihca. 

FfiRIANA 

Ptdmja.  Notice  sur  les  ruine.s  de  I'ancienne  ville  romaine  de  Thelepte  aupres  de  Feriana 
(Tunisie).  (In  Bulletin  Archeologique,  1885,  p.  137.)  —  An  ignorant  publication  of  most 
important  discoveries. 

PfiRIGOTVILLE  AND  TOCQUEVILLE 

Stephane  Gsell.  Satafis  (Perigotville)  et  Thamalla  (Tocqueville).  (In  Melanges  d'archeo- 
logie  et  d'histoire,  1895,  vol.  15,  p.  33  seq.)  — A  slight  publication  of  slight  remains. 

TEFACED 

Leclerc.  Les  mines  de  Tefaced  (Algerie).  (In  Revue  Archeologique  VII  =,  1850,  p.  553 
seq.)  —  Utterly  inadequate. 

FRANCE 
LYON 

Leon  Maitre.  Les  premieres  basiliques  de  Lyon  et  leurs  cryptes.  (In  Revue  de  I'art 
Chretien,  1902,  vols.  52,  53.)  —  Moderately  good. 

TOURS 

Quicherat.    [Tours.]     1869. 

GERMANY 
TRIER 

Von  WilTtwwsh/.     Der  Dom  zu  Trier.     Trier,  1874.     4fo.  and  Atlas. 

PALESTINE 
JERUSALEM 

De  Vogiie.     Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem.     Paris,  1864.     2°. 

Sepp.     Die  Felsenkuppel  eine  Justinianische  Sophienkirche.     Miinchen,  1882. 
Fergusson.     An  essay  on  the  ancient  topography  of  Jerusalem. 
Adler.     Die  Felsendom  und  die  heilige  Grabeskirche  zu  Jerusalem. 

linger.  Die  Bauten  Konstantins  am  heiligen  Grabe.  Gottingen,  1863.  S.  A.  aus  Ben- 
feys  Orient  und  Occident,  Bd.  II. 

Fergusson.    The  Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.     1865. 

ITALY 
MILAN 

P.  Rofta.     S.  Lorenzo  in  Mailand.     Milano,  1882. 

Martina  Bassi.  Dispareri  in  materia  d'architettura.  .  .  .  Bressa,  1572.  —  A  contempo- 
rary account  of  the  XVI  century  restoration  of  S.  Lorenzo,  Milan,  of  importance  for  the  study  of 
the  original  form  of  that  building. 

400 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

NAPLES 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.     [Ueber  die  Bas.  Severiaiia  in  Neapel.]     (Bull.,  1880.) 

Attonymous.  Handbook  to  Naples  and  its  environs.  Rome,  L.  I'iale,  1891.  12°.  —  Medi- 
ocre. 

Pieiro  d'Onojri.  Succinic  notizie  iutorno  alia  facciata  della  chiesa  cattedrale  napoletana. 
Napoli,  [XVIII  century].     4to.  —  Not  important  from  an  Early  Christian  standpoint. 

Gaetano  Nobile.  Deserizione  della  citta  di  Napoli  e  delle  sue  vicinanze.  Napoli,  1863. 
12°.  —  Worthless. 

Alerii  Sijmmachi  Mazochii.  Dissertatio  historica  de  cathedralis  ecclesiae  Neapolitanae. 
Neapoli,  1751.     -Ito.  —  A  Latin  treatise. 

PARENZO 

Lotide.     Ueber  den  Dom  von  Parenzo.     (In  Zeitschrift  fur  Bauwesen,  1859.) 

PERUGL\ 

Sijmonds  e  Gordon.  Perugia,  la  sua  storia,  i  suoi  monumenti;  prima  traduzione  italiana. 
Perugia,  1901.     12°. 

O.  Scahanti.     [S.  Angelo  of  Perugia.]     (Rassegna  d"Arte,  1902,  p.  53.) 

PORTO 

G.  B.  de  Rossi  e  Lanciani.     [Ueber  die  Basiliken  in  Porto.]     (Bull.,  1866.) 

RAVENNA 

The  monographs  on  Ravenna  are  so  numerous  that  they  are  listed  separately  below. 

ROME 

The  monographs  on  Rome  are  so  numerous  that  they  are  listed  separately  below,  p.  402. 

SPOLETO 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.     [Ueber  S.  Agostino  in  Spoletc]     (Bull.,  1871.) 

RAVENNA 

GENERAL  ACCOt^TS 

Corrado  Ricci.  Ravenna.  Bergamo,  Institute  ifaliano  d'arti  grafiche,  1902.  4to.  Col- 
lezione  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie  la.  Italia  artistica.  I.  Ravenna.  —  A  popular  mono- 
graph of  the  best  class  with  fine  illustrations  in  half-tone. 

Corradn  Rirci.  Ravenna  e  i  suoi  dintorni.  Ravenna,  Antonio  e  Gio.  David,  1878.  12°. 
—  An  excellent  stuily,  without  illustrations,  containing  many  extracts  from  the  original  sources. 

Charles  Diehl.  Ravenna.  Etudes  d'archeologie  byzantine.  Paris,  J.  Rouam,  1886. 
4to.  Bibliotheque  d'art  ancien.  —  A  colorless  account  of  some  of  the  well-known  facts  in  regard 
to  the  moimments  of  Ravenna. 

J.  R.  Rahii.  Ueber  die  altchristlichen  Bauten  Ravennas.  Leipzig,  1869.  8vo. — Well 
known. 

J.  R.  Rahn.  Ein  Besuch  in  Ravenna.  (In  Jahrbiicher  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1868,  vol.  1, 
pp.  163-182,  273-321.) 

R.  Lanciani.     [Ueber  die  altchristlichen  Bauten  Ravennas.]     (In  Bull.  Crist.,  1866.) 

Giuseppe  Bard.  Dei  monumenti  d'architettura  bizantina  in  Ravenna.  Traduzione  dal 
francese.     Ravenna,  Seminario,   1844.     12°.  —  Unimportant. 

A.  F.  von  Quasi.  Die  altchristlichen  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna,  von  V.  bis  IX.  Jahrhundert. 
Berlin,  1842. 

Edouard  Gerspach.  Ravenne  et  Bologne;  carnet  de  voyage.  (In  Revue  de  I'art  chretien, 
1899,  vol.  48,  p.  393  seq.) 

401 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

G.  Rossi.     Hist.  Ravenna.     Venetiis,  ex  typographia  Guerrea,  1589. 
Abbe  Crosnier.     Ravenne  et  ses  monuments.     (In  Bulletin  Monumental,  1859,  vol.  25, 
pp.  514  .seq.,  665  seq.)  —  Gossipy. 

Antonio  Zirardini.     Degli  antichi  edifizii  profani  di  Ravenna  libri  due.     Faenza,  1762.   8vo. 

ACCOUNl^  OF  PARTICULAR   BUILDINGS 

Franz  Wick-hojf.  Das  Speisezimmer  des  Bischoffs  Neon  von  Ravemia.  (In  Repertorium 
fur  Kunstwissenschaft,  1894,  vol.  17,  pp.  10-17.) 

Laiidedeo  Testi.     Intorno  ai  campanili  di  Ravenna.     (In  I'Arte,  1903,  vol.  6,  pp.  165-179.) 

J.  Durm.  Da,s  Gralimal  des  Theoderich  zu  Ravenna.  (Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende  Kunst, 
N.  F.,  Bd.  19,  1905-06,  p.  245.) 

J.  P.  Richter.  Die  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna;  Beitrag  zu  einer  kritischen  Geschichte  der 
altchristlichen  Malerei.     Wien,  1870.     8vo. 

Rohault  de  Fleury.  Note  sur  St.  Apollinaire  de  Ravenne  et  les  reprises  en  sous-oeuvre 
du  XVIe  siecle.     (In  Revue  de  I'art  chretien,  1898,  vol.  47,  pp.  198-201.) 

Rinaldo  Rasponi.  Ravenna  liberata  dai  Goti,  o,  sia  opuscolo  sulla  rotonda  di  Ravenna  pro- 
vata  edifizio  romano,  ne  mai  sepolcro  di  Teodorico  re  de  Goti.  .  .  .  Ravenna,  1766.     4to. 

Paolo  Gamba  GhiseUi.  Lettera  sopra  I'antico  edificio  di  Ravenna,  detto  volgarmente  la 
Rotonda.     Roma,  1765.     8vo. 

ROME 
SOURCES 

Liher  Pontificalis.  This  celebrated  manuscript,  published  by  Muratori  in  the  third 
part  of  his  Rerum  italicarum  scriptores,  contains  biographies  of  all  the  popes  up  to  Anas- 
tasius  (t  498).  Other  manuscripts  continue  the  list  to  Constantine  (f  714).  Guillaume  le 
Bibliothecaire  made  a  further  continuation  in  the  XII  century  (Bib.  Vat.  cod.  lat.  3762). 
—  The  work  is  important  for  many  references  to  the  construction  and  repair  of  various 
churches. 

Martyrologies.  "Le  Martyrologe  hicronyniien,  compilation  executee  en  Italic  vers  le  milieu 
du  v*  siecle,  puis  transportee  en  France,  oil  elle  fut,  vers  I'an  590,  a  Au.\erre,  I'objet  d'une  re- 
cension de  laquelle  derivent  tons  les  manuscrits  actuellement  existants.  Ces  differents  manu- 
scrits  ont  ete  classes  et  trois  d'entre  eux  integralement  pul)lies  par  Mm.  de  Rossi  et  Duchesne 
dans  le  2me  volume  de  novembre  des  Bollandistes.  Le  martyrologe  d'Asie  Mineure  nous  est 
parvenu  aussi  dans  une  traduction  syriaque  recemment  decouverte  par  Wright  dans  im  manuscrit 
de  I'an  412."  (Marucchi.)  —  Contain  important  references  to  various  Early  Christian  monu- 
ments at  Rome. 

D.  Ruinart.  Acta  primorum  martjTum  sincera  et  selecta.  —  Perhaps  the  most  accessible 
book  in  which  to  study  the  architectural  references  of  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs. 

Dujourcq.  Etude  sur  les  Gesta  martyrum  romains.  1900.  —  A  criticism  of  this  work 
by  P.  Franchi  de  Cavalieri  appeared  in  the  Nuovo  Bullettino,  1900,  pp.  205-234. 

William  of  Malmesbury.  Gesta  regum  Anglorum.  —  Includes  an  important  itinerary  of 
Rome. 

De  locis  SS.  Martyrum,  quae  sunt  foris  civitatis  Romae.  —  A  medieval  itinerary  discovered 
at  the  end  of  the  XVIII  century  in  the  hbrary  at  VViirzburg  and  published  by  Eckart.  It  is  an 
ancient  guide  more  complete  than  the  Itinerary  of  Einsiedeln.     (Marucchi.) 

Itinerary  uj  Einsiedeln,  also  known  as  Anonyme  de  MabiUon;  published  by  MabUlon, 
Vetera  analecta,  tome  IV.  —  Important. 

Lanciani.  L'itinerario  di  Einsiedeln  e  I'ordine  romano  di  Benedetto  canonico.  Roma, 
1891. 

Cencius  Camerarius.  Liber  censum.  [End  of  the  XII  century].  —  The  critical  edition  com- 
menced by  Paul  Fabre  has  been  continued  by  Mgr.  Duchesne. 

Ms.  de  Nicolas  Signorili  [sur  les  eglises  de  Rome,  dedie  au  pape  Martin  V].  (Cod.  vat. 
lat.  3536.) 

402 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.  Inscriptiones  clirisliiiiiao  iirliis  Honun',  VII  sacculo  anfiquiores.  Voliiines 
I  and  11.     Tars  I.     Romae,  1861-86. 

CapituJaria  Evangeliorum.  Publislied  by  Fronto  (Uaiiiburgi,  17i20),  Alartcne  (Thesaurus 
Ilo^^ls  ancnlotorum,  1717,  Vol.  \'),  Touia.si  (Codices  Sacraineiitorum,  1680),  and  Giorgi 
(Liturgia  rom.  pont.  Vol.  III).  —  Contains  toijograpliieal  indications. 

Notitia  ecclfsiarum  urbis  liomae.  Published  in  1777  by  llio  monks  of  St.  Emmerau  at 
Salzburg,  but  there  is  a  better  publication  by  De  Rossi. 

Sacramentarics.  I.  Ix'oiiian.  Roman,  VI  century.  Published  by  Bianchini  (1735),  by 
the  brothers  Hallerini  in  the  works  of  St.  Leo,  and  by  Muratori  in  I,iturgia  romana  vetus  (1748). 
II.  Gclasian,  French,  of  the  VI  and  VIII  centuries,  published  by  Tomasi  in  Codices  Sacremeut- 
oruin  (1680)  and  by  Muratori  in  Liturgia  Romana  vetus  (1748).  III.  Gregorian.  —  These 
books  of  ritual  contain  some  topograpliical  indications,  but  arc  useful  principally  for  the  study  of 
church  furniture,  etc. 

Albtrto  Reimaro.  Abgebildetes  neues  Romm,  darinncti  die  heutc  verhandene  Kirchen, 
Palliiste,  Gebawe,  Gemahlde  .  .  .  auss  dem  italienischen  ins  Iiochteudsche  .  .  .  iibcrsetzt. 
Arnhem,  1662. 

Itinerary  of  John  the  Priest.  —  An  important  source,  being  a  catalogue  of  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs  in  Rome  visiteil  by  the  messenger  of  Queen'  Theodelinda.  Published  by  ]\larini,  I 
papiri  diploniaticchi  raccolti  ed  illistrati.     (Rome,  ISOo.) 

Dartein.  Le  rovine  de  Roma.  Studi  del  Bramantino  (Bartolomeo  Suardi).  IMilano, 
Mongeri,  1875.  4to.  —  "Raccolta  di  disegni,  tra  eui  di  parecchi  edificie  a  pianta  centrale  non 
pill  esistenti"  (Venturi).  "Sehr  intcressante  Grundris.saut'nahnien  von  meist  nicht  mehr  beste- 
henden  Zentralbauten."     (Dehio.) 

Codex  Palatimts  of  Heidelberg  (vat.  ms.,  833).  A  collei'tioii  of  inscriptions  copied  in  the 
XI  century. 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.     II  museo  epigrafico  cristiano  pio-lateranense.     Ronia,  1878. 

/..  Durhesne.  Notes  sur  la  topographic  de  Rome  au  moyen-age.  (In  Melanges  d'archeo- 
logie  et  d'histoire,  1886,  pp.  25-37,  1889.  1890.) 

L.  Duchesne.  Les  legendes  chretiennes  de  I'Aventin.  (In  Melanges  de  I'ficole  Franfaise, 
tome  X,  et  le  Bulletin  critique,  1889,  p.  263.) 

Bruzio.    Theatnun  Romanae  urbis.     [XVII  century].  —  In  the  archives  of  the  Vatican. 

Joachim  von  Sandart.     Romae  antiquae  et  novae  theatrum.     Norimbergae,  1684.     Folio. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

E.  Calvi.  Bibliografia  geiierale  di  Roma.  Vol.  I.  Bibliografia  di  Roma  nel  medio  evo. 
(476-1499).     Roma,  E.  Loescher  e  Co.,  1900.     8vo. 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTIONS 

Horace  Marucchi.  Elements  d'archeologie  chretienne.  Paris  and  Rome,  Desclee  Le- 
febre  et  Cie.,  1902.  4to.  3  vols.:  I.  Notions  generales.  II.  Itineraire  des  catacombes.  III. 
Basiliques  et  eglises  de  Rome.  —  This  work,  scholarly  and  exhaustive,  yet  clear  and  concise, 
should  be  in  the  hand  of  every  student  of  Early  Christian  art. 

R.  Landani.  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome.  Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.,  1893.  —  A  gossipy  account,  but  of  value. 

R.  Landani.     The  destruction  of  aiK'ient  Rome. 

Bunsen,  GuttensGhn,  und  Knapp.  Die  Basiliken  des  christlichen  Roms.  Stuttgart  und 
Miinchen,  1822  und  1843.     4to  und  2'^.  —  The  drawings  are  of  great  value. 

A.  de  Waal.  Roma  Sacra.  Die  ewige  Stadt  in  ihren  christlichen  Denkmaler  und  Erin- 
nerungen  alter  und  neuer  Zeit.     Miinchen,  Allgemeine  Verlags-  Gesellschaft,  1905.     8vo. 

£mUe  Bertaux.  Rome.  Des  catacombes  a  Jules  11.  (Villes  d'art  celebres  series.)  Paris, 
Laurens.     4to. 

E.  Plainer,  C.  Bunsen,  et  als.  Besehreibung  der  Stadt  Rom.  Stuttgart  und  Tubingen, 
1829-42.     3  vols.     8vo. 

403 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Marchi.  1  monumenti  delle  arti  cristiane  primalive  nella  nietropoli  del  cristianesimo. 
Boma,  1844. 

Charles  Isidore  Hemans.  Historic  and  monumental  Rome.  A  handbook  for  the  stu- 
dents of  classical  and  Christian  antiquity  in  the  Italian  capital.  London  and  Edinburgh,  Wil- 
liam and  Norgatcs,  1874.  4to.  —  Contains  a  chapter  on  illustrative  literature  —  otherwise 
the  work  is  of  little  value. 

Nibby.     Roma  nel  1838.     Part  I.     Roma  moderna. 

John  Henry  Parker.  The  arch;pology  of  Rome.  London,  John  Murray,  1879.  Svo. 
12  vols.:  I.  The  primitive  fortifications.  IL  The  walls  and  gates  of  Rome.  III.  The  histor- 
ical construction  of  walls.  IV.  The  twelve  Egyptian  obelisks.  V.  The  Forum  Romanum  et 
Magnum.  VI.  The  Via  Sacra.  VII.  The  Colosseum  at  Rome.  IX  and  X.  Tombs  in  and 
near  Rome.  Mythology  in  funeral  sculpture  and  Early  Christian  sculpture.  XI.  Church  and 
altar  decorations  in  Rome.  XII.  The  Catacombs.  XIII  and  XIV.  Early  and  medieval  castles : 
the  Temple  of  Rome  and  the  marble  plan  of  Rome.  —  Well  meaning,  but  not  a  work  that  will 
be  found  particularly  helpful. 

Francis  Wey.    Rome.    New  York,  Appleton  &  Co.,  1872.    Folio.  —  A  tiresome  description. 

Rev.  Stephan  Weston.  Viaggiana;  or  detached  remarks  on  the  buildings,  pictures,  statues, 
inscriptions,  etc.,  of  ancient  and  modern  Rome.     London,  1790.     12°.  —  Quite  worthless. 

Anonymous.  Rome:  histoire  de  ses  monuments.  Citeaux,  Imprimerie  St.  Joseph,  1890. 
Svo.  —  "Ce  livre  est  destine  tout  specialement  a.  la  jeunesse." 

BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Luigi  Rossini.  L'antichitii  romane  devise  in  cento  tavole.  Roma,  1819-23.  Folio. 
No  title-page  or  text.  —  Grand  Niews  in  the  style  of  Piranese  esf)ecially  valuable  for  drawings 
of  S.  Paolo,  f.l.m.  executed  before  the  reconstruction  but  after  the  fire  of  1823. 

Turconi.  Fabbriche  antiche  di  Roma.  Milano,  Tipografia  Molino,  1857.  Folio.  —  Good 
drawings  of  Sta.  Costanza  and  S.  Stefono  Rotondo. 

Vasi.     Delle  magnificenze  di  Roma  antica  e  nioderna  .  .  .  disegnate  ed  incise  in  rame 
.  .  .  con  una  spiegazione  istorica  di  tutte  le  cose  notabili  composta  dal  G.  Bianchini.     Roma, 
1747-61.     10  vols.  —  A  very  famous  work  in  its  day.     Some  of  the  engra\ings  are  good. 

[Dominique  Magnan.]  La  ville  de  Rome.  Rome,  Archange  Casaletti,  1778.  Folio.  4 
vols.  —  Many  fair  woodcuts. 

Arumymous.  Raccolta  di  320  vedute  si  antiche  che  modeme  della  citta  di  Roma.  Roma, 
Agapito  Franzetti  a  Torsanguigna,  [c.  1780?].  —  A  collection  of  small  and  mediocre  engravings 
of  Rome  ancient  and  modem. 

Domenico  Pronti.  Nuova  raccolta  di  100  vedutine  antiche  della  citta  di  Roma.  Roma, 
Presso  il  sud°,  1795.     2  vols.     4to.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  mediocre  engra\ings. 

Giovanni  Cassini.  Nuova  raccolta  delle  megliori  vedute  antiche  e  moderne  di  Roma. 
Soma,  1775.     Folio.  —  A  collection  of  small  and  poor  engra\'ings. 

GUIDE-BOOKS  > 

Horace  ilarucchi.  Le  Forum  Romain  et  le  Palatin.  Paris  et  Rome,  Desclee  Lefebre 
et  Cie.,  1902.  Svo.  (For  eariier  editions,  see  Roman  bibliography.)  —  An  ideal  guide-book 
with  bibliography.     The  account  of  Sta.  Maria  Antiqua  is  especially  valuable. 

M.  A.  R.  Tucker.     Handbook  to  Christian  and  ecclesiastical  Rome. 

Anonymous.  Nouvelle  description  de  Rome  et  des  environs  d'apres  les  ouvrages  de  Nibby, 
Vasi,  etc.     Rome,  S.  Piale,  1854.     2  vols.     12°.  —  A  guide  excellent  in  its  day,  now  out  of  date. 

Jeremiah  Donovan.  Rome,  ancient  and  modern,  and  its  environs.  Rome,  Crispino 
Puccinclli,  1842.     4  vols.     Svo.  —  A  very  copious  guide-book,  now,  of  course,  behind  the  times. 

Humphreys  and  Cooke.  Rome  and  its  surrounding  scenery.  London,  Charles  Tilt,  1840. 
4to.  —  Half  guide,  half  book  of  travel. 

'  See  also  Roman  bibliography,  p.  384. 
404 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

A.  Nibby.  Itinorario  ili  Roma  e  delle  sue  vicinanze  .  .  .  secondo  il  metodo  di  M.  Vasi. 
...  3a  edizione,  Rome,  Arelie,  18;!0.     2  vols.     12°.  —  In  its  day  an  excellent  guide. 

('.  Fea.  Description  de  Rome  traduite  de  I'ltalien  et  .  .  .  publiee  par  A.  Bonelli,  Rome, 
18'21.     3  vols.      l'^".  —  .\  guidc-lKKik  whose  day  of  usefulness  lias  passetl. 

G.  B.  Cipriani.  l)ef;li  edifi<i  antichi  e  moderni  di  Roma  veduti  in  contorno.  Roma,  1817. 
2  vols. 

J.  Salmon.  .\n  historical  description  of  ancient  and  modem  Rome.  London,  J.  Taylor, 
1800.  —  The  illustrations  are  small. 

Pietro  liossini.  II  Mercuric  errante.  Roma,  Fausto  Amidei,  1750.  24°.  —  An  early 
guide-book. 

Ationymoiis.  Roma  antica  e  moderna.  Roma,  Niccola  Roisecco,  1745.  3  vols.  12°. 
—  A  guide-lKK)k  with  inaccurate  enf;ravings. 

Franfois  Leon.  Les  merveilles  de  la  ville  de  Rome  ou  est  traite  des  eglises,  stations,  et  re- 
liques  des  corps  des  saints,  etc.  Rome,  Jean  Francois  de  Buagni,  1690.  12°.  —  One  of  the  very 
earliest  of  the  guide-books,  illustrated  with  inaccurate  engravings. 

THE  SE\^N   B.ASILICAS 

Marie-Theodore  de  Bussierre.  I^es  sept  basiliques  de  Rome.  Paris,  Jacques  Lecoffre 
et  Cie.,  1846.     2  vols.     8vo.  —  Out  of  date. 

ValeiUine.     Le  basiliche  sante  di  Roma.     Roma,  1843. 
Severano.    Le  sette  ehiese.     [XVI  century.] 
Panmnio.     De  septem  urbis  ecclesiis.     [XVI  century.] 

THE  STATIONS 

Piazza.  Eorterologio,  ovvero  le  sacre  stazioni  romane.  [XVII  century.]  —  A  reprint 
appeared  in  Rome,  1858. 

Ugonio.     Historia  delle  stationi  di  Roma.     1588. 

ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE   CATACOMBS 

G.  B.  de  Ros.ii.  La  Roma  sotteranea  cristiana.  Roma,  1864-77.  3  vols.  Folio.  —  A 
monumental  work  on  the  catacombs. 

Boldetti.  Osservazioni  sopra  i  cimiteri  de'santi  martiri  ed  antichi  cristiani  di  Roma.  Roma, 
1720. 

ORATORY  OF  THE  BATHS  OF  TITUS 

Trojano  Maridli.  Lettera  al  Sig.  Duca  di  Ventignano,  Cesare  della  Valle,  sopra  un  antica 
capella  cristiana  scoperta  di  fresco  in  Roma  nelle  terme  di  Tito.     Napoli,  1813.     12°. 

COLUMN  OF  PHOCAS 

F.  M.  Niclwls.  Revised  history  of  the  Column  of  Phocas  in  the  Roman  Forum.  (In 
Archxologia,  vol.  52,  p.  183  seq.) 

S.  AGATA  DEI  GOTI 

Marwchi.     S.  Agata  dei  Goti.     (In  Giornale  arcadico,  1891.) 

Fioraianle.     Diaconia  S.  Agathae  in  suburba  descripta  illustrata.     Roma,  1638. 

S.  .\N.\STASLV 

Duchesne.     Sainle  Anastasie.     (In  Melanges  de  I'ficole  Fran^aise,  1887,  p.  387  seq.) 
Crescimbene.     Istoria  della  basilica  di  S.  Anastasia.     Roma,  1722. 

SS.  BONIFAZIO  E  ALESSIO 

Lugari.  S.  Bonifazio  e  S.  Alessio  sull'  Aventino.  (In  Atti  della  pontificia  accademia  di 
archeologia,  1893.) 

405 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nerini.     De  templo  ?t  copiitibio  Ss.  Bonifacii  et  Alexii.     Roma,  1752. 

S.  CLEMENTE 

Mullovhj.    St.  Clement  pope  and  martyr  and  his  l)asilica  in  Rome.     2d  edition,  1873. 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.     [S.  Clemente.]     (In  Bulletino  Cristiano.) 

Roller.    [S.  Clemente.]     1873. 

Rondiniiii.     De  S.  Ciemente  papa  et  martyre  ejusque  basilica  in  urbe.     Roma,  1706. 

SS.  COSIVLV  E  DAMIANO 

Poma.     I>a  diaconale  basilica  dei  Ss.  Cosma  e  Damiano  nel  Romano  Foro.     Roma,  1727. 

SS.   FELICE  ED  ADANTTO 

0.  Marucchi.     II  cimiterio  de  Commodella  e  la  basilica  cimiteriale  dei  Ss.  Felice  ed  Ad- 
antto  \\\  recentemente  scoperta.     (Nuovo  Bull,  de  Arch.  Cris.  X,  1904.) 

S.  GIOVANNI-AVANTI-ALLA-PORTA-LATINA 

Crescimhene.     Istoria  dclla  cliiesa  di  S.   Giovanni-avanti-alla-porta-Ijatina.     Rome,   1716. 

S.  GIOVANNI  IN   lATERANO 

Rohault  de  Fleury.     \/t  Lateran  au  moyeu  age.     Paris,  1877.     8vo.  and  Folio. 
Valentine.     [Le    I,ateraii.]     1832-34. 

S.  LORENZO  IN   DAMASO 

Fonseca.     De  basilica  S.  Laurentii  in  Damaso.     Fano,  1745. 

Botdo.     La  pieta  trionfante  su  le  distrutte  grandezze  del  gentilesimo  nella  magnifica  fon- 
dazione  dell'insigne  basilica  di  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.     Roma,  1729. 

S.  MARCO 

Bartolini,    I-a  sotterrancfi  confessio  della  romaiia  liasilica  di  S.  Marco.     Roma,  1844. 

STA.  MARL\  ANTIQUA 

Rushjort.    S.  Maria  Antiqua.     1902. 

J.  C.  Egbert.    Sancta  Maria  Antiqua.     (Records  of  the  past,  1906,  vol.  5,  p.  131.) 
Marucchi.     T-a  chiesa  de  S.  Maria  Antiqua  (In  Nuovo  Bull,  di  Arch.  Cris.,  1900,  no.  3^.) 
Duchesiw.     I>e  Forum  Chretien.     1899. 

STA.  MARIA  IN  AQUIRO 

Impieri.    Memorie  della  chiesa  di  S.  Maria  in  Aquiro.     Roma,  1866. 

STA.  MARLV  IN  ARA  COELI 

Casimiro.    Memorie  istoriche  della  cliiesa  e  convento  di  S.  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli.     Roma, 
1845. 

STA.  ]\LA.RIA  MAGGIORE 

De  Angelis.    [Sta.  Maria  Maggiore.]     1621. 

STA.  MARIA  IN  COSMEDIN 

Ciovencde.    I>a  basilica  di  Sancta  Maria  in  Cosmedin.     (.\nnuario  dell'  associazione  artis- 
tica  ...  in  Roma,  Aimo  V.) 

STA.  MARLV  IN  MONTICELLI 

Piselli.    Notizie  istoriche  della  cliiesa  di  S.  Maria  in  Monticelli.     Montefiascone,  1719. 
406 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

STA.  MARIA  IN  TRIVIO 

Marucchi.     Una  meraoria  di  Bclisario  e  la  distruzione  <li  una  chiesa  storica.     Roma,  1889. 

STA.  MARIA  IN  VIA   L.\TA 

Hartman.     Ecclesiae  S.  Mariae  in  via  Lata  tabularium.     Vienna,  1895. 
L.  Cavazzi.     S.  Maria  in  via  Lata  e  le  recenti  scoperte  nel  suo  antico  oratorio.     (Nuovo 
Bulletino  di  Arclieologia  Cristiana,  Vol.  2,  1905.) 

STA.  PETRONILLA 

G.  B.  cle  Rossi.     [Sta.  Petronilla.]  (Bull.,  1874,  1875.) 

S.   PIETRO 

Letarouilly.     [St.  Pcter'.s.]     1878-82. 
Foidana.     Templum  Vaticanum.     1694. 
Bonanno.    Templi  Vaticani  historia. 
Cancelliere.     [St.  Peter's.]     1786. 
Valentini.     [St.  Peter's.]     1845-55. 

S.   PIETRO   IN   VINCOLI 

Monsacraii.     De  cantenis  S.  Petri.     1750. 

Palmieri.     Notizie  istoriche  delle  s.  cantene  di  S.  Pietro.     1846. 

STA.   PUDENZIANA 

G.  B.  de  Rossi.     [Sta.  Pudenziana.]     (Bull.,  1864,  1807-69.) 


STA.  SLMFOROSA 

Stevenson.     [Sta.  Simforosa.]    (In  Studii  in  Italia,  1878.) 

SS.   QUATRO  CORONATI 

Mammolo.     Vita  e  chiesa  e  reliquie  dei  Ss.  Quatro  Coronati.     Roma,  1757. 

S.  SALVATORE  IN  ONDA 

Orlmidi.     Memorie  storiche  della  chiesa  di  S.  Salvatore  in  Onda.     Roma,  1881. 

S.  SILVESTRO  IN  CAPITE 

Giachetti.  Historia  della  venerabile  chiesa  e  nionastero  di  S.  Silvestro  de  Capite.  Roma, 
1629. 

CarletH.  Memorie  istorico-critichedella  chiesa  e  nionastero  di  S.  Silvestro  in  Capite.  Roma, 
1795. 

SYRIA 
BA'ALBEK 

O.  Pwhstein.  Erster  Jahresljericht  iiljer  die  Ausgrahungen  in  Ba'albek.  (In  Jahrbuch 
des  kaiserlich  deufschen  archaologischen  Instituts  XVI,  1901,  p.  133.)  —  Important. 


407 


BYZANTINE  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  GENERAL  WORKS 
SOURCES 

Jean  Paul  Richter.  QueUen  der  byzantiniscfaen  Kunstgeschichte.  Ausgewahlte  Teste 
fiber  die  Kirchen,  KJcister,  Palaste,  Staatsgel«ude  und  andere  Bauten  ron  Konstantinopel. 
Wien,  Verlag  von  Cari  Graeser,  1S97.  Svo.  In  Quellenschriften  fur  Kunsrtgeschichte.  Neue 
Folge,  VIII.  Band.  —  Indispensable  for  the  serious  student  of  Byzantine  Architecture.  With 
Unger's  work  it  makes  accessible  all  the  principal  passages  of  Byzantine  authors  dealing  with 
the  history  of  architecture. 

Friedrich  Tf'ilhdm  I'ngrr.  Quellen  der  byzantinischen  Kunstgeschichte.  Ausgezo^n 
und  vibersetzt.  Wien.  Wilhelm  Braumiiller.  1ST8.  Svo.  Vol.  XII  of  series  Quellenschriften 
fur  Kunstgeschichte.  —  The  passages  of  the  Byzantine  authors  bearing  on  art  history  are  grouped 
together  and  translated  into  German.  An  adequate  bibUography  is  included.  This  is  a  valu- 
able work,  especially  when  used  in  conjunction  with  Richter. 

CharU-t  Dvcangr.  Constantinopolis  cristiana.  Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  16S0.  —  Ducajjge 
•was  the  first  to  work  out  the  sources  for  the  historr  of  the  building  of  Hagia  Sophia.  Later 
writers  have  founded  their  work  largely  on  this  book,  which,  however,  contains  several  inaccu- 
racies, and  has  to  a  certain  extent  been  superseded  by  the  works  of  Richter  and  Unger. 

Procopius.  Opera.  Ex  recensione  Guilielmi  Dindorfii.  Bonnte.  Impen.sis  Ed.  Weberi, 
ISSS.  3  vols.  Svo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae,  vols.  18-iO.  —  The  works  of 
Procopius  are  all  valuable  sources  for  architectural  history.  E^sjjedally  the  De  £dificiis,  a 
work  devoted  exclusively  to  the  buildings  of  Justinian,  gives  precious  information  for  the 
history  of  buildings  that  have  survived,  and  descriptions  of  many  that  have  perished.  An 
English  translation  by  Aubrey  Stewart  has  been  published  under  the  title :  —  Of  the  Buildings 
of  Justinian  (drc.  560  a.d.).  Annotated  by  Col.  Sir.  C.  W.  Wilson,  K.  C.  M.  G.  and  Prof. 
Hayter  Lewis.  London,  Palestine  Pilgrims  Text  Society,  1886.  —  This  translation,  although 
occasionally  misleading,  may  prove  of  help  to  the  student  unfamiliar  with  medieval  Greek. 

Procopiut.  The  secret  history  of  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Justinian.  Faithfully  ren- 
dered into  English.     London,  printed  for  John  Barkesdale,  1C74.     12°.  —  Very  rare. 

Pauli  Silentiariu  Descriptio  S.  Sophiae  et  ambonis.  Ex  recognitione  Immanuelis  Bek- 
keri.  BonnsE.  Imf»ensis  Ed.  Weberi,  1837.  Svo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae, 
vd.  32.  With  a  Latin  translation  by  Ducange,  and  a  valuable  Latin  essay  by  the  same 
author  on  the  three  descriptions  in  Procopius,  Agathias,  and  Paulus  Silentiarius.  —  The  work 
of  Paulus  Silentiarius  consists  of  two  Greek  poems,  one  of  1029  lines  on  the  church  itself,  the  other 
of  30i  lines  on  the  ambos.  Both  are  important.  There  is  a  German  metrical  translation  of 
certain  parts  pubhshed  by  Salzenberg  in  his  Alichristliche  BaudenkmaUr  von  Konstantinopel, 
and  reprinted  by  Richter. 

Agathias.  Historiarum  [552-55S]  libri  V  cum  versione  latina  et  annotationibus  Bon.  Vul- 
canii.  B.  S.  Xiebuhrius.  .  .  .  Graeca  reoensuit.  Accedunt  Agathiae  epigrammata.  Bonnae, 
1828.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae,  vol.  1.  —  Agathias  contains  a  description  of 
Hagia  Sophia  which  it  is  interesting  to  compare  with  those  of  Procopius  and  Paulus  Silenti- 
arius. An  easily  obtained  partial  edition  of  Agathias  is:  Ausziige  aus  Agathias  Hislorien. 
(Die  Geschichtschreiber  der  deutschen  Vorzeit,  1885,  6tes  Jahrhundert,  vol.  3,  pp.  327-337.) 

Theophanes    Isauna.     Chronogiaphia,    ex    recensione   loannis    Oasseni.    Bonnae,   Ed. 

408 


A.  GENERAL 

Weberi,  1839-41.  2  vols.  8vo.  In  Corpus  scriptorura  historiae  Bvzantinae,  vok.  39,  40. 
There  are  also  several  other  editions.  —  This  work  is  a  source  of  some  importance  for  Hagia 
Sophia,  since  it  preserves  certain  facts,  apparently  copied  from  earUer  authors  now  lost  to  us. 

Ammymiu  Banduri.  Imperium  orientale  sive  antiquitates  Constantinopolitanae.  Parisiis, 
1711.  Pars  tertia,  .\nonymus  de  S.  Sophia.  —  \  secondary  source  for  Hagia  Sophia  and  the 
history  of  its  building.  In  many  ways  unreliable,  but  occasionally  valuable  for  information 
apparently  derived  from  earlier  authors  now  lost  to  us. 

■Georgius  Codinug  Curopalates.  Excerpta  de  antiquitatibus  Constantinopolitanis  ex  recog- 
nitione  Immanuel  Bekkeri.  Bonnae,  1843.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae, 
vol.  46.  —  .\n  author  of  the  XV  century  and  a  secondary  source  of  some  importance  for  Byzan- 
tine art  histon,-. 

Georgius  Codinus  Curopalates.  De  ofEcialibus  palatii  Cosmopolitani  et  de  officiis  magnae 
ecdesiae  liber  (with  Jacob  Gretser's  translation  and  commentary  in  Latin).  E.x  recognitione 
Imnianuelis  Bekkeris.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1837.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  By- 
zantinae, vol.  37.  —  An  author  of  the  XV  centiiry  and  a  secondary  source  for  Byzantine  art  his- 
tory. 

Georgiiui  Cedrenus.  Poannis  Srylitzae  ope  ab  Immanuehs  suppletus  et  emendatus. 
Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1838-39.  2  vols.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae,  vols. 
54,  35.  —  .\n  XI  century  author  and  secondary  source  of  some  importance. 

Zonaras.  Annates.  E.x  recensione  Mauricii  Pinderi,  with  Latin  translation.  Bonnae, 
Ed.  Weberi,  1841-44.  2  vols.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae,  vols.  42,  43.  —  This 
edition  is  incomplete,  giving  only  12  books  of  the  18,  but  I  know  of  no  other  generally  accessible. 
Zonaras  is  a  source  of  secondary  importance  for  Hagia  Sophia. 

Chronicon  Paschale,  ad  e.xamplar  vaticanum  recensuit  L.  Dindorfius.  With  Latin  trans- 
lation and  notes  by  Ducange.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1832.  2  vols.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptonmi 
historiae  Byzantinae,  vols.   16,   17.  —  .\n  architectural  source  of  importance. 

Comheiis.  Originum  rerumque  Constantinopolitanarum  variis  auctoribus  manipulus. 
Paris,  1664.  —  A  secondary  source  for  Hagia  Sophia. 

NicejJiorus  Callistus  Xantkopidus.  Ecclesicae  historiae,  hbri  18  .  .  .  studio.  ...  J. 
Langi  .  .  .|e  Graeco  in  Latinum  sermonem  translati.  .  .  .  Francof,  Sigismudi  Feyerabendej, 
1588.  —  A  •TVI  century  author  and  source  of  secondary  importance  for  Byzantine  art  history. 

1  know  of  no  other  edition  than  this  Latin  translation. 

Gyllius.  De  Constantinopoleos  topographia.  Lugduni  Batav.,  1571-72  and  1632.  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  John  Ball,  under  title,  "The  antiquities  of  Constantinople."  Lon- 
don, 1729.  12°.  —  Valuable  information  as  to  the  condition  of  the  buildings  of  Constantinople 
in  the  X\TI  century. 

Euiychius.  This  valuable  authority  is  generally  accessible  only  in  a  Latin  version,  known 
as  "Pocock's  Translation."     Oxford,  1658. 

Michael  Glycas.  Annates.  Recognovit  Immanuel  Bekkerus.  Latin  translation  by 
Johann  Lijwenklau.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1836.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae, 
vol.  27.  —  A  XII  century  author  and  secondary  source. 

Joannes  ilalala.  Chronograpliia.  Ex  recensione  Ludovici  Dindorfii.  With  Latin  trans- 
lation. Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1831.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae.  —  A  VJl 
century  writer  and  a  source  of  some  importance  for  architectural  history. 

Evagrius  Scholasticug.  Opera.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1837.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptorum 
historiae  Byzantinae.  —  \  source  for  Hagia  Sophia.  EBglish  translation  under  title:  Evagrius 
Scholasticus.  Ecclesiastical  historic.  (In  Ilanmer  Meredith  ed.  .\uncient  ecdesiasticall  his- 
tories, 1619.) 

Photius.     \(^4ut  irvyayarf-^  e  codice   Galeano   descripsit    R.   Porsonus.     London,   1822. 

2  vols.  8vo.  —  A  IX  century  author  and  a  source  of  some  importance,  especially  for  Hagia 
Eirene. 

Mnreellinus  Comes.  Chronicon.  (In  Migne,  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series 
I.atina,  1861,  vol.  51,  col.  913-948.)  —  .\  V  century  work  with  a  few  architectural  references. 

409 


BYZANTINE   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Socrates  ScJiulastieus.  llistoria  ecclesiastica.  H.  Valesius,  emendavit  Lat.  vertit  et  anno- 
tationibus  illustravit.  Mogimtiae,  1G77.  Folio.  An  English  translation  was  published  in 
1619  by  Hanmer  Meredith.  —  A  IV  century  author  and  source  of  slight  importance  for  the 
early  history  of  certain  Byzantine  churches. 

Nicephorun  Patriarchus.  Breviarura  rerum  post  Mauricium  gestarum.  With  Latin  trans- 
lation and  notes  by  Denis  Petau.  Recognovit  Ininianiiel  Bekkerus.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi, 
1837.  8vo.  Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae,  vol.  Si.  —  A  IX  century  work  con- 
taining notices  of  the  repairs  executed  in  Hagia  Sophia. 

Constantine  VII  Flavins  Porphyrogenitus.     Historia  de  vita  et  rebus  gestis  Basilii  .  .  . 
imperatoris,  with  Latin  translation.     Corpus  scriptorum  historiae  Byzantinae.  —  Contains  an 
account  of  the  restoration  of  Hagia  Sophia. 

Leo  Grammaticus.  Chronographia  ex  recognitione  Immanuelis  Bekkeri.  Accedit  Eusfafrii, 
de  capta  Thessalonica  liber.  With  Latin  translation.  Bonnae,  Ed.  Weberi,  1842.  8vo. 
Corpus  scriptorum  liistoriae  Byzantinae,  vol.  44.  —  An  XI  century  author  and  source  of  second- 
ary importance. 

Suidas.  Lexicon  Graece  et  Inline;  ad  fidem  optimorum  libronmi  exactum  post  Thomam 
Gaisfordum  recensuit  et  annotatione  critica  instru.\it.  Halis,  Godofredus  Bernhardy,  1852-53. 
2  vols.     4to. 

Justinianus.  Corpus  juris  civilis  novellae  constitutiones.  —  Certain  passages  in  this  well 
known  legal  code  bear  on  the  history  of  buildings  in  Constantinople. 

HISTORICAL  ACCOUNTS 

Hiibsch.  Die  altchristlichen  Kirchen.  Carlsruhe,  1862.  Great  folio.  —  A  standard  work, 
especially  notable  for  the  numerous  drawings  with  which  it  is  illu.strated. 

F.  A.  Clioisy.  L'art  de  liatir  chez  les  Byzantins.  Paris,  1883.  Folio.  —  The  authori- 
tative work  on  Byzantine  construction. 

Teiier  et  PuUan.  L'architecture  byzantine,  ou  Recueil  des  monuments  des  premiers 
temps  du  christianisme  en  Orient,  precede  de  recherches  historiques  et  archeologiques.  Trans- 
lated into  English  under  title:  Byzantine  architecture,  or  Collection  of  buildings  of  the  earliest 
times  of  Christianity  in  the  East:  preceded  by  historical  and  archaeological  investigations.  Lon- 
don, Day  &  Son,  18G4. 

Charles  Diehl.     Etudes  byzantines.     Paris,  Picard,  1905.     8vo. 

Jose]  Durm.  Handbuch  der  Architektur.  Zweiter  Theil.  Die  Baustile.  3.  Band,  1. 
Hiilfte.  Die  Ausgange  der  classischen  Baukunst  (Christlicher  Kirchenbau).  Die  Fortsetzung 
der  classischen  Baukunst  im  ostromischen  Reiche  (Byzantinische  Baukunst).  Von  Dr.  August 
Essenwein.     Darmstadt,  Arnold  Bergstrasser,  1886.     8vo.  —  An  adequate  account. 

Heinrich  Iloltzinger.  Die  altchristliche  Architektur  in  systeniatischer  Darslellung. 
Form,  Einrichtung  and  Ausschmiickmig  der  altchristlichen  Kirchen,  Baptisterien  und  Sepul- 
cralbauten.     Stuttgart,  Ebner   &  Seubert,  1889.     4to.  —  A  work  of  great  learning. 

G.  T.  Rivoira.  Le  origini  della  architettura  lombarda  e  dclle  sue  principali  derivazioni 
nei  paesi  d'oltr'alpe.  Roma,  Ernianno  Ixiescher  e  Co.,  1901-7.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  An  important 
work  dealing  in  part  with  Byzantine  architecture. 

William  P.  P.  Longfellow.  A  cyclopedia  of  works  of  architecture  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  tlie 
Levant.     New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1895.     Folio.  —  A  handy  book  of  reference. 

C.  Bayet.  L'art  byzanlin.  Paris,  A.  Quantin,  [1883].  12°.  Bibliotheque  de  I'enseigne- 
ment  des  beaux-arts.  —  An  excellent  primer,  but  poorly  illustrated.     In  part  on  architecture. 

Ludirig  von  Sybel.  Weltgeschichte  der  Kunst  bis  zur  Erbauung  der  Sophienkirche. 
Marburg,  N.  G.  Elwert,  1888.  —  An  excellent  elementary  work,  in  small  part  on  Byzantine  Archi- 
tecture. 

George  Aitchison.  Byzantine  architecture.  (Li  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects, 
Transactions,  1892,  New  Series,  vol.  8.)  —  A  good  account. 

Sante  Sinione.  L'arcliitettura  bisantina.  1880.  8vo.  —  A  sane  and  brief  account  witli- 
out  illustrations. 

410 


B.  MONOGRAPHS 

Edirin  Freshfield.  On  Byzantine  chnrches  and  tlie  modifications  made  in  their  arrange- 
ments owing  to  tlu"  necessities  of  tlie  Greek  ritual.  (In  Arcli.Tolofiia,  1873,  vol.  42,  p.  383  seq.) 
■ — A  misleading  attempt  to  .show  that  all  three  apsed  churches  are  posterior  to  the  time  of  Justin  II. 

L.  ('.  L.  Courajod.  Le<^ons  professees  a  I'ecole  du  Louvre,  1887-96.  Paris,  Alphonse 
Pieard  et  Fils,  1899-1903.  3  vols.  l'i°.  Vol.  I.  Origines  de  I'art  roman  et  gothique.  — 
An  elementary  accoimt  without  illustrations. 

A.  A.  Ijcnoir.  Influence  de  I'architecture  hyzantine  dans  toute  la  chretiente.  (In  Annales 
archcologiques,  vol.  12,  pp.  177-185;  209-218.) 

J.  L.  Petit.  Remarks  on  Byzantine  churches.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects, 
Papers,   1857-58,  pp.   123-126.)  —  Unimportant. 

ORNAMENT 

Arne  DMi.  Selections  of  Byzantine  ornament.  [New  York,  Helbum,  1890.]  Folio.  — 
A  fine  series  of  drawings.  The  same  work  was  published  in  Berlin  by  Hessling  und  Spielmeyer 
under  the  title:  Architektonische  und  omamentale  Details  her\orrangender  Bauwerke  Italiens 
in  byzantinischen  Style. 

B.   MONOGRAPHS 
CONSTANTINOPLE 

Salzenberg.  Die  altchristlichen  Denkmaler  von  Konstantinopel,  von  V  bis  XII  Jahr- 
hundert.  Berlin,  Ernst  &  Korn,  185-1.  Great  foUo  de  lu.\e.  —  A  monumental  work  with  superb 
drawings. 

Pulgher.  l/cs  anciennes  eglises  byzantines  a  Constantinople.  Vienna,  1878  and  1880.  — 
\  standard  work,  with  good  drawings.     Pulgher  is  often  more  accurate  than  Salzenberg. 

ir.  R.  Ij^halnj  and  Harold  Suainson.  The  church  of  Sancta  Sophia,  Constantinople.  A 
study  of  Byzantijie  building.  London  and  New  York,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1894.  4to. — The 
account  of  the  historj'  of  the  building,  although  derived  from  second-hand  sources,  is  excellent; 
the  rest  of  the  volume  leaves  much  to  be  desired  in  many  ways.     The  illustrations  are  poor. 

Cornelius  Gurlitt.  Die  Baukunst  Konstantinopels.  150  Tafeln  in  Form  36  x  56  cm. 
und  etwa  12  Bogen  illustrierten  Text.  Berlin,  Ernest  Wasmuth  A.  G.,  1907.  —  In  course  of 
publication. 

Demetrius  Coufopoulus.  \  guide  to  Constantinople.  3d  edition,  London,  A.  &  C. 
Black,  1906.     12°. 

//.  Barth.     Constantinople.     (Villes  d'art  celebres  series.)     Paris,  H.  Laurens.     4to. 

Allan  Marquaml.  The  dome  of  St.  Sergius  and  Bacchus  at  Constantinople.  (Records 
of  the  Past,  1906,  p.  355.) 

Edu-in  A.Grosvenor.  Constantinople.  Boston,  Roberts,  1895.  2  vols.  —  " Archseological 
statements  .  .  .  are  very  doubtful."     (Sturgis.) 

Joseph  x-on  Hammer.     Constantinopolis  und  der  Orient.     Pest,  1822.      2  vols. 

Jules  Labarie.  Le  palais  imperial  de  Constantinople  et  ses  abords,  Sainte-Sophie,  le  Forum 
Augusteon,  et  I'Hippodrome.     Paris,  Victor  Didron,  1861.     Folio. — An  adequate  account. 

E.  ./.  Soil.  Constantinople.  Notes  archeologiques.  (In  Academic  d'archeologie  de 
Belgique,  .\nnalcs,  1900,  vol.  52,  p.  465.)  —  .\  readable  account. 

J/.  LUglnj  Wyati.  Remarks  on  the  mosaics  and  other  decorations  of  the  church  of  Sta. 
Sophia,  Constantinople.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1854-55,  p.  43.)  — 
Mediocre  account. 

Van  Millingen.     Byzantine   Constantinople. 

Lethaby.  Sancta  Sophia,  Constantinople.  (In  Architectural  Review,  1905,  vol.  17,  pp. 
118-124,  147-1.53.)  —  The  illustrations,  .several  in  color,  are  of  value. 

Greliit.     Relation  nouvelle  d'un  voyage  de  Constantinople.     Paris,  1681. 
A.  r.  IIASllATH.   Mv^ayrlvai  ittXirai  TowoypaipiKaL  xal  laroplKai.   iv  YiwvaTaimvovoKit,  (k  toO 
TVToypaifKiov  An-wnoC  Kopojj.-/i\a,  1877.    Folio.  —  Concerns  itself  principally  with  a  period  sub- 
se<iuent  to  tlie  VI  century. 

411 


BYZANTINE   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Thomas  Allom.  Illustrations  of  Constantinople  and  its  en\'irons.  London,  Fisher  & 
Son.  —  Engravings  with  descriptive  text  of  no  value. 

Charles  C.  Nelson.  Some  notice  of  an  illustrated  work  by  W.  Salzenberg  entitled.  Early 
Christian  Monuments  of  Constantinople,  from  the  V  to  the  XII  century.  (In  Royal  Institute  of 
British  Architects,  Papers,  1854-55,  p.  34.)  —  A  mediocre  paper. 

Miss  Pardoe.  The  beauties  of  the  Bosphorus.  London,  George  Virtue,  1839.  Folio.  — 
A  miscellaneous  series  of  engravings  of  Constantinople  with  descriptive  text  of  no  scientific 
value. 

Rev.  R.  Burgess.  On  the  topography  and  antiquities  of  Constantinople.  (In  Royal  Insti- 
tute of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1853-54,  p.  1G3  seq.).  —  Of  no  value. 

DAPHNI 

M.  0.  MiUet.  Le  monastere  de  Daphni  —  histoire,  architecture,  mosaiques.  Paris, 
Leroux.     4to. 

E.  Rmdin.     Art  byzantin.     (In  Revue  de  I'art  chretien,  46me  annee,  4me  serie,  tome  14 

—  51  de  la  collection  —  Mai,  1903.)  —  A  brief  account  of  the  Monastery  of  Daphni. 

DOCLEA 

Munro,  Anderson,  Milne,  and  Ilaverfield.  On  the  Roman  town  of  Doclea  in  INIontenegro. 
(In  Archseologia,  1896,  vol.  55,  p.  33  seq.)  — An  unworthy  publication  of  important  ruins. 

EPHESUS  > 

J.  T.  Wood.     Discoveries  at  Ephesus.     Boston,  James  R.  Osgood   &  Co.,  1877.     Folio. 

—  Contains  brief  references  to  the  two  Christian  churches  of  Ephesus. 

C.  Weber.  Guide  du  voyageur  a  Ephese.  Smyme,  La  Presse,  1891.  4to.  —  Contains 
much  terse  information. 

GERIZIM  2 

C.  W.  Wilson.  [Plans  of  Gierizim.]  (In  Quarterly  statement  of  the  Palestine  exploration 
fund,  1873,  p.  68.) 

ISTRIA 

F.  G.  Jaclcson.  Dalmatia,  the  Quarnero,  and  Istria.  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1887. 
3  vols.     4to.  —  A  valuable  work. 

MT.  SINAI 

[Ordnance  Sur\'ey  of  Sinai:  full  plans,  details  and  descriptions  of  the  fort  and  church  built 
by  Justinian  at  the  foot  of  J.  Musa.]     (Wilson.) 

RAVENNA' 

D.  M.  G.  La  basilica  di  S.  ApoUinare  in  Classe  descritta  ed  illustrata  con  note.  Rav., 
Tip.  Naz.,  1873. 

Anonymous.  Ravenna  and  Pomposa.  Vol.  3  of  L'art  byzantin.  —  "Expensively  en- 
graved." 

SALONICA 

Petros  Papaqeorgi/is  in  the  Hestia  of  Athens,  for  October  3d  and  November  14th,  1893, 
gives  a  most  important  interpretation  of  the  mosaic  inscription  of  Hagia  Sophia  in  Salonica, 
an  inscription  which  establishes  the  date  of  that  church. 

Jelic,  Bulic,  e  Rutar.     Guida  di  Spalato  e  Salona. 

'  See  Roman  bibliography,  p.  373. 

-  An  account  of  Gerizim  appeared  in  the  Palestine  Exploration  Memoires,  vol.2,  p.  189,  190. 
^  See  Early  Christian  Bibliography,  p.  401. 

412 


CAROLINGIAN  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.    GENERAL 
SOURCES 

J.  von  Schlosser.  Schriftquellen  zur  Geschichte  der  karolingischen  Kunst.  Vienne, 
1892.  8vo.  Cf.  critique  de  cet  oiivrage  par  A.  Vidier  dans  le  Moyen  age,  1897,  pp.  256-267. 
—  A  valuable  work. 

J.  ron  Schlosser.  Quellenbuch  zur  Kunstgeschiclite  des  abendlandischen  Mittelalters. 
Vienne,  Carl  Graeser,  1896.  8vo.  Cf.  critique  de  cet  ouvrage  par  A.  Vidier  dans  le  Moyen 
Age,  1897,  pp.  256-267.  —  This  volume  treats  of  the  other  arts  and  periods  and  is  only  of  sec- 
ondary importance  for  Carolingian  architecture. 

August  Potthast.  Wegweiser  durch  die  Geschichtswerke  des  europaischen  Mittelalters. 
Bibliotheca  historica  medii  aevi.  Berlin,  W.  Weber,  1896.  2  vols.  4to.  —  A  valuable  bibli- 
ography and  guitle  for  medieval  .sources. 

Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica  unde  ab  anno  Christi  quingentesimo  usque  ad  annum 
millesimum  et  quingentesimum,  auspiciis  societatis  aperiendis  fontibus  rerum  Germanicarum 
medii  ae\-i.  Hannoveraeet  Berolini,  apud  Weidmannos,  1826-1905.  Folio  and  4to.  Scriptores, 
31  vols.  Folio.  Leges,  6  vols.  Folio.  Diplomata  imperii,  1  vol.  Folio.  Auctores  anti- 
quissimi,  14  vols.  4to.  Scriptores  rerum  Merovingicaruin,  4  vols.  4to.  Scriptores  rerum 
Langobardicarum  et  Italicarum  saeculi  VI-IX,  1  vol.  4to.  Scriptorum  qui  vernacula  lingua 
usi  sunt,  6  vols.  4to.  Poetae  Latini,  4to.  Libelli  de  lite  imperatorum  et  pontificum  sacculis 
XI  et  Xn,  3  vols.  4to.  I^egum;  sectio  I,  legum  nationum  Germanicarum,  2  vols.  4to. 
Legimi;  sectio  II,  capilaria  regum  Francorum,  2  vols.  4to.  Legum;  sectio  III,  concilia,  1 
vol.  4to.  I.^'gum;  sectio  IV,  Constitutiones,  2  vols.  4to.  Legum;  sectio  V,  formulae,  1 
vol.  4to.  Diplomata  regum  et  imperatorum  Germaniae,  3  vols.  4to.  Epistolae,  5  vols. 
4to.  I^pistolae  saeculi  XIII,  3  vols.  4to.  Libri  confrafernitatum  sancti  Galli  Augiensis  Fab- 
ariensis,  1  vol.  4to.  Necrologia  Germaniae,  3  vols.  4to.  Gesta  pontificorum  Romanorum, 
1  vol.     4to.  —  A  monumental  collection  of  medieval  sources. 

Jacques  Paul  Migne.  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  ab  aevo  apostolico  ad  tempora 
Innocentii  III,  anno  1216  .  .  .  series  Latina.  .  .  .  Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1844-80.  221  vols. 
4to.  —  In  this  standard  series  are  made  available  many  of  the  historical  sources  for  the 
Carolingian  jjeriod. 

Jean  Mahillon.  Annales  ordinis  Sancti  Benedict!  occidentalium  monachorum  patriarchae. 
In  quibus  non  modus  res  monasticae,  scd  etiam,  ecclesiasticae  historiae  non  minima  pars  conti- 
netur.  Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1703-39.  6  vols.  Folio.  —  A  most  important  compilation.  This 
publication  contains  the  best  reproduction  of  the  famous  plan  of  S.  Gallo. 

Jean  Mahillon.  Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  S.  Benedjcti  .  .  .  collegit  L.  d'Achery.  Paris, 
1668-1701.  9  vols.  Folio.  2d  edition,  Venetiis,  1733-38.  9  vols.  Folio.  —  Very  valu- 
able. 

Joannes  Bdlandes.  Acta  sanctorum  quotquot  toto  orbe  coluntur  vel  a  catholicis  scripto- 
ribus  cclebrantur  quae  e.\  Latinis  et  Graecis  aliarumque  gentium  antiquis  monumentis  collegit, 
digessit,  notis  illustra\-it  Joannes  Hollandes  .  .  .  operam  et  studium  contulit  Godefridus  Hen- 
schenius.  Editio  novissima  curante  Joanne  Camaudet,  Parisiis,  1863-69.  Folio.  62  vols., 
pts.  1-10.     January  to  October.     Sui)plcmcntuin,  volunien  complcctcns  auctaris  Octobris  .  .  . 

413 


CAROLINGIAN    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

et  .  .  .  indicem  sanctorum  decern  priorum  niensium  .  .  .  cura.  .  .  .  L.  M.  Rigollot.  Par- 
isiis,  no  date.     Folio.  —  A  highly  important  collection. 

Laurentius  Surius.  Vitae  sanctorum  ex  probatis  authoribus  et  Mss.  codicibus,  prime 
quidem  .  .  .  editae  [afterwards  augmented  by  J.  Mosander]  nunc  vero  multis  sanctorum  vitis 
auctae,  emendatae,  et  notis  marginalibus  illustratae.  Coloniae  Agrippinae,  1617.  12  vols.  — 
A  collection  of  important  sources. 

Bibliotheca  Maxima  Patrum.  Lugduni,  1677.  Folio.  27  vols.  —  A  valuable  collection 
of  sources. 

Ph.  Jajje.  Bibliotheca  rerum  Germanicarum.  Berolini,  186-1-73.  6  vols.  8vo.  —  Con- 
tains the  best  edition  of  several  important  sources. 

G.  II.  Periz.  Scriptores  rerum  Germanicarum  in  usum  scholarum  ex  monumentis  Ger- 
maniae  historicis  recedi  fecit  G.  H.  Pertz.  50  vols.  1841-1905.  —  An  abridgment  of  the  monu- 
menta  Germaniae  historica. 

Etienne  Baluze.  Miscellanea  novo  ordine  digesta  et  non  paucis  ineditis  monumentis 
opportunisque  animadversionibus  aucta  opera  ac  studio  Joannis  Dominici  Mansi  Lucensis. 
Lucae,  1761-64.  Folio.  —  Makes  available  several  important  sources  for  architectural 
history. 

Jean  Luc  d'Achery.  Spicilegium,  sive  collectio  veterum  aliquot  script orum  qui  in  Galliae 
biljliothecis  delituerant.  .  .  .  Nova  editio,  Parisiis,  1723.  3  vols.  Folio.  —  An  important  col- 
lection of  sources. 

Bdhmer.  Codex  diplomaticus  Mocno-francofurtanus.  Urkundenbuch  der  Reichsstadt 
Frankfurt.     Icr  Theil.     Frankfurt,  1836. 

Denis  de  Sainte  Maiihe.  Gallia  Christiana  in  provincias  ecclesiasticas  distributa,  qua 
series  et  historia  archiepiscoporuni,  episcoporuni,  et  abbatum  Franciae  vicinarumque  ditionum 
all  origine  ecclesiarum  ad  nostra  tempora  deducitur.  Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1715-1865.  Folio. 
16  vols.  — A  secondary  sovirce  of  importance. 

Grotefend.  Quellen  zur  Frankfurter  Geschichte.  I.  Frankfurter  Chroniken  und  annali- 
stische  Aufzeichnungen  des  Mittelalters.     Bearbeitet  von  Froning.     Frankfurt,  1884. 

Raoul  Glaber.  Rodulfi  Glabri  historiarum  sui  tempori  libri  quinque.  Vita  Sancti  Guil- 
lelnii  abbatis  Divronensis.  (In  Migne,  Patrologiae  cursus  corapletus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  1853, 
vol.  142,  col.  609-720.)  — An  XI  century  source  of  secondary  importance.  There  is  a  French 
translation,  "I^es  Cinq  Livres  de  ses  [Raoul  Glaber]  histoires  (900-1044)."  Paris,  Maurice  Prou, 
1886.  8vo.  (Collection  des  textes  pour  ser\ir  a  I'etude  et  a  I'enseignement  de  Thistoire,  1886, 
vol.  11.) 

Pavltis  Warnejridus.  (Paulus  Diaconus.)  Historia  Longobardorum.  Hannoverae,  Weid- 
mann,  1878.  8vo.  (Scriptores  rerum  Germanicarum.)  An  VIII  century  author  and  source 
of  some  importance.  Translated  by  Otto  Ahel  into  German  under  title:  Paulus  Diaconus  und 
die  iibrigen  Gcschichtschreiber  der  Longobarden.  Berlin,  1849.  12°.  (In  Die  Geschicht- 
schreiber der deutschen  Vorzeit,  8es  Jahrh.,  vol.4.) 

Patdiis  Warnejridus.  Historia  Romana.  Berolini,  1878.  8vo.  (Scriptores  rerum  Ger- 
manicarum.) —  An  VIII  century  author  and  source  of  some  importance. 

E.  Le  Blaut.     Inscriptions  chretiennes  de  la  Gaiile.     Paris,  1856,  1865.     2  vols.     4to. 

E.  Le  Blaut.    Nouveau  recueil  des  inscriptions  chretiennes  de  la  Gaule.     1892.     4to. 

Einharti  (Eginhard).  Opera  omnia.  Annales,  Epistolae,  Historia  translationis  BB. 
Marcellini  et  Petri,  Chartae.  (In  ISIigne,  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  1864, 
vol.  104,  col.  351-610.)  —  A  IX  century  author  and  a  source  of  great  importance.  There  are 
several  other  editions,  and  a  French  translation  by  Alexandre  Tenlet :  Les  oeuvres  d'Eginhard. 
Paris,  1856.     12°. 

Ermoldus  Nigellus.  Carmen  elegiacum  de  rebus  gestis  Ludovici  Pii.  (In  Migne,  Patro- 
logiae cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  1864,  vol.  105,  col.  551-640.)  —  A  IX  century 
source.  There  is  a  French  translation,  "Faits  et  gestes  de  Louis-le-Pieux,"  published  by  Guizot 
in  his  "Collection  des  memoires  relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  France,"  1824,  vol.  4,  p.  1-113.  There  is 
also  a  German  translation  by  T.  G.  Pfund,  Lobgedicht  auf  Kaiser  Ludwig  und  Elegien  an  Konig 

414 


A.  GENERAL 

Pippin.     Berlin,  1856.     19°.     (Die  Gescliiclitschreiber  der  deuischen  Vorzeit,  9es  Jahrhundert, 
vol.  3.) 

Constanlltte  VIl  Porphi/rotjenitus.  De  eeremoiiiis  aulae  Bj'zantinae  libri  II;  De  thematibus; 
et  De  adiiiiiiistrando  iinperio.  Uecoj^novit  I.  Bekkcrus.  Corpus  scriptoruni  historiae  By- 
zantinae,  vols.  9-1 1 .  —  A  source  for  S.  Donato,  Zara. 

Anastasius  Bihliothecarius.  Opera  omnia,  prae  aliis  omnibus  insignis  .  .  .  juxta  probatis- 
sinias  c<litiones  exprcssa.  Francisci  Blanchini  nenipe  Romano-N'aticanam  .  .  .  Parisiis, 
1879-80.  3  vols.  Folio.  (In  Migne,  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  vol.  127- 
129.)  —  A  IX  century  author  and  a  source  of  some  importance  for  Carolingian  architecture. 

Angitbertus.  De  restauratione  nionasterii  Centulensis;  Statuta  quaedam  rubrica;  Carmina. 
(In  Mijine,  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  vol.  99,  col.  825-85-i.)  —  A  IX  cen- 
tury author  and  a  source  of  importance  for  architecture. 

Angilbcrtus.  De  ecclesia  Centulensi  libcllus.  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historia.  Scrip- 
toruni, XV,  1.)  —  An  important  source  for  St.  Riquier. 

Calisse.  Document!  del  monastero  di  S.  Salvator  sul  Monte  Amiata  riguardanti  il  terri- 
torio  romano,  seculi  VIII,  IX.  (Archivio  della  R.  Societa  di  Storia  Patria,  vol  16.) — A 
source  for  S.  Pietro  of  Toscanella. 

Ademari  historiarum  libri  III.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  IV.) 
Annales  brei-issimi  Sangallenscs.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annates  Fuldenses  aniiqui.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annales  Fuldenses  breves.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annales  S.  Bonifatii.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  III.) 
Annales  I.aniberti.      (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  III,  V.) 
Annales  Laurisliamensis.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annales  Sangallenses  maiores.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annales  Tielienscs.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  XXIV.) 
Annales  Vedastini.     (Moiuniienta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  II.) 
Annales  Weingartenses.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Annalium  Alemann.     Continuatio  Augienscs.     (JMonumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scrip- 
torum I.) 

Annalisia  Sa.ro  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  VI.) 
Astronomus.     Vita    Uluduwici    niaior.     (Monumenta   Germaniae   historica.     Scriptorum, 
II.) 

Casus  S.  Gain  Ratperti  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  II.) 
Chronicon  Laurcshamense.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  XXI.) 
Chronicon  Magnum  Belgicum.     (Scriptores  rerum  Germanicarum  III.) 
Chronieon  Moissiaeense.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Flodoardus.     Historiarum   ecclesiae   Remensis,    libri    IV.     (Bibliotheca    maxima    patrum 
XVII.) 

Foriunatiis.  Opera  pe<lestria.  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Auctor  antiquiss. 
IV.  pt.  2.) 

Gesta  abbatum  Fontanellen.iium.     (Scriptores  rerum  Germanicarum  II.) 
Gesta    episcoporum    Autisiodoirensium .     (Monumenta    Germaniae    historica.     Scriptorum 
XIII.) 

Gesta  episeoporum  Ilalberstadensium.  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Scriptorum 
XXIII.) 

Gesta  Treverorum.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  VIII.) 
Heirici  Miraculd.     S.  German!  Autisiodori  epistolae  (Karl  II  gewidmet).     (Monumenta 
Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  XIII.     Also  Acta  Sanctorum,  Juli  VII.) 

Herimanni  Contracti.  Chronicon  Augiense.  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Scrip- 
tonim  V.) 

itaurus  Ilrabanus.  Carmina.  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.  Poetae  Latini  aen 
Carolini  II.) 

415 


CAROLINGL4N   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Hugo   Floriacensis.     Modemorum   regum   Francorum   actus.     (Monumenta   Germaniae 

historica.     Scriplorum  IX.) 

Meginhardi.     Fuldensis  sermo  de  S.  Ferutio  (s.  IX  med.).     (Surius,  Vitae  sanctorum,  '■2S 

Oct.  V,  394.) 

Letaldo.     Miracula   sancti   Maximini   abbatis   Miciacensis.     (Mabillon,   Acta   sanctorum 

ordinis  sancti  Benedict!   I.) 

Monachus   Sangallensis.     De   gestis    Karoli    Magni    libri    II.     (Monumenta    Germaniae 

historica.     Scriptorum    II.) 

Poeta  Saxo.     (Jaffe,  Bibliotheca  rerum  Germanicarum.     Non.     Carolina,  1867.) 

Praroitd.     Chronique  abregee  de  St.  Riquier  par  Jean  de  la  Chapelle. 

liomtialdus   a  Sancta  Maria.      Flavia  papia  sacra,  opus  in  quatuor  partes  divisum.     In 

quarum  prima  sanctorum  omnium  Ticiiii  quiescentium  Agiologium  texitur,  etc.     Ticini  Regii, 

1699.     Folio. 

Rtwdolfi.     Amiales    Fuldenses    cum    continuatione.     (Monumenta    Germaniae    historica. 

Scriptorum  I.) 

Thegani.     Vita  Hludowici.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum  I.) 
Titvli  Augifnses.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Poetae  Latini  aevi  Carolini  II.) 
Vita  sancti  Abrici  episcopi  Cenomanensis.   [The  French  of  P.  Viellus,  who  translated  the 

lost  original,  retranslated  into  Latin.]     (Bullandes,  Acta  Sanctorimi,  Jan.  1.) 

Auscheriis.     Vita  Angilberti.     (Mabillon,  Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti  IV,  2.) 
I'ita  S.  Boniti  episcopi.     (Maliillon,  Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti  III,     I.) 
Caitdidus.     Vita  s.   Eigilis  abbatis   Fuldae.     (MabilJon,   Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  sancti 

Benedicti.) 

Vita  Eigilis  mctrica.     (ISIabillon,  Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti.) 

Altfridus.     Vita  s.  Ludgeri  episcopi  Numigardefordi.     (Bollandes,  Acta  sanctorum.) 

Vita  s.  Rigoberti  archepiscopi  Rhemensis.      (Bollandes,  Acta  sanctorum,  Jan.  1.) 

Vita  S.  Riiperti  ducis  Bingae  et  S.  Berthae  eius  matris  a.  s.  Hildegunde  abb.  scr.     (In  Migne, 

Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina,  vol.  197,  pp.  1083-1094.) 

Eigilis.     Vita  S.  Strumi  abbatis  Fuldae.     (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica.     Scriptorum 

II.) 

Maurice  Prou.  Inscriptions  carolingiennes  des  cryptes  de  Saint  Germain  d'Au.\erre.  (In 
Gazette  Archeologique,  13™^  Aiinee,  1888,  p.  299  f.)  — An  adequate  publication. 

G.  Helurch.  Antiquitates  Laurishaimenses,  seu  chronologia  praeillustris,  nobilis,  ac  famosi 
quondam  monasterii  s.  Nazarii  Laurishaimensis  in  Strata  Alontana  siti.  Francofurti,  Typis 
Caspari  Rotelii,  1631.  —  An  important  secondary  source,  which  preserves  an  epitome  of  several 
manuscripts  now  lost. 

Benveniito  da  Imola  Rambaldi.     Liber  Augustulis.  (Rerum  Germanicarum  scriptores  II.) 
—  A  late  XIV  century  author  and  secondary  source  for  Lombard  buildings. 

Miclicle  Torre  e  Valvasine  e  Angclo  Fumagalli.  Delle  antichita  longobardiche  milanese. 
1792-93.  —  A  secondary'  source  for  Lombard  buildings. 

Giorgi  e  Balzani.  II  regesto  di  Farfa  di  Gregorio  di  Catino.  —  A  source  for  S.  Pietro,  Tos- 
canella. 

Bmnetti.     Codice  diplomatico  toscano.  —  A  source  for  S.  Pietro  of  Toscanella. 

Muratori.  Dissertazioni  sopra  le  antichita  estense  ed  italiane.  Modena,  Stamperia  Ducale, 
1717.     Folio.  —  Useful  as  a  source. 

Giovanni  Antonio  Castiglione.  Mediolanenses  antiquitates  ex  urbis  paroeciis  coUectae, 
ichnographicis  ipsarum  tabulis  .  .  .  illustratae.  ISIediolani,  162j.  8vo.  —  A  secondary  source 
for  the  Lombard  monuments  of  Milan. 

HISTORICAL  ACCOLT^TS 

D.  Ramee.  De  I'etat  de  nos  connaissances  sur  les  edifices  anterieurs  a  I'an  mil.  Paris, 
1882. 

Henri  Hiibsch.     Monuments    de   rarcliitecture    chretienne    depuis   Constantin    jusqu'a 

416 


B.  SPECIAL 

Charlemagne.  Traduit  par  I'abbe  Guerber.  Paris,  1866.  Folio.  —  "In  questa  ragguardevole 
opera,  rHiibsch  .  .  .  non  seppe  portare  la  minima  luce  nella  storia  artistica  dei  secoli  barbari 
.  .  ."     (Cattaneo.) 

Reginald  Bloomfiild.  Studies  in  architecture.  London,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1905.  8vo. 
—  A  collection  of  architectural  essays,  the  first  of  which  contains  a  criticism  of  Sig.  Rivoira's 
book  and  an  account  of  Hagia  Sophia. 

Bobeau.  Influences  architecturales  de  la  basilique  St.  Martin  de  Tours  et  des  abbayes 
benedictines.      (Bulletin  archeologique,  1907,  pp.  6-8.) 

J.  de  Baye.  Etudes  archeologiques.  Epoque  des  invasions  barbares.  Industrie  longo- 
l)arde.  Paris,  Librairie  Nilsson,  1888.  Folio.  —  A  valuable  study  of  the  industrial  ornament 
of  this  obscure  period. 

Le  Noir.     Architecture  monastique.     Paris,  1802-56.     2  vols.     4to. 

Rohaulf  de  Fleury.  La  Messe;  etudes  archeologiques  sur  ses  monuments.  Paris,  1883-89. 
8  vols.  Folio.  —  "Forse  a\Tebbe  evitato  parecchi  gossi  errori  .  .  .  se  innanzi  di  mettersi  alia 
ricerea  dei  particolari  piu  che  altro  decorativi  die  dovcano  ser\ire  alia  sua  opera,  avesse  studiato 
a  fondo  van  monumenti  architettonichi."     (Cattaneo.) 

De  Baudot,     figlises  de  bourgs  et  de  tillages. 

Aubert.  .Vrchitecture  carohngienne.  (In  Memoires  de  la  Societe  des  Antiquaires  de  France, 
1883.) 

WORKS   OF   REFERENCE 

iJartigny.     Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  chretiennes.     2me  edition,  Paris,  1877. 

B.   WORKS  CO\T.RING  CERTAIN  ASPECTS  OF  THE  FIELD 

GERM.\NY,   AUSTRL\,   SWITZERLAND 

Paul  Clemen.  Die  Kunstdenkmaler  der  Rheinpro\'inz.  Diisseldorf,  L.  Schwam,  1892. 
8  vols.  4to.  —  A  most  scholarly  study  of  the  monuments  of  the  Rheinland  with  excellent  bibli- 
ographies. 

Heinrirh  Bergner.  Ilandbuch  der  kirchlichen  KunstaltertUraer  in  Deutschland.  Leipzig, 
Tauchnitz,  1905.     4to. — A  ver>'  scholarly  work,  touching  on  Carolingian  architecture. 

E.  Forster.  Denkmiiler  deutscher  Baukunst.  Leipzig,  T.  O.  Weigel,  1855.  Folio.  Vol. 
1  contains  good  accounts  of  several  CaroUngian  buildings.  There  is  a  French  translation  in 
four  volumes,  quite  equal  to  the  original,  published  under  title  "Monuments  d'architecture .  .  . 
de  I'Allemagne.''     Paris,  A.  Morel  et  Cie.,  1859.     Folio. 

MuUer.  Denkmaler  deutscher  Baukunst.  Darmstadt  und  Leipzig,  C.  W.  Leske,  no  date. 
Folio.  —  A  work  with  fine  drawings  in  part  on  Carolingian  architecture. 

Dohme.  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Baukunst.  Vol.  1  of  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kunst. 
Berlin,  G.  Gote,  1887.  4to.  —  Contains  a  chapter  on  Carolingian  architecture,  still  useful, 
though  not  altogether  up  to  date. 

Heinrirh  Otte.  Geschichte  der  romanischen  Baukunst  in  Deutschland.  Leipzig,  T.  O. 
Weigel,  1874.  4to.  —  Contains  a  conscientious  account  of  the  architecture  of  the  Dark  Ages  in 
Germany. 

E.  aus'm  Weerth.  Kunstdenkmaler  des  christlichen  Mittelalters  in  den  Rheinlanden. 
Leipzig,  O.  Weigel,  1857.  3  vols,  and  atlas.  Foho.  —  A  learned  work  in  small  part  on 
architecture. 

L.  Puttrich.  Denkmale  der  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Sachsen.  Leipzig,  F.  A.  Brock- 
haus,  1836-43.     4  vols.     Folio.  —  Contains  fairly  good  drawings  of  Gemrode. 

Kallenbach.  Chronologic  der  deut-schmittelalterlichen  Baukmist.  '2te  Auflage,  Miin- 
chen,  J.  C.  Cotta,  no  date.  —  Gives  little  information  on  the  Carolingian  j)eriod. 

Schricher.     Denkmaler  deutscher  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  am  Oberrhein. 

G.  Humann.  Die  Kunst  des  X  Jahrhunderts  in  Essen.  (Kunst  und  Gewerbe  XX,  1886, 
p.  300.) 

417 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

F.  Eicerbeck.  Architektonische  Entwiirfe  und  Bauausfuhrunfi;en.  Berlin,  Ch.  Claesen 
&  Cie.,  no  date.     Folio.  —  Well  rendered  restorations  of  the  Doni  at  Aachen. 

G.  Humann.  Die  deutsche  Kunst  zur  Zeit  der  sachsischen  Kaiser.  (Arcliiv  fiir  kirchliche 
Baukunst  und  Kirchenschmuck  XII,  1869.) 

Benkard.  Die  Reichspalaste  zu  Tribur,  Ingelheim,  und  Gelnhausen.  Frankfurt  A/M, 
1857. 

C.  A.  H eider,  Eitelberger  von  Edelberg,  und  Joseph  Heiser.  MittelalterUche  Kunstdenk- 
maler  des  osterreichischen  Kaiserstaates,  1858-60. 

E.  A.  Freemati.  On  certain  early  Romanesque  buildings  in  Switzerland  and  the  neighbor- 
ing countries.  (In  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Papers,  1863-64,  pp.  181-200.)  —  Deals 
principally  with  buildings  later  than  1000. 

FioreUo.     Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Klinste  in  Deutschland. 

C.  L.  Stieglitz.  Von  altdeutscher  Baukunst.  Leipzig,  Gerhard  Fleischer,  1820.  Foho. 
—  Of  no  value. 

Blatngnac.  Histoire  de  1 'architecture  sacree  du  IV  au  X  siecles  dans  les  anciens  eveches 
de  Geneve,  Lausaime,  et  Sion.     Paris,  1853.  —  "  Most  dangerous  as  a  guide."     (Freeman.) 

ITALY 

Rafjaele  Caitaneo.  L'architettura  in  Italia  dal  secolo  VI  al  mille  circa.  Venezia,  Tipo- 
grafia  Emiliana,  1888.  Folio.  There  is  a  French  translation  under  title:  "L'architecture  en 
Italie  du  VI  au  XI  siecle.  Traduit  par  A.  Cravellie.  Venise,  1859.  8vo."  There  is  also  an 
English  translation  under  title:  "  Arcliitecture  in  Italy  from  the  VI  to  the  XI  century.  Trans- 
lated by  Countess  Isabel  Curtis.  Venice,  Cholmely  in  Bermani,  1889.  8vo." —  A  brilliant 
work,  and  on  the  whole  the  best  account  of  the  Carohngian  period  in  Italy.  It  contains,  how- 
ever, several  errors,  and  may  not  always  be  accepted  without  reservations. 

G.  T.  Rii'oira.  Le  origini  della  architettura  lombarda  e  delle  sue  principali  derivazioni 
nei  paesi  d'oltr'alpe.  Roma,  Ermanno  Loescher  e  Co.,  1901-7.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  An  elabo- 
rate work  finely  illustrated  and  for  the  Carolingian  period  on  tlie  whole  reliable. 

A.  Veniuri.  Storia  dell'  arte  italiana.  To  be  complete  in  6  volumes.  Vol.  II  Del  tempo 
de'  Longobardi  all'  inizio  dello  stile  nazionale.  Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1902.  -Ito.  —  Especially 
valuable  for  the  accessory  arts. 

F.  de  Dartein.  Etude  sur  l'architecture  lonibarde  et  sur  les  origines  de  l'architecture 
romano-byzantine.  Paris,  Dunod,  1865-82.  2  vols.  4to  and  great  folio.  —  "Questa  volu- 
minosa  opera,  pregevolissima  per  cio  che  riguarda  i  monumenti  dell '  architettura  lombarda  nell' 
Alta  Italia  .  .  .  e  invece  affatto  inser\'ibile  per  quanto  ne  concerne  le  origini."  (Cattaneo.) 
This  judgment  is  perhaps  a  httle  too  harsh.     The  plates  are  still  of  great  value. 

Oscar  Mothes.  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Itahen.  Jena,  Hermann  Costenoble, 
1882-84.  8vo.  —  "  Grosse  bugie  sono  .  .  .  parecchi  disegni  da  lui  otferti  al  lettore,  ove  inventa 
monumenti  che  non  esistono,  crea  rovine  ideali  e  allunga,  allarga,  e  complica  a  suo  talento  le 
piante  di  certe  chiese!  !  !  Dove  puo  venire  proficuamente  consultato  dagli  studiosi  si  e  nelle 
date  di  costruzioni,  restauri,  e  riedificazioni  dei  monumenti  che  egli  con  ispeciale  cura  e  diligenza 
raccolse  e  pubblico."     (Cattaneo.) 

R.  Garrucci.  Storia  dell"  arte  cristiana  nei  primi  otto  secoli  della  chiesa.  .  .  .  Prato,  1873- 
81.  6  vols.  Folio.  —  "L'autore  si  mostra  superficialissimo  e  affatto  fuor  di  strada  ove  tocca 
dei  lavori  dell'  eta  longobardica."  (Cattaneo.)  The  work  contains  little  on  architecture  proper, 
but  deals  largely  with  the  accessory  arts. 

Pietro  SeUatico.  Le  arti  del  disegno  in  Itaha.  Storia  e  Critica.  Milano,  Vallardi,  1880. 
3  vols.  4to.  —  "Un  lavoro  nei  quale  la  poverta  e  confusione  dell'  erudizione,  le  incredibili  contrad- 
dizioni,  e  la  copia  degli  errori,  e  delle  colpevoli  inesattezze  aviebbo  fatto  per  la  sua  buona  fama 
ch'egli  non  \i  si  accingesse  mai."     (Cattaneo.) 

Pietro  Selvaiico.  Storia  estetico-critica  delle  arti  del  disegno.  Lezioni  dette  nella  I.  R. 
Accademia  di  Belle  Arti  in  Venezia.  Venezia,  Pietro  Naratorich,  1856.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  Far 
inferior  to  the  same  author's  "Arte  del  disegno." 

418 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

Maltvzzi.  Le  glorie  <lell'  arte  lonibarda,  ossia  illustrazione  storica  dclle  piu  belle  opere 
che  proilusscro  i  Lombardi.  Milano,  Giaconio  Agnelli,  1882.  Svo.  —  No  illustrations.  Not 
a  scholarly  work. 

Celeste  Clericetti.  Ricerche  sull'  architettura  religiosa  in  Lonibardia  dal  V  all'  XI  secolo. 
(Inserite  nel  Politeciiico  del  \mi.)     1869. 

Conte  Cordero  di  S.  Quintino.  Dell'  italiana  architettura  durante  la  dominazione  longobar- 
dica.     Brescia,  18'29.  —  In  its  day  an  epoch-marking  book,  now  entirely  out  of  date. 

Ciampini.     Vetera  monumenfa.     Rome,  1690-99.     2  vols.     Folio. 

Campanari.     Tuscania  e  i  suoi  monumenti. 

FRANCE 

Edouard  Corroyer.  L'architecture  roniane.  Paris,  Maison  Quantin,  1888.  12°.  — ■  A 
good  elementary  text-book. 

Jides  Cesar  Robuehon.  Paysages  et  monuments  du  Poitou.  Poitiers  and  Paris,  Mot- 
teroz,  1890.     Folio.  — The  illustrations  are  fine. 

Bourasse  et  Chevalier.  Recherches  liistoriques  et  archeologiques  sur  les  eglises  lomanes 
en  Touraine  du  VI  au  XI  siecles.     Tours,  1869.     ■Ito. 

Golbery  et  Schweighaeuser.  Antiquites  de  I'Alsace,  ou  chateaux,  eglises,  et  autres  monumens 
des  departemens  du  Haut-  et  du  Bas-Rhin.     Mulhouse,  1828.     2  vols.     Folio. 

Vasseur.  De  Normandie  en  Nivernaij.  (In  Bulletin  Monumental,  1868,  vol.  34,  pp.  601, 
619.) 

S.  Beale.  Roman  and  Romanesque  France.  (In  American  Architect  and  Building  News. 
1902-4,  vols.  75-80,  84.) 

DAL>L\TIA 

R.  Eitelberger  von  Edclberg.  Die  mittelalterlichen  Kimstdenkmale  Dalmatiens  in  Arbe, 
Zara,  Mona,  Sebenico,  Trau,  Spalato,  und  Ragusa.  Wien,  Wilhelni  Braumiiller,  1884.  Svo. 
Vol.  IV  of  the  autliors  Gesammelte  kunsthistorische  Schriften.  —  A  valuable  study. 

Jelic,  Bvlic,  e  Rvtar.     Guida  di  Spalato  e  Salona. 

SPECLU.  PHASES  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  DEVELOPMENT 

G.  Dehio.  Zwei  Probleme  zur  Geschichte  der  Anfange  des  romanischen  Baustils.  (In 
Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1893,  vol.  16,  pp.  217-229.) — Supplements  the  "Kirch- 
liche  Baukunst  "  on  the  questions  of  the  origin  of  the  chevet  and  the  cruciform  basilica. 

Schlosser.  Die  abendlandhche  Klosteranlage  des  friiheni  Mittelalters.  Wien,  Carl 
Gerold's  Sohn,  1889.     8vo.  —  An  important  study,  but  not  always  rehable. 

ORN.AMENTAI.  SCULPTURE 

ilazzauti.     I^a  scultura  ornamentale  nei  bassi  tempi. 

A.  Marignan.  Un  historien  de  I'art  fran9ais,  Louis  Courajod.  Les  temps  francs.  Paris, 
fimile  Bouillon,  1899.  Svo. — A  scholarly  and  important  work  on  sculpture  and  the  other 
arts. 

THE  CO^L\CINI 

Orlando.     Delle  fratellanze  artigiane  in  Italia.  —  A  study  of  the  Comacini. 
Troi/a.     Co<Iicc  diplomafico  longobardo.  —  Contains  interesting  data  bearing  upon  the 
Comacini. 

Merzario.     I  maestri  comacini. 

C.     MO\OGR.\PIIS 
A.\CHEN    (.AIX-L\-CH.\rELLE) 

Schervier.  Die  Miinsterkirche  zu  Aachen  und  deren  Reliquien.  Aachen,  Im  Selbst- 
verlage  des  Karls-Vereins,  1853.     12°.     Pamphlet.  —  For  its  day,  an  excellent  monograph. 

419 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A'.  Barhier  de  iloniault.  La  mosaique  du  dome  a  Aix-la-Chapelle.  (In  Annales  Archeolo- 
giQues,  vol.  '26,  pp.  '285-86.)  —  A  masterly  study  of  the  lost  mosaics  of  Aachen. 

F.  Bock:  Das  karolingische  Miiiister  in  Aachen  und  die  St.  Gotthardskirche  in  Hildesheim 
in  ihrer  beabsichtigten  inneren  Wiederherstellung.  Bonn,  Henrj-  und  Cohen,  1859.  1'2°. 
Pamphlet.  —  A  pleasant  paper. 

M.  A.  de  Surigny.  Huit  jours  a  Aix-la-Chapelle.  (In  Bulletin  Monumental,  1869,  vol. 
35,  pp.  779  ff.)  —  An  agreeable  description  of  the  cathedral. 

Quix.  Historische  Beschreibung  der  MUnsterkirdie  zu  Aachen.  Urlichs,  18'25.  1'2°.  — 
A  curious  little  l>ook,  containing  scraps  of  unusual  information. 

Molten.  Archaologische  Beschreibung  der  Miinsterkirche  in  Aachen.  (Allgemeine  Bau- 
zeitung,  1840,  p.  135,  ff.) 

F.  Bock.  Das  Liebfrauenmiinster  in  Aachen  in  seiner  ehemaligen  bauhchen  Entstellung 
und  in  seiner  theilweise  vollzogenen  Wiederherstellmig.  Vortrag.  Aachen,  1866.  4to.  22 
pages. 

Debey.     Die  Miinsterkirche  in  Aachen  in  ihrer  Wiederherstellung.     1851. 

Mertens.  Leber  das  Miinster  zu  Aachen.  (In  Wiener  Allgemeine  Bauzeitmig,  1840, 
p.  135  f.) 

F.  Bock.  Das  Heiligthum  zu  Aachen.  Koln  und  Xeus,  Schwan'schen  Verlagsbuch- 
handlimg,  1867.     4to.  —  A  cheap  liook  on  the  treasurj'  and  relics. 

Martin.     L'abbaye  a  Aix-la-Cliapelle.     (In  Bulletin  monumental  X,  '2'25.) 

Heinrich  Joseph  Floss.  Geschichtliche  Xachrichten  iiber  die  .\achener  Heihgthiimer. 
Bom.,  Adolf  Marcus,  1855.     8vo.  —  A  study  of  the  relics  in  the  cathedral  at  Aachen. 

Rhon.  Die  Kapelle  der  karoUngischen  Pfalz  zu  Aachen.  (Ztschr.  d.  Aachener  Gesch.- 
Ver.  \1II,  1887.) 

Lersch.  Das  Miinster  zu  Aachen.  (In  Niederrheinisches  Jahrbuch  fUr  Geschichte  und 
Kunst,  1843,  vol.  1,  p.  77,  p.  193.) 

Beeck.     Aquisgranum.     1640. 

Anoriymoiis.  Souvenir  d'-Vix-la-Chapelle.  Bruxelles,  no  date.  4to.  —  A  series  of  twelve 
lithographs,  including  several  of  the  cathedral. 

Quix.     Geschichte  von  Aachen.     1840. 

Meyer.    Aachen'sche  Geschichten. 

ANGERS 

Guides  Joanne.  Angers.  Paris,  Librairie  Hachette  et  Cie.,  no  date.  12°.  —  Unsatisfac- 
tory for  the  monuments  of  the  Carolingian  period. 

AUXERRE 

Lcclerc.  Abbaye  de  Saint  Germain.  (In  Annuaire  statistique  du  departement  de  I  'Yonne, 
1841,  3me  partie,  p.  3  ft.)  —  A  conscientious  study  of  the  historj-  of  the  abbey. 

V.  B.  Henry.  Histoire  de  l'abbaye  de  Saint  Germain  d'Auxerre.  Auxerre,  Ch.  Gallot, 
1853.     8vo.  —  A  historj-  of  the  abbots  rather  than  of  the  abbey. 

Leheuj.  Memoire  concemant  I'histoire  ci\ile  et  eccl&iastique  d'Auxerre  et  de  son  ancien 
diocese,  continuee  par  Challe  et  Quantin.     4  vols. 

Chardon.    Histoire  de  la  ville  d'Auxerre.     2  vols. 

BEAL^'AIS 

Eug.  J.  WoiUez.  Archeologie  des  monuments  rehgieux  de  I'ancien  Beauvoisis  pendant 
la  metamorphose  romane.  Paris,  Derache,  1839-49.  Foho.  —  Contains  an  important  account 
of  the  Basse  ffiuvre  as  well  as  many  drawings  of  that  monument.  In  regard  to  the  chronologj-, 
Woillez  is,  of  course,  entirely  misleading. 

Rame.  La  Basse  QEuvtc  de  Beauvais.  (Bulletin  du  comite  des  travaux  historiques,  1889, 
p.  190.) 

420 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

F.  C.  Barrand.  Boauvais  et  ses  monuments  pendant  I'ere  gallo-roniaine  et  sous  la  domina- 
tion franque.  (In  Bulletin  monumental,  vol.  27,  pp.  29-C4,  217-236,  294-316.)  —  Repeats 
the  old  errors  in  regard  to  the  date  of  the  Ba.sse  Qiuvre. 

Emm.  WoiUfZ.  Notice  historique  et  descriptive  de  la  Basse  ffiuvre.  (Memoires  de  la 
societe  d 'archeologie  du  departement  de  la  Somme,  1838,  vol.  1.) 

L.  Pilian.  Beauvais.  Sa  cathedrale,  ses  principaux  monuments.  Beauvais,  H.  Trezel, 
1885.     12°.  —  Unreliable. 

Victor  Tremhlay.  Notice  historique  sur  la  \-ille  de  Beauvais  et  .ses  environs  extraite  du  Dic- 
tionnaire  sfatistique,  historique,  adniinistratif,  et  commercial  des  villes,  bourgs,  et  communes, 
du  departement  de  I'Oise.     Beauvais,  Tremblay,  no  date.  —  Quite  out  of  date. 

BIELI^V 

ilella.     Antico  battistero  della  cattedrale  di  Biella. 

BLEIDENSTADT 

Will.     Monasterium  Bleidenstadt.     1874. 

BRESCIA 

Archioni.     Sul  duomo  vecchio.     [Brescia],  Provincia,  1881. 
Odorici.     Antichita  christiane  di  Brescia.     Brescia,  1845. 

CIVIDALE 

Gino  Fogolari.  Ci\-idale  del  Friuli.  Collezione  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie  Italia 
artistica.      Bergamo,  Istitute  Italiano  d'Arti  Grafiche,  [1906  ?]. 

R.  Eitelberger  von  Edelberg.  Cividale  in  Friaul  und  seine  Monumente.  (Gesammelte 
kunsthistorische  Schriften,  vol.  IV,  p.  323  f.)  Wien,  Braumiiller,  1884.  8vo.  —  A  rather  inter- 
esting account. 

L.  Orlandi.     II  tempietto  di  S.  Maria  in  Valle  di  Cividale  del  Friuli.     Udine,  1858. 

COMO 

Boito.  Architettura  del  medio  evo  in  Italia.  —  "Una  bella  monografia  intomo  al  S.  Abon- 
dio  di  Como."     (Cattaneo.) 

ESSEN 

G.  Humann.  Der  Westbau  des  Essener  Miinsters.  Essen,  Selbstverlag  des  Verfassers, 
1890.     4to.  —  An  excellent  monograph. 

G.  Humann.  Der  Westbau  der  Miinsterkirche  zu  Essen.  Korrespondenzblatt  des 
Gesamtvereins  der  deutschen  Geschichts-Vereine,  1885,  Nr.  11. 

F.  J.  Pider.     Das  Ruhrthal.     Werl,  1881. 

Von  Quasi.  Die  Miinsterkirche  in  Essen.  (In  Zeitschrift  fiir  christliche  Archaologie  mid 
Kunst  I,  p.  1.) 

F.  J.  Pider.  Einiges  zur  Baugeschiehte  des  Essener  Miinsters.  (Essener  Zeitung,  1881. 
Nr.  60.) 

F.  J.  Pider.     Die  Griindung  der  Abtei  Essen.     (Essener  Zeitung,  1880,  Nr.  284.) 

Von  Quast.  Die  Miinsterkirche  in  Essen,  die  gemeinsame  Pfarrkirche  fiir  die  katholischen 
Pfarren  S.  Johaim  untl  S.  Gertrud.     Essen,  1863. 

F.  J.  Pider.     Die  Miinsterkirche  zu  Essen.     (Echo  der  Gegenwart,  1856,  26  Juli.) 

Baudris.  Die  Miinsterkirche  in  E.s,sen.  (In  Organ  fiir  christliche  Kunst,  1851,  p.  89;  1892, 
p.  3.) 

Prisac.     Die  Miinsterkirche  in  E.ssen.     (In  Kolner  Domblatt,  1844,  Nr.  100,  101.) 

421 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

FRANKFURT 

Carl  Wolff.  Der  Kaiserdom  in  Frankfurt-ani-Main.  Eiiie  baiigeschichtliche  Darstellmig. 
Frankfurt  A/M.,  Carl  Jugal,  1892.  4to. — An  excellent  monograph  with  a  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  the  Salvatorskirche. 

Franz  Jacob  SclnniH.  Die  ehemalige  karolingische  Sanct  Salvator-Basilika  in  Frank- 
furt-am-Main.  (In  Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwissenschaft,  1901,  vol.  24,  pp.  251-254.)  —  A  terse 
and  adequate  publication.     No  illustrations. 

Batioun.  Der  Kaiserdom  zu  Frankfurt  A/M.  Beitrage  zur  Gescliichte  des  St.  Bartholo- 
maeus-Stiftes  und  seiner  Kirche.  Aus  dem  handschriftlichen  Nachlasse  des  canonicus 
Johann  Georg  Battoun.     Mit  Anmerkungen  herausgegeben  von  Kelchner.     Frankfurt,  1869. 

//.  Grotefend.  Die  Bestatigungsurkunde  des  Domstiftes  zu  Frankfurt  A/M  von  882  und 
ihre  Bedcutung  fiir  das  Stift  erlautert.  Neujahrblatt  des  Vereins  fiir  Geschichte  und  Alter- 
thumskunde  zu  Frankfurt  a/M,  1884.  —  Important. 

Kirchner.  Ansichten  von  Frankfurt  am  Main,  der  umliegenden  Gegend  und  der  benach- 
barten  Ileilquellen.     Frankfurt,  1818.     2  vols. 

Mailer.  Ilistorische  Nachricht  von  dem  v^eit  beriihmten  kayserlichen  Wahl-  und  Dom- 
Stifft  S.  Bartholomaei  in  Franckfurt,  1746. 

FULDA 

Heinrich  von  Dehn-Rotjelser.  Die  St.  Michaelskirche  zu  Fulda.  Kassel,  1866.  Folio. 
(In  Kassel-Verein  fiir  lie.ssische  Geschichte  und  Landeskunde,  Mittelalterliche  Baudenkmaler 
in  Kurhessen,  vol.  1.) 

Gegenbauer.     Die  Baugeschichte  Fuldas.     Fuldaer  Gymnasialprogramm,  1881. 

J.  F.  Lange.     Die  St.  Michaelskirche  zu  Fulda.     1855. 

J.  F.  Lange.     Baudenkmaler  und  Alterthiimer  Fiddas.     1847. 

GERMIGNY-LES-PRES 

G.  Bouct.  L'eglise  de  Germigny-les-Pres,  etc.  (Bulletin  Monumental,  1868,  vol.  34, 
p.  566.)  —  An  excellent  account. 

Parker.  Remarks  on  some  early  churches  in  France.  (In  Archseologia,  1857,  vol.  37, 
p.  244.)  —  Contains  an  account  of  Germigny-les-Pres  with  a  reproduction  of  the  famous 
inscription. 

GERNRODE 

Fritz  Maurer.  Die  Stiftskirche  St.  Cyriace  zu  Gernrode.  Berlin,  Ernst  &  Korn,  1888. 
Folio.     (Romanische  Bauten  in  Anhalt,  I.  Abtheilung.)  —  A  satisfactory  monograph. 

GRANDLIEU 

L.Maitre.  Saint  Philbert  de  Grandlieu.  (Cong.  Arch,  de  France,  63me  sess,  1896;  Bull. 
Arch,  du  Comite  etc.,  1896  et  1900;  Bulletin  Monumental,  1901.) 

J.  A.  Brutails.  Note  sur  l'eglise  de  St.  Philbert  de  Grandlieu.  (Bulletin  Monumental, 
1898.) 

GRENOBLE 

Marcel  Rcymond.     La  chapelle  Saint  Laurent  de  Grenoble.     Paris,  1896. 

HEIDELBERG 

Schleuning.  Die  IMichaelis-Basilika  auf  dem  heiligen  Berge  bei  Heidelberg.  Eine  bauge- 
schichtliche  Studie.  Heidelberg,  1887.  —  Although  containing  several  inaccuracies,  this  mon- 
ograph is  a  valuable  study  not  only  of  Heidelberg,  but  of  the  entire  field  of  Carolingian  archi- 
tecture in  Germany. 

422 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

HOCHST  A.M. 

Franz  Jacob  Schmitt.  Die  karoliiiKi.sche  Saulenbasilika  Sanct  Justinus  zu  Hijchst  am 
Main.  (In  Repertorium  fiir  Kunstwisscn.schaft,  1900,  vol.  i'J,  pp.  400-111.)  —  An  excellent  mon- 
ograph, withou;  illu.strations. 

Fall:  uiu!  Ileckmann.  Die  karoliiigisclie  Saulenba.silika  zu  Hiichst.  Geschichtsbulletin 
fiir  die  mittelrheiiiisclie  Bisthiimer.     [188.'}.]     4to. 

Ernst  Gladbach.     Sauct  Justinus  zu  Hbchst.  (Moller'schen  Denkmaler  deutsclier  Baukunst 

m,  pp.  7-11.) 

Fram  Hubert  Miillir.  Sanct  Justinus  zu  Ilochst.  (In  Annalen  des  Vereins  fur  nassauische 
Alterthumskunde  und  Geschichtsforschung.     Wiesbaden,  1837.     Heft  III,  S.  73-80.) 

INGELHEIM 

P.  Clemen.  Der  karolingische  KaiserfMilast  zu  Ingelheim.  (In  Westdeutschen  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Geschichte  und  Kunst,  Jahrgang  IX,  1890.) 

V.  Cohausen.  Der  Palast  Karls  des  Grossen  in  Ingelheim  und  die  Bauten  seiner  unmit- 
telbaren  Nachfolger  daselbst. 

JOUARRE 

Rethore.     Les  cryptes  de  Jouarre.     Paris,  1889. 

KOBLENZ 

Paul  Lehjeldi.  Die  Bau-  und  Kunstdenkmaler  des  Regierungsbezirks  Coblenz.  (Die 
Bau-  und  Kunstdenkmaler  der  Rheinpro\-inz.)  Diisseldorf,  L.  Voss  &  Co.,  1886.  8vo.  —  Con- 
tains a  fairly  good  account  of  St.  Castor's. 

Wegeler.     Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  des  S.  Castors  zu  Koblenz,  1882. 

A.  J.  Richier.     Die  Kastorkirche  in  Koblenz.     Koblenz,  1868. 

KOLN   (COLOGNE) 

F.  Bock.     Karls  des  Grossen  Pfalzkapelle.     Kiiln,  1865. 

LE  MANS 

Robert  Charles.  Guide  illustre  du  touriste  an  Mans  et  dans  la  Sarthe.  Le  Mans,  Pelle- 
chat,  1880.     \i°.  —  A  good  guide  book. 

A.  de  Dion.     La  nef  de  la  Couture.     Tours,  1879.     8vo. 

G.  D'Espinay.     L'cglise  abbatiale  de  la  Couture.     Tours,  1878.     8vo. 

LORSCH 

R.  Adaniy.  Die  frankische  Thorhalle  zu  Lorsch  an  der  Bergstrasse.  Darmstadt,  Im 
Selbstverlag  des  historischen  Vereins  fiir  das  Grossherzogthum  Hessen,  1891.  Folio.  —  An 
excellent  monograph,  which  settles  definitely  the  Lorsch  question. 

Schneider.  Der  karolingische  Thorbau  zu  Lorsch.  (In  C'orrespondenzblatt  des  Gesammt- 
vereins  der  deulschen  Ge.schichts-  und  Alterthumsvereine,  1878,  Nos.  1,  2.) 

Fall:.     Geschichte  des  ehemaligen  Klosters  Lorsch  an  der  Bergstrasse.     ^Nlainz,  1866. 

Franck.     Die  (berreste  des  Klosters  Lorsch.     (Frankf.  corr.  Bl.,  1861,  239.) 

Konrad  Dahl.  Ilistorisch-topograpliisch-statistische  Beschreibung  des  Fiirstcnthums 
Lorsch.     Darmstadt,  1812. 

METTLACH 

Chr.  W.  Schmidt.  Baudenkmale  der  romischen  Periode  und  des  Mittelalters  in  Trier  und 
seiner  Umgebiuig.  Trier,  1836-45.  2  vols.  4to  and  folio.  —  Contains  an  account  of  Mett- 
lach. 

423 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Wilhelm  Ejjmann.  Heiligkrcuz  und  Pfalzel.  Beitrage  zur  Baugeschichte  Triers.  Frei- 
burgi  Helvetioruni,  1890.     4to.  —  Good. 

V.  Cohausen.  Der  alte  Thurm  zu  Mettlach.  (In  Zeitschrift  fiir  Bauwesen,  Jahrgang 
XXI,  1871,  p.  31.)  —  An  excellent  account. 

M.  F.  MuUer.  Literatur-Anzeige  iiber  die  in  Trier  bestehenden  iind  zerstorten  Bauten 
aus  der  altesten  und  niittleren  Zeit.     Trier,  1840. 

MILAN    (GENERAL) 

Francesco  Malaguzzi  Valeri.  Milano.  CoUezione  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie  Italica 
artistica.  Bergamo,  Istituto  Italiano  d'Arti  Grafiche,  1906.  4to.  —  A  handbook  of  popular 
character  well  illustrated,  and  in  general  entirely  adequate. 

Pierre  Gauthiez.  Milan.  Les  villes  d'art  celebres  series.  Paris,  Laurens,  1905.  4to. — 
A  work  of  indifferent  merit,  at  times  entirely  misleading. 

Ernesto  Marini.  Milano  illustrata;  —  cose,  persone.  Guide  Marini.  Genova,  Edita 
per  cura  dell'  autore,  1903.     8vo.  —  A  concise  guide-book  which  pretends  to  no  scientific  value. 

Giuseppe  Mongeri.  L'arte  in  Milano,  note  per  servare  de  guida  nella  citta  Milano.  Societa 
cooperativa,  1872.     12°.  —  A  good  guide,  now  out  of  date. 

Aiumymmis.     Milano  e  il  suo  territorio.     Milano,  1844.     8vo.  —  Contains  a  bibliography. 

R.  Bonfadini.     Milano  nei  suoi  raonumenti  storici.      Milano,  1885.  2  vols.     12°. 

Agnfs  Gosche.      Mailand.      Leipzig,  1904.      8vo. 

Carlo  Romussi.  Milano  nei  suoi  monumenti.  Milano,  Libreria  editrice  G.  Brigola,  1875. 
12°.  —  Very  poor. 

D.  Petro  Gratiolio.  De  praeclaris  Mediolani  aedificiis  .  .  .  dissertatio.  Mediolani,  In 
Regia  Curia,  1735.  —  A  curiosity. 

Francesco  Pirovano.  Milano  nuovamente  descritta.  Milano,  Gio.  Silvesti,  1826.  16°. 
—  Of  no  value,  except  as  a  curiosity. 

Paolo  Rota.     Sette  antiche  basiliche  stazionale  di  Milano. 

Giulini.    Memorie  della  citta  e  delle  campagne  di  Milano. 

MILAN  (S.  AMBROGIO) 

G.  B.  Tosehi.  "Ambrosiana."  (In  L'Arte  I,  1898,  p.  231.)  —  A  merciless  rebuttal  of 
the  critics  of  Cattaneo. 

Carlo  Romussi.  Sant' Ambrogio.  I  tempi,  I'uomo,  la  basilica.  Milano,  Arturo  Demarclii, 
1897.     4to.  —  Misleading. 

R.  von  Eitelberger.     Die  Kirche  des  heiligen  Ambrosius  zu  Mailand.     Stuttgart,  1860. 

Seletti.  Sposizione  di  un'  antica  epigrafe  sepolcrale  esistente  in  una  camera  dell'  I.  R. 
basilica  di  sant'  Ambrogio.     Milano,  Stella,  1831.     4to. 

Gaetano  Landriani.  La  basilica  ambrosiana.  Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli,  1889.  Folio.  — ■ 
Misleading. 

Gaetano  Landriani.  La  basilica  di  S.  Ambroglio  prima  della  sua  trasformazione  in  chiesa 
a  volte.  —  "L'autore  repete  i  troppo  vecclai  error!  qui  da  mi  confutati."     (Cattaneo.) 

Belirami.  Ambrosiana.  Pubblicata  a  recordo  delle  feste  pel  XV  centenario  della  morte 
di  S.  Ambrogio.     Milano,  Cogliate,  1897. 

Beltrami.     La  basihca  ambrosiana  primitiva  e  la  ricostruzione  compiuta  nei  secolo  IX. 

Beltrami.  Una  leggenda  da  sfatare  a  proposito  del  campanile  di  S.  Ambrogio.  (In  Archi- 
vio  storico  lombardo,  1896.) 

Angelo  Fumagalli.  Codice  diplomatico  sant'  Ambrosiano.  Opera  postuma  pubblicata  da 
C.  Amoretti.     Milano,  Agnelli,   1805.     4to. 

X.  Barbier  de  Montault.  Le  tresor  de  I'eglise  St.  Ambroise  a  Milan.  (In  Revue  de  I'art 
Chretien,  1899,  vol.  48,  pp.  306-317.) 

Biraghi.     I  tre  sepolcri  Santambrosiani  scoperti  nei  Gennaio,  1864. 

Biraghi.     Sui  corpi  dei  Ss.  Vittore  Martire  e  Satiro  e  sulla  Basilica  di  Fausta. 
424 


C.  MONOr.RAPHS 

Giulio  Ferrario.  Monunicnti  satri  e  profani  di  S.  Ambrogio  in  Milano.  Milano,  dalla 
tipografia  deH'autorp,   18'24.  —  Unimportant. 

Jo.  Pctrus  Puricclli.  Monumenta  basilicae  anibrosianae  ac  monasterii  hodie  Cisterciensis. 
Mediolani,  Haniellati,  KUo.     4to. 

Arcsi.  Insignis  basilicae  et  imp.  caenobii  sancti  Ambrosii  majoris  Mediolani  abbatum 
chronologica  .series.     Mediolani,  Ramellati,  1674.     4to. 

Anonymous.  Guida  per  ossenare  con  metodo  i  monumenti  anticlii  e  modemi  della 
basilica  ambrogiana.     Milano,  1837.     8vo. 

MILAN   (S.  CELSO) 

Giuseppe  Antonio  Sassi.  Notizie  istoriche  intomo  alia  miraculosa  immagine  ed  insigne 
tempio  della  B.  V.  presso  S.  Celso.     Milano,  Bianchi,  1754,  1765.     4to. 

Bugatti.  Mcmorie  storico-critiche  intorno  le  relitiuie  ed  il  culto  di  S.  Celso  Martire. 
Milano,  Galeazzi,  1782.     4to. 

Bugatti.  Deserizione  dell'opera  a  fresco  esseguita  nel  1793,  nel  tempio  di  Sta.  Maria  presso 
S.  Celso.     Milano,  Pirola,  1797.     8vo. 

Paolo  Morigqi.  Origine  della  chiesa  della  Modonna  posta  vicino  a  San  Celso  di  Milano. 
Milano,  Ponzio,  1594.     8vo. 

MILAN   (S.  EUSTORGIO) 

Caff,  Michele.  Della  chiesa  di  S.  Eustorgio  di  Milano,  illustrazione  storico-monumentale- 
epigrafica.     Milano,  Boniardi  Pogliani,  1841.     8vo. 

Giuseppe  AUegranza.  Inscriptiones  sepulcrales  basilicae  et  coemeterii  Mediolani  tituli 
sancti  Eustorgii.     Milano,  Galeazzi,  1773.     4to. 

iOLAN    (CHIESA   D'AURONA) 

Laudedeo  Testi.  II  monastero  et  la  chiesa  di  Sta.  Maria  d'Aurona  in  Milano,  secoli  VIII, 
XI,  XVIU.     (In  L'.\rte  VII,  1904,  pp.  27,  104.)  —  A  capital  study. 

MILAN    (S.  SATIRO) 

Alessandro  Astesani.  Raccolta  di  varie  lettere  scritte  a  diverse  soggetti  circa  li  molte  pregi 
de  belle  arti,  di  culto,  e  d'antiquaria  che  distinguono  in  Milano  la  basilica  di  S.  Satiro.  Mi- 
lano, Fusi,  1810.  8vo.  —  "Promette  un  mar  di  cose  importantissime  ma  non  die  fuori  che  una 
parte  prima  intomo  alle  belle  arti." 

MIL.\N    (S.   VINCENZO  IN  PRATO) 

Carlo  Belgiojoso  e  Edoardo  Mella.  [Monograph  on  S.  Vincenzo  in  Prato.]  (Nel  Resoconto 
deir  Instituto  Lombardo,  1868.) 

MONTIER-EN-DER 

R.  A.  BouiUevaux.  Les  moines  du  Der  avec  notices  sur  le  bourg  et  le  canton  de  Montier- 
en-Der  et  la  \'ille  de  Wassy.  Montier-en-Der,  Jules  Thiebout,  1846.  8vo.  —  A  sensible,  if 
not  deeply  learned  account  of  Montier-en-Der  and  its  neighborhood,  with  some  references  to 
the  architecture.  , 

MONZA 

Barbier  de  Montaidt.     Inventaires  de  la  basilique  royale  de  Monza. 

NANTES 

R.  de  Lasteyrie.     Les  fouilles  de  Saint  Similien  de  Nantes.     Paris,  1896.     4to. 

425 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

NIIVRYEGEN 

Hermann.  Der  Palast  Karls  des  Grossen  zu  Nimwegen.  (In  Rheinisches  Jahrbuch, 
vol.  77,  p.  88.) 

Oltmans.  Description  de  la  chapelle  carloWngienne  et  de  la  chapelle  romane,  resles  du 
chateau  de  Nimegue.     Amsterdam,  1817. 

PfiRIGUEUX 

Felix  de  Verneilh.  L'architectnre  byzantine  en  France.  Paris,  Victor  Didron,  1851. 
Folio.  —  Chapter  V  dealing  with  the  Latin  church  of  St.  Front,  notwithstanding  several  errors, 
is  the  best  publication  of  that  uiterestiug  monument  that  has  yet  appeared. 

Felix  de  Verneilh.  St.  Front  de  Perigueux.  Facade  et  porche  de  leglise  latine.  (In 
Annales  Archeologiques  XI,  1851,  p.  218  f.)  —  .\n  abridgment  of  Chapter  V  of  "L 'architecture 
byzantine  en  France"  with  the  same  plates. 

POITIERS 

De  Caumont.  Rapport  verbal  sur  une  excursion  archeologique  en  Poitou.  (In  Bulletin 
Monumental,  vol.  2-1,  1858,  p.  5  fl.)  —  A  description  of  certain  fragments  of  decoration  coming 
from  St.  Jean,  now  in  the  Musee  Lapidaire. 

POMPOSA 

Giuseppi  Agnelli.  Ferrara  e  Pomposa.  Collezione  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie 
Italia  artistica.      Bergamo,  Istitute  Itahano  d'Arti  Grafiche.     [lOOfi  ?.]      4to. 

QUEDLIXBURG 

Ranke  und  Kugler.     Beschreibung  und  Geschichte  der  Schlosskirche  zu  QuedUnburg. 

REICHENAU 

Friedrich  Adler.  Die  Kl6.ster  und  Stiftskirchen  auf  der  Insel  Reichenau.  (In  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Bauwesen,  vol.  19,  pp.  527-568.)  —  A  scholarly  monograph. 

Fickler.  Die  kirchliche  Bauten  auf  Reichenau.  (In  Denkmaler  der  Kunst  imd  Geschichte 
des  Heimatlandes  II,  2.) 

Staiger.     Die  Insel  Reichenau.     1860. 

Nikolai.     Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Insel  Reichenau.     1843. 

S.  GALLO 

Ferdinand  Keller.  Bauriss  des  Klosters  St.  Gallen  vom  Jahre  820.  In  facsimile  heraus- 
gegeben  und  erlaeutert.  Zurich,  Meier  und  Zeller,  1844.  4to.  —  An  excellent  pubUcation 
of  this  famous  document. 

A.  Campion.  Description  d'un  ancien  plan  du  monastere  de  St.  Gall  au  IX  siecle.  (In 
Bulletin  Monumental,  1868,  vol.  34,  p.  361.)  — A  concise  study,  with  a  restoration  of  the  plan 
in  modern  conventions. 

Rahn.  Zur  Statistik  schweizerischer  Kunstdenkmaler.  St.  Gallen.  Suppl.  zum  Anz. 
fiir  Schweiz.  Alterthiunsk.     No.  4,  1886. 

Keller.     Bauriss  des  BHosters  St.  Gallen.     Zurich,  1844. 

Neuwirth.    Die  Bauthatigkeit  der  alemannischen  Kloster  St.  Gallen. 

J.  rem  Arx.     Gescliichte  von  St.  Gallen. 

ST.  QUENTIN 

Ch.  Gomarf.  Les  cryptes  de  I'eglise  de  St.  Quentin.  (In  Bulletin  Jlonumental  XXII, 
1856,  p.  226.)  —  An  adequate  account. 

Ch.  Gomarl.    Notice   sur   I'egUse   de  St.  Quentin.    (In  Bulletin  Monumental  XXXVI, 
426 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

1870,  p.  201  f.)  —  Contains  the  publication  of  an  interesting  mosaic  belonging  to  tlie  Caro- 
lingian  church. 

SELIGENSTADT 

Dahl.  Das  tausendjahrige  Jubelfest  <ler  Pfarrkirche  zu  Seligenstatit  am  28.  Aug.  1825. 
Nebst  Gescliichte  and  IJeschreibung  der  Kirche.     1825. 

Braden.     Die  Pfarrkirche  zu  Scligensladt  vor  der  Restauration.     18G6. 

SteincT.     Gescliichte  und  Heschreiljung  der  Stadt  und  ehcmaligcn  Abtei  Seligenstadt.     1820. 

Dahl.  Das  alte  kaiserliche  Palatium  in  Seligenstadt.  In  Justi's  Taschenbuch,  Die  Vor- 
zeit.     1823,  1885. 

STEINBACH   (MICHELSTADT) 

R.  Adamy.  Die  Einliardbasilika  zu  Steinbach  im  Odenwald.  In  Auftrage  des  historischen 
Vereins  fiir  dem  Grossherzoge  Hessen  untersucht  und  beschreibt.  Mit  21'  Zinkatzungen  und 
4  Tafeln.     Hanover,  1885.     Folio. 

Schneider.  Die  karolingische  Basilika  zu  Steinbach-Michelstadt.  (In  Annalen  des  Ver- 
eins fiir  nassauische  Alterthumskunde  und  Geschichtsforschung  XIII,  1874,  p.  99  f.)  —  A  good 
account  without  illustrations. 

Draudt.     Das  Kloster  Michelstadt.     (Steinbach  Archiv.  fiir  hess.  Geschichte  XIII,  3.) 

TOSC.\XELLA 

Getiiile.     S.  Pietro  di  Toscanella.     (In  Archi\'io  storico  dell'  arte,  Anno  II.) 
Turriozsi.     Memorie  istoriche  della   citta  Tuscania  che   ora  volgarmente   dices!  Tosca- 
nella. 

TOURS 

R.  de  Lasteyrie.     La  basilique  de  St.  Martin  de  Tours.     Paris,  1892.     4to. 

Dehio.  Die  BasiUka  des  HI.  Martin  in  Tours  und  ihr  Einfluss  auf  die  Ent^\'ickelung  der 
kirchlichen  Bauformen  des  Mittelalters.  (In  Jahrbuch  der  kiiniglich  preussischen  Kunstsamm- 
lungen,  X,  1889.)  —  A  most  suggestive  study. 

Charles  Grandmaison.  Tours  archeologique.  II.  Tours  sous  les  Merovingiens  et  les 
Carlo\ingiens.  (In  Bulletin  ^lonumental,  vol.  40,  1874,  p.  351  f.)  —  Contains  a  good  historical 
notice  of  the  church  of  St.  Martin  and  a  reproduction  of  a  valuable  engraving  made  at  the  time 
that  the  church  wa.s  being  destroyed. 

Stanislas  Ratel.  Les  basiliques  de  Saint-ISIartin  a  Tours.  Fouilles  executees  a  I'occa- 
sion  de  la  dccouverte  de  son  tombeau.  Bruxelles,  Alfred  Vromant,  1886.  8vo.  —  A  good  ac- 
count well  illustrated  with  colored  plans.  The  ascription  of  an  ambulatory  to  the  church  of  the 
V  century  is,  however,  erroneous. 

Chevalier.  Les  fouilles  de  St.  Martin  de  Tours.  Recherches  sur  les  six  basiliques  succes- 
sives  elevees  autour  du  tombeau  de  St.  Martin.  Tours,  L.  Pericat,  1888.  —  The  official  pub- 
lication of  the  excavations,  on  the  whole  adequate,  though  Chevalier  falls  into  the  old  error  of 
confusing  the  remains  of  the  V  and  IX  century  churches. 

Lecoy  de  la  Marche.     Saint  Martin  et  ses  monuments.     Tours,  1881. 

VIENNE 

Etiennc  Rey.  Monuments  remains  et  gothiques  de  Vienne  en  France.  Paris,  Firmin- 
Didot  Freres,  1831.     Foho.  —  Contains  three  drawings  of  St.  Pierre. 

VERONA 

ilanara.  Di  due  antichissimi  tcmpii  cristiani  veronesi.  Verona,  Guelmi,  1840.  Folio. 
—  Contains  a  publication  of  S.  Giorgio  nclla  Valpolicclla. 

427 


CAROLINGIAN   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

G.  B.  Biancolini.  Notizie  storiche  delle  chiese  di  Verona.  Verona  1749-71.  9  vols. 
4to.  —  Contains  useful  historical  material. 

VAISON 

jR.  de  Lasteyrie.     La  cathedrale  de  St.  Quentin  de  Vaison.     Paris,  1889.     4to. 

VITERBO 

Pinzi.     Cenni  storici  suUa  chiesa  e  confraternita  di  Sta.  Maria  della  Cella  in  Viterbo. 

WERDEN 

W.  Effmann.     Die  karolingisch-ottonischen  Bauten  zu  Werden.     Strasburg,  1899.     8vo. 

L.  Lolide.  Die  Abtei-Kirche  zu  Werden  an  der  Ruhr.  (In  Zeitschrift  fiir  Bauwesen  VII, 
1857,  pp.  163-176.)  —  A  fairly  good  account. 

Geek.  Die  Abteikirche  von  Werden.  Historisch-architektonische  Darstellung.  Essen, 
1856.     8vo. 

WURZBURG 

Drouke  utul  Lassaidx.  Die  Matthiaskapelle  auf  dem  oberen  Berge  bei  Kobem  a.  d.  Mosel. 
• — "Ueber  die  Kapelle  auf  dem  Marienberge  bei  Wiirzburg,  S.  52."     (Otte.) 

Andreas  Niedermayer.  Kunstgeschichte  der  Stadt  W'irzburg.  Wirzburg  und  Frankfurt 
A/M,  1860.     8vo.  —  Contains  scraps  of  architectural  information. 

ZARA 

G.  Smirch.     S.  Donato  in  Zara.     (In  Emporium  of  Bergamo.) 
Bidic.    II  tempio  di  S.  Donato  in  Zara. 


428 


LOISIBARD   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  GENERAL  WORKS 
SOURCES  ■ 

August  Potthasi.  Wegweiser  durcli  die  Geschiclitswerke  des  europiiischen  Mittelalters. 
Bibliofheca  historica  medii  aevi.  Berlin,  W.  Weber,  1896.  '•2  vols.  4to.  —  A  valuable  bibli- 
ography and  guide  for  medieval  sources. 

Lodomco  Antonio  iluratori.  Rerum  Italicarum  scriptores  ab  500  ad  1500.  Mediolani, 
17'23-51.     28  vols.     Folio. — The  standard  collection  of  Italian  sources. 

Giuseppe  Maria  Tartini.  Rerum  Italicarum  scriptores  ab  1000  ad  1600.  Florentiae 
1748-70.     2  vols.     Folio.  —  A  continuation  of  Muratori. 

iluratori.     .Viuiali  d'ltalia.     1744-49. 

Arnoljo  of  Milan.  [fl.l077.]  Gesta  archiepiscoporum  Mediolanensium  ediderunt  L.  C. 
Bethmann  et  W.  AVattenbach.  (In  Migne,  Patrologiae  cursus  completus  .  .  .  series  Latina, 
1879,  vol.  147,  col.  281-332.) 

Robolini.  Notizie  appartenenti  alia  storia  di  Pavia.  Pa\ia,  1823-32.  —  The  most 
careful  study  that  has  yet  Ijeen  made  of  the  documentary  evidence  for  the  dates  of  the  churches 
of  Pavia.  INIost  unfortunately  this  work  is  not  available  in  New  York,  nor,  so  far  as  I  know, 
in  .\merica. 

Zanearoli.  Thesaurus  antiquitatum  et  historiarum  Italiae.  Antiquitates  civitatis  Fori 
Julii.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1722. 

Pier  Zagata.  Cronica  della  cittii  di  Verona  ampliata  e  suppliata  da  Gianbatista  Bianco- 
lini.  Verona,  Dionisio  Ramanzini,  1745.  4to.  —  Contains  useful  hi-storical  information,  un- 
fortunately not  always  of  unimpeachable  accuracy. 

Troya.     Codice  diplomatico  longobardo.     Storia  d'ltalia,  vol.  IV.     Napoli,  1852-55. 

Cauciani.     Leges  barbarorum.     Venice,  1781-92. 

Mai.     Scriptorum  veterum  nova  collectio.     Romae,  1825-38. 

Mario  Lupo.     Codex  diplomaticus  civitatis  et  ecclesiae  Bergomatis.     Bergame,  1784. 

Voghera.    Antichita  pavesi.     Pavia,  1825-29. 

GENER^VL  HISTORICVL  ACCOUNTS 

F.  de  Dartein.  Etude  sur  rarcliiteclure  lombarde  et  sur  les  origines  de  1 'architecture 
romano-byzantine.  Paris,  Dunod,  1865-82.  2  vols.  4to  and  great  folio.  —  The  plates  are 
still  of  great  value.     Absolutely  no  reliance,  however,  can  be  placed  on  Dartein's  chronology. 

G.  T.  Rivoira.  Le  origin!  della  architettura  lombarda  e  delle  sue  principali  derivazioni 
nei  paesi  d'oltr'  alpe.  Roma,  Ermanno  Loescher  e  Co.,  1901-1907.  2  vols.  Folio.  —  An 
elaborate  work,  finely  illustrated.  A  popular  and  abridged  edition  in  one  volume,  which  has 
just  appeared,  contains  considerable  new  material.  A  second  and  improved  edition  of  the 
first  volume  has  al.so  been  recently  published. 

Venturi.  Storia  dell'  arte  italiana.  III.  L'arte  romanica.  Milano,  Ulrico  Hoepli, 
1904.     4to.     Contains  a  good  brief  account  of  Lombard  architecture. 

Ileider,  Eitelberger,  mid  Hieser.  Mittelalterliche  Kunstdenkmale  des  Oesterreichischen 
Kaiserstaates.  Stuttgart,  Elmer  &  Seubert.  1858.  Folio.  —  Valuable  for  Austrian  monu- 
ments, but  touching  only  occasionally  on  the  Lombard  style. 

'  See  al.so  list  of  sources  in  Carolingian  bibliography.     The  documentary  evidence  for 
Lombard  buildings,  at  least  as  far  as  it  has  been  worked  out,  is  almost  nil. 

429 


LOMBARD   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Oscar  Mothes.  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Italien.  Jena,  Hermann  Costenoble, 
1882-84.  8vo.  —  "Grosse  bugiesono  .  .  .  parecchi  disegni  da  lui  offerti  al  lettore,  ove  invenfa 
monumenti  che  non  esistono,  crea  rovine  ideali  e  allunga,  allarga,  e  complica  a  suo  talento  li 
piante  di  certe  chiese!  !  !  Dove  puo  venire  proficuamente  coiisultato  degli  studiosi  si  e  nelle 
date  di  costruzioni,  restauri,  e  riedificazioiii  dci  uionunienti  die  egli  con  ispeciale  cura  e  diligenza 
raccolse  e  pubblico."     (Cattaneo.) 

De  Caumont.  Excursion  monumentale  en  Italic.  (In  Bulletin  Monumental  VII,  1841, 
pp.  70-162.)  —  Notes  of  interest,  though  many  of  De  Caumont's  conjectures  have  since  been 
disproved. 

L.  Cloquet.  L'architecture  lombarde  et  ses  rapports  avec  I'ecolede  Tournai.  (Revue  de 
I'art  Chretien,  1893,  vol.  30,  p.  216  f.)  —  Disappointing. 

Alfred  Darcel.     Excursion  en  Italic.     Rouen,  1879. 

Ernst  Forster.  Geschichte  der  italienischen  Kunst.  Leipzig,  T.  D.  Weigel,  1869.  5 
vols.     12°.  —  The  account  of  I^ombard  architecture  is  poor,  and  out  of  date. 

Charles  A.  Cummings.  A  history  of  architecture  in  Italy  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to 
the  dawn  of  the  Renaissance.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifllin  &  Co.,  1901.  2  vols.  —  Entirely 
misleading  for  the  Lombard  period. 

Ricci.  Storia  dell'  architettura  in  Italia,  dal  secclo  IV  al  XVIII.  Modena,  Pei  tipi 
della  Regio-Ducal  Camera,  1857.     3  vols.     8vo.  —  Entirely  misleading. 

Pietro  Selvatico.  Le  arti  del  disegno  in  Italia,  storia  e  critica.  Milano,  Vallardi,  1880. 
3  vols.  4to.  —  "Un  lavoro  nel  quale  la  poverta  e  confusione  dell'  erudizione,  le  incredibili  con- 
traddizioni  e  la  copia  degli  errori  e  delle  colpevoli  inesattezze  aviebbo  fatto  per  la  sua  buona 
fama  ch'egli  non  vi  si  accingesse  mai."     (Cattaneo.) 

Pietro  Sclvatico.  Storia  estetico-critica  delle  arti  del  disegno.  Lezioni  dette  nella  I.  R. 
Accademia  di  Belle  Arti  in  Venezia.  Venezia,  Pietro  Naratovich,  1856.  2  vols.  Svo.  —  Far 
inferior  to  the  same  author's  "Arte  del  disegno." 

R.  Garrucci.  Storia  dell'  arte  cristiana  nei  primi  otto  secoli  della  chiesa.  .  .  .  Prato,  1873- 
81.  6  vols.  Folio.  —  L'autore  si  monstra  superficialissimo  e  afl'atto  fuor  di  strada  ove  tocca 
dei  lavori  dell'  eta  longobardica."  (Cattaneo.)  The  work  contains  little  on  architecture  proper 
but  deals  largely  with  the  accessory  arts. 

Sacchi.     Antichita  romantiche  d'ltalia.     Milano,  1828. 

Adolphe  Lance.  Excursion  en  Italic.  Paris,  Librairie  des  bibliophiles,  1873.  Svo.  — 
A  gossipy  account  of  several  places  in  Italy.     Of  small  value. 

Luigi  Malrezzi.  Le  glorie  dell'  arte  lombarda;  ossia,  illustrazione  storica  delle  piu  belle 
opere  che  produssero  i  Lombardi  in  pittura,  scultura,  ed  architettura  dal  590  al  1850.  Milano, 
1882.     Svo. 

Ritter  von  Foerstcr.  Entwicklung  der  christlichen  Architektur  in  Italien.  (Allgemeine 
Bauzeitung,  1867.) 

George  Edmund  Street.  Brick  and  marble  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Notes  of  tours  in  the  north 
of  Italy.     2d  edition,  London,  John  Murray,  1874.     Svo.  —  Of  very  slight  scientific  value. 

Antonio  Piorene  Porto  Godi.  Vicende  dell'  architettura  in  Italia  —  discorso  letto  nell' 
Accademia  Olimpica  di  Vicenza,  il  giorno  27  giugno,  1847.     Vicenza,  1855.     Svo.     Pamphlet. 

Anonymous.  Collana  delle  cento  cittii  d'ltalia  illustrata.  Supplementi  mensili  illustrati 
del  "Secolo."  Milano,  Edwardo  Sonzogno,  1887.  Folio.  —  A  series  of  newspaper  supple- 
ments with  illustrations  and  text  of  about  the  grade  that  might  be  expected. 

Clericetti.     Ricerche  sull'  architettura  lombarda.     Milano,  18G9. 

R.  Willis.  Remarks  on  the  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  of  Italy.  Cam- 
bridge, Deighton,  1835.     Svo.  —  Entirely  misleading. 

BOOKS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS' 

Fr.  Osten.     Die  Bauwerke  in  der  Lombardei  von  dem  VII  bis  zum  XIV  Jahrhundert. 

'  See  also  the  work  of  Dartein,  cited  above,  p.  429. 
430 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

Frankfurt -am-Main,  Joseph  Baer,  no  date.  Folio.  —  A  series  of  fine  drawings  most  helpful  in 
the  study  of  Lombard  architecture.     The  text,  however,  is  entirely  misleading. 

A.  VoH  Panne witz.  Formlehre  der  romanischen  ISaukunst.  Leipzig,  Baumgartners 
Buchhandlutig,  1898.  Folio.  —  Excellent  croquis  of  Romanesque  details,  intended  for  prac- 
tical use. 

Karl  Miillingcr.  Elemente  des  Rundbogenstiles.  Munchen,  Emil  Roller,  1895.  Square 
folio.  —  A  series  of  mediocre  croquis  intended  for  practical  purposes. 

GUIDE-BOOKS 

Karl  Baedeker.  Northern  Italy,  a  handbook  for  travelers.  Leipzig.  New  editions 
constantly  appearing.  —  This  well-known  guide-book  is  not  altogether  satisfactory  for  Lombard 
architecture,  many  important  edifices  being  omitted  altogether. 

Th.  Gsell-Fcls.  Ober-Italien  und  die  Riviera.  Meyers  Reisebiicher.  5te  Auflage, 
Leipzig  un<l  Wien,  Bililiographisches  Institut,  1892.  —  A  good  guide-book  containing,  how- 
ever, many  ardiitectural  inaccuracies  and  mistakes. 

John  Murray.  Hand-book  for  travelers  in  Northern  Italy.  London,  John  Murray. 
New  editions  from  time  to  time.  —  Unsatisfactory  for  Lombard  arcliitecture. 

B.   WORKS  COVERING   ONLY   CERTAIN  ASPECTS  OF  THE   FIELD 

Bisearra  et  als.  Studio  preparatorio  per  un  elenco  degli  edifici  e  monument!  nazionali  del 
I'iemonte.  (In  Societa  di  archeologia  e  belli  arti  di  Torino,  Atti  II,  1878,  p.  255.)  —  A  useful 
catalogue,  though  neither  so  complete  nor  as  fully  annotated  as  might  be  desired. 

William  H.  Goodyear.  Architectural  refinements  in  Italian  churches.  (American  Journal 
of  Archieology,  1902,  2d  series,  vol.  6.)  —  Interesting,  but  not  altogether  convincing. 

C.  MONOGRAPHS 

AGR.\TE-CONTURBIA 

EdoarJo  Mella.  Battisteri  di  Agrate-Conturbia  e  di  Albenga.  (In  Societa  di  archeologia 
e  belli  arti  di  Torino,  Atti  IV,  1883,  p.  53  f.)  —  A  concise  account  with  one  plate. 

Edoardo  Mella.  Battisteri  di  Agrate-Conturbia  e  di  Albenga.  Torino,  1880.  (Extrait 
des  Atti  della  Societa  d'archeologia  e  belle  arti  per  la  provincia  di  Torino.) 

AOSTA 

E.  Berard.  Antiquites  romaines  et  du  moyen  age  dans  la  vallee  d'Aoste.  (In  Societa  di 
archeologia  e  belli  arti  di  Torino,  Atti  III,  1880,  pp.  119-212.)  — A  conscientious  account. 

BERG.VMO 

Fomoni.     Appunti  sulla  vecchia  basilica  di  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  di  Bergamo.     Bergamo, 


C.\NTURIO 

Anmmi.     Mommienti  e  storia  del  borgo  di  Canturio  e  sua  pieve.     Milano,  1835. 

CASALE   MONFERRATO 

Edoardo  Mella.  Chiesa  di  S.  Lorenzo  a  Montiglio  di  Casale-Monferrato.  Torino,  1874. 
—  Reprinted  from  "  L'.\teneo  Religioso,"  1873,  No.  51. 

CHIARAVAI>LE. 

Michele  Cajp.  Dell'  abbazia  di  Chiaravalle  in  Lombardia;  illustrazione  storico-monu- 
mentale-epigrafica.  Milano,  Gnocchi,  1842.  8vo.  —  A  sane  and  satisfactory  account  remark- 
ably in  advance  of  its  time. 

431 


LOMBARD   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CIVATE 

Barelli.  San  Pietro  ai  monti  di  Civate.  (Ri\-ista  archeologica  della  provincia  di  Como 
XX,  1881.) 

Giacinto  Longoni.  Memorie  storiche  della  chiesa  ed  abbazia  di  S.  Pietro  al  Monte. 
Milano,  1850. 

COMO 

Barelli.     Notizie  storiche  su  le  cliiese  di  Como.     Como,  1858. 

Barelli.  Notizie  archeologiche  riferibili  a  Como  ed  alia  sua  pro\-incia.  (Rivista  archeo- 
logica della  pro^ncia  di  Como,  Dee.,  1875,  and  July,  1876.) 

Cantu.     Storia  della  citta  e  della  diocesi  di  Como.     Firenze,  1856. 

COMO.     (S.  ABONDIO) 

Boito.  La  chiesa  di  Sant'  Abondio  e  la  basilica  di  sotto.  Milan,  1868.  —  Reprinted  in 
"Architettura  del  medio  aevo  in  Italia."  Milano,  1880.  —  "Una  bella  monografia."  (Cat- 
taneo.) 

COMO.     (S.  CARPOFORO) 

Barelli.  II  S.  Carpoforo.  (Rivista  archeologia  della  provincia  di  Como,  Aug.,  1872.)  — 
"Cette  notice,  acconipagnee  de  plusieurs  planches  de  dessins,  complete,  en  les  precisant  et  modi- 
fiant  sur  quelques  points,  les  renseignements  publics  en  1858  par  le  meme  auteur  dans  la  brochure 
intitulee,  "Notizie  storiche  su  le  chie.se  di  Como."     (Dartein.) 

Arumymous.  Del  recente  ristauro  della  basilica  di  S.  Carpoforo  presso  Como.  Public 
par  la  direction  de  la  Rivista  archeologica  della  provincia  di  Como  dans  le  fasc.  17  juin,  1880. 

Balestra.     Lapidi  antiche  scoperte  nella  basilica  di  S.  Carpoforo  e  nei  dintorni. 

COMO.     (S.  FIDELE) 

Barelli.  Ristauri  al  coro  del  S.  Fedele  in  Como.  (Rivista  archeologica  della  provincia 
di  Como,  Dec,  1881.) 

Barelli.  Ristauri  alia  prepositurale  di  S.  Fedele  in  Como.  (Rivista  archeologica  della 
provincia  di  Como,  Dec,  1874.) 

CORTAZZONE   D'ASTI 

Edoardo  Mella.  S.  Secondo  a  Cortazzone  d'Asti.  (In  Societa  di  archeologia  e  belli  arti 
di  Torino,  Atti  I,  1875,  p.  381.)  —  An  adequate  publication  with  drawings. 

CREMONA 

Luigi  Carsi.  Dettaglio  delle  chiese  di  Cremona.  Cremona,  Feraboli,  1819.  8vo.  —  This 
handbook,  while  pretending  to  make  no  study  of  the  original  sources,  is  still  remarkably  accurate 
for  its  date. 

Manini.     Memorie  storiche  della  citta  di  Cremona. 

GRAVEDONA 

Barelli.    Sta.  Maria  del  Tiglio.     (In  Rivista  archeologica  della  provincia  di  Como,  June, 

1873.) 

Edoardo  Mella.     Sta.  Maria  del  Tiglio.     (Ateneo  religioso  di  Torino,  No.  29,  1872.) 
Aiumymous.     Ristauri  alia  Sta.  Maria  del  Tiglio  in   Gravedona.     (Rivista  archeologica 

della  provincia  di  Como,  Nov.,  1877.) 

LENNO 

Barelli.  II  battistero  e  la  cripta  della  chiesa  arcipretale  di  Santo  Stephano  in  Lenno. 
(Rivista  archeologica  della  provincia  di  Como,  Dec,  1876.) 

432 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

MIL.\N  > 

Casmta.  T>o  fal)briclie  piii  cospicue  di  Milano.  Milano,  Cassina,  1840.  Folio.  —  Deals 
mostly  with  Henaissaiice  structures,  but  contains  some  drawings  dc  luxe  of  the  Lombard  mon- 
uments. 

Carlo  Annoni.  Monumcnti  della  prima  meta  del  secolo  XI  spettanti  all'  arcivescovo  di 
Milano.  Milano,  Alessandro  Lombardi,  1872.  Folio.  —  This  work  contains  little  about  archi- 
tecture, but  is  valuable  for  the  acces.sory  arts. 

Allegranza.  Spiegazioni  e  riflcssioni  sopra  alcuni  sacri  monumenti  antichi  di  Milano. 
Milano,  1759. 

Sormani.  .\llegata  ad  concordiam  in  causa  prseeminentiae  inter  praepositum  Imperialis 
canonicas  et  ambrosianae  basilicas  et  temph  majoris  Mediol.,  canouicos  ordinarios.  Mediolani, 
no  date. 

MILAN.     (S.   AMBROGIO) 

F.  de  Dartein.  Reponse  aux  observations  presentees  par  M.  A.  Ramee  sur  I'eghse  de 
Saint-.\nibroise  de  Milan.     (In  Re\'ue  de  I'art  ehretien,  1884,  p.  225.) 

MILAN.     (S.  EUSTORGIO) 

Michele  Caffi.  Delia  chiesa  di  Sant'  Eustorgio  in  Milano;  illustrazione  storico-monu- 
mentale-epigrafica.     Milano,  1841.     8vo. 

Anonymous.     Cenni  storici  intorno  alia  basilica  di  S.  Eustorgio.     Milano,  1864. 


MIL.\N.    (S.  NAZARO  E  S.  CELSO) 

Puricelli.  De  ss.  martyr.  Nazaro  et  Celso  ac  Prostasio  et  Gervasio,  Mediolani  sub  Nerone 
caesis,  deque  basilicas  in  quibus  eorum  corpora  quiescunt  historica  dissertatio.  Malatesta, 
1637.     Folio. 

Puricelli.     Dissertatio  nazariana.     Milano,  1656. 

MODENA 

Carlo  Borghi.  II  duomo  ossia  cenni  storici  e  descritti\'i  della  cattedrale  di  Modena. 
Modena,  Cappelli,  1845.     12°.  —  Contains  references  to  the  original  sources. 

Antonio  Dondi.  Notizie  sforiche  ed  artistiche  del  duomo  di  Modena.  Modena,  1896. 
8vo.  —  Notices  of  monuments  in  the  cathedral,  with  a  study  of  the  original  sources. 

ilessori-Iioncaglia.     La  cattedrale  di  Modena.     Modena,  1878. 

MONZA 

A'.  Barbier  de  ilontaull.  Inventaires  de  la  basilique  royale  de  Monza.  (In  Bulletin  Monu- 
mental, 1880,  pp.  48-82;  1881,  passim.)  — An  account  of  the  church  furniture  with  references 
to  the  original  sources. 

A'.  Barbier  de  Moniaidt.  Le  tresor  de  la  basilique  royale  de  Monza.  (In  Bulletin  Monu- 
mental, vols,  48,  49,  50,  passim.) 

PARMA 

Laudedeo  Tesli.  Parma.  Collczioiie  di  monografie  illustrate.  Serie  Italia  artistica. 
Bergamo,  Istituto  Italiano  d'.Vrti  Grafiche,  [1906  ?].  4to. 

Odorici.  Iji  cattedrale  di  Parma.  Milan,  1864.  —  This  monograph  appeared  in  vols. 
XII  and  XIII  of  the  "  Ingegnere  architetto." 

•  For  additional  monographs  on  Milan  see  also  Carolingian  Bibliography,  p.  424. 
433 


LOMBARD   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

PAVIA.     (S.  MICHELE) 

Carlo  dell'Acqua.  Memoria  storico-descrittiva  dell'  insigne  basilica  di  S.  Michele  Mag- 
giore  di  Pavia.  Pavia,  1862.  Une  deuxieme  edition,  corrigee  et  considerablement  augmentee, 
fut  pul)liee  en  1875,  sous  titre  "Dell'  insigne  reale  basilica  di  S.  Michele  Maggiore  in  Pavia." 
Pavia,  Fratelli  Fusi.  Folio.  —  Quite  misleading  as  regards  chronology,  but  on  the  whole  the 
best  monograph  that  has  been  written  upon  this  monument. 

Carlo  dell'Acqua.     II  San  Michele  di  Pavia  e  il  suo  ristauro.     Pavia,  1866. 

Carlo  dell'Acqua.     Relazione  sui  ristauri  di  San  Michele  Maggiore  in  Pavia.     Pavia,  1863. 

PAVIA.     (STA.   ]\L\RIA  DEL  POPOLO) 

C.  Brambilla.  I^a  basilica  di  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo  ed  il  suo  musaico.  Pavia,  Fratelli 
Fusi,  1876.     Folio.  —  Quite  misleading. 

PAVL\.     (S.   PIETRO  IN   CIEL  D'ORO) 

Pietro  Talini.  Scritti  di  storia  e  d'arte.  Milano,  Fratelli  Damolard,  1881.  12°.  —  Con- 
tains a  good  account  of  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro. 

Carlo  delV Acqua.  Per  la  soleime  riapertura  al  culto  della  basilica  di  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro 
in  Pa\'ia. 

Malasphta.     Guida  di  Pavia.     Pavia,  1819. 

RANVERSO 

Edoardo  Mella.  Dell'  abbazia  e  cliiesa  di  S.  Antonio  di  Ranverso.  (In  Societa  di  archeo- 
logia  e  belle  arti  di  Torino,  Atti  I,  1775,  p.  229.)  —  A  sufficient  publication. 

SAGRA  S.   MICHELE 

Abate  Rosminiano.     Sacra  S.  Michele.     Torino,  1868. 

Regaldi.     La  Dora.     1866. 

Abate  Oustavo.  Dei  conti  Avogardo  di  Valdengo.  Storia  dell'  abbazia  di  S.  Michele 
della  Chiusa.     Novara,  1837. 

Massimo  d'Azeglio.     Sacra  S.  Michele.     1821. 

SUSA 

Millin.     S.  Giusto  di  Susa. 
Sacclwtti.     S.  Giusto  di  Susa. 
Zuccagni-Orlandini.     S.  Giusto  di  Susa. 

VERONA 

Giambatista  Biattcolini.  Notizie  storiche  delle  chiese  di  Verona.  Verona,  Alessandro 
Scolari,  17-19.     9  vols.  —  A  monumental  work  and  a  secondary  source  of  importance. 

Da  Persico.     Verona  e  la  sua  provincia.     Verona,  1838. 

Gio.  Orti  Manara.  Di  due  antichissimi  tempii  cristiani  veronesi  [S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro 
and  S.  Pietro  in  Castello].  Verona,  Giulini,  1840.  Folio.  —  An  excellent  monograph  for  its 
date  with  references  to  the  secondary  sources. 

VICENZA 

[Ertea  Amaldi.]  Descrizione  della  architettura,  etc.,  di  Vicenza.  Vicenza,  Vendramini, 
1779.     12°.  —  Contains  much  misinformation. 

Enea  Amaldi.  Delle  basiliche  antiche  e  specialmente  di  quella  di  Vicenza.  Vicenza, 
1767.    4to. 

434 


C.  MONOGRAPHS 

VEZZOI^\NO 

Antonio  liosio.  Storia  tlell'  aiitica  abbazia  o  santuario  di  N.  S.  di  Vezzolano.  Torino, 
Collegio  degli  Artiguinclli,  [c.l875  h].  —  "£  assai  pregevole."     (Biscarra.) 

Parclo.  Facciafa  della  chiesa  di  Sta.  Maria  di  Vezzolano  in  Monferrato.  (In  Giornale 
deir  Ingegnere  Architetto  XII.) 


435 


ADDENDA 

(p.  67.)  Pagan  basilicas  converted  into  Christian  churches.  Since  this  work 
went  to  press  a  pagan  basilica  altered  in  later  times  into  a  Christian  church  is  reported 
to  have  been  discovered  at  Alise.     No  details  of  this  find  are  as  yet  available. 

(p.  124.)  M.  Gregoire  has  recently  published  three  inscriptions  on  the  beams 
of  the  roof  of  the  monastery  at  Mt.  Sinai.  These  in  connection  with  an  epitaph 
from  Beersheba  show  that  the  edifice  was  finished  between  548  and  562  a.d.  (Bul- 
letin de  Correspondence  Hellenique  XXXI,  1907,  p.  327.) 

(p.  154.)     The  existing  choir  of  St.  Generoux  is  probably  of  the  XI  century. 

(p.  156.)  A  group  of  monuments  in  southeastern  Asia  Minor  recently  published 
by  Miss  Bell  throws  much  light  on  the  pseudo-ambulatories  of  S.  Giovanni  and  S. 
Gallo.  In  these  districts  it  was  quite  the  usual  procedure  to  build  a  rectangular 
retro-choir  with  generally  two  apses,  behind  the  main  apse.  These  retro-choirs 
were  entered  from  the  side  aisles  and  seem  to  have  been  designed  for  use  in  connection 
with  ceremonial  processions,  although  they  differed  from  true  ambulatories  in  that 
the  wall  of  the  main  apse  was  solid  instead  of  being  carried  on  arcades.  Analogous 
constructions  are  to  be  found  in  Africa.  These  examples,  while  certainly  showing 
remarkable  similarities,  are  probably  independent  attempts  of  builders  in  various 
parts  of  Christendom  to  find  a  solution  to  a  common  problem  —  a  problem  that 
was  finally  overcome  by  the  invention  of  the  true  ambulatorv. 

(p.  173.)  Coram.  Rivoira,  the  latest  writer  on  the  subject,  believes  that  the 
nave  of  S.  Auibrogio  was  erected  between  1088  and  1098. 

(p.  181.)     The  existing  choir  of  St.  Generoux  is  probably  of  the  XI  century. 

(p.  185.)  Reichenau.  In  a  work  on  the  primitive  churches  of  Switzerland 
that  appeared  after  this  volume  went  to  press,  Dr.  Guyer  has  reached  certain  con- 
clusions in  regard  to  the  churches  of  Reichenau  contradictory  to  those  expressed 
in  our  text.  The  western  portions  of  Sta.  IVIaria  zu  Mittelzell  he  assigns  to  the  X 
century.  "Zwar  ist,  wie  Beycrle  gezeigt  hat,  die  Kirche  von  Niederzell  erst  um 
die  Mitte  des  XI  Jahrhunderts  entstanden.  Wohl  aber  enthiilt  die  Kirche  Sta.  Maria 
zu  Mittelzell  Bauteile,  die  bis  in  das  X,  ja  wohl  bis  in  die  karolingische  Zeit  zuriick- 
gehen.  Sie  ist  eine  flachgedeckte  Pfeilerbasilica  mit  Doppelchor  und  Doppelquer- 
schiflF.  An  das  OstquerschifF  ist  in  spatgotischer  Zeit  ein  neuer  Chorbau  angefUgt 
worden.  Hingegen  vermute  ich,  dass  das  Ostquerschiff  noch  zu  der  813  begonnenen, 
816  geweihten  Kirche  gehiirt.  ]\Iehr  Umgestaltungen  muss  das  Schiff  durchgemacht 
haben.  Hoch.stens  die  Pfeiler,  wcnigstens  deren  Kern,  kiinnen  noch  aus  der  Griin- 
dungszeit  stamraen;  die  Seitenschiffmauern  dagegen  stammen  wohl  aus  dem  X  Jahr- 
hundert." 

(p.   189.)     Pavia,  Lombardy.     Cliicxa  di  Moiitaliiio  di  Slradclla.     Consists  of 

437 


ADDENDA 

a  nave  four  bays  long,  two  side  aisles,  and  two  apses,  the  third  apse  having  been  re- 
placed by  the  modern  campanile.  The  piers  consist  of  a  rectangular  core  with  a 
shaft  engaged  on  each  face.  Unfortunately,  the  much-mutilated  condition  of  the 
edifice  makes  it  impossible  to  be  certain  of  the  original  disposition  of  the  nave  shaft, 
although  Coram.  Rivoira  believes  that  it  supported  the  timbers  of  the  roof.  He  assigns 
the  edifice  to  c.  970.     (Rivoira  II,  107.) 

(p.  190.)  MtJxsTER.  Kloster  St.  Johaiin.  Although  the  tradition  that  this  abbey 
was  founded  by  Charlemagne  cannot  be  traced  back  farther  than  the  XII  century, 
it  is  in  a  measure  confirmed  by  three  facts :  the  abbey  in  the  middle  of  the  XI  century 
was  in  the  possession  of  the  Carolingians :  it  existed  as  early  as  805;  and  in  780-786 
Charlemagne  passed  by  this  spot  in  the  course  of  one  of  his  campaigns.  These  evi- 
dences have,  moreover,  been  strengthened  by  the  recent  discovery  of  the  remains 
of  a  church  of  c.  800  with  frescoes  still  intact.  It  was  a  wooden -roofed,  single-aisled 
structure  with  apses  of  horseshoe  form.  A  series  of  blind  arches  was  carried  along 
the  clearstory  wall  externally,  and  the  edifice  seems  to  have  been  adjoined  by  a  group 
of  low  buildings.  In  all  these  dispositions  Dr.  Guyer  believes  that  the  influence  of 
the  art  of  Asia  Minor  may  be  traced. 

(p.  291.)  JuMiEGES.  Seine-Inferieure.  St.  J'alentin  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
by  the  abbot  Urson  (1101-1127).  It  is  a  church  of  three  aisles,  ending  in  a  Renais- 
sance choir  with  ambulatory.  There  is  a  clearstory  in  the  nave,  but  no  triforium. 
The  archivolts  are  of  two  orders,  and  a  flat  pilaster  forming  a  sort  of  system  is  engaged 
on  the  face  of  the  nave  piers. 

(p.  293.)  BocHERViLLE.  St.  Georges.  M.  Coutan  has  recently  undertaken  to 
show  that  this  monument  dates  entirely  from  the  XII  century.  He  has  discovered 
evidence  that  Benedictine  monks  from  St.-Evroult-d'Ouche  were  installed  in  1114, 
and  he  holds  that  therefore  no  part  of  the  present  structure  can  be  earlier  than  this 
date.  He  remarks  that  the  archivolts  of  the  tribunes  and  transepts  are  decorated 
with  che^Tons.  Coram.  Rivoira,  the  most  recent  writer  on  the  subject,  assigns  the 
church  to  c.  1100,  with  the  exception  of  the  facade  and  the  vaults. 

(p.  233.)  RivoLTA  d'Adda,  Lombardy.  Sta.  Maria  e  S.  Sigismondo  is  thought 
to  have  been  erected  before  1095,  and,  according  to  Coram.  Rivoira,  during  the  pon- 
tificate of  Victor  III  (1068-1088).  It  consists  of  a  nave,  two  side  aisles,  and  three 
apses.  The  apses  have  half -domes:  the  double  bay  of  the  nave  preceding  the  prin- 
cipal apse  is  barrel -vaulted;  the  remainder  of  the  nave  is  covered  with  rib  vaults, 
the  side  aisles  with  groin  vaults.  Since,  as  regularly  in  the  Lombard  style,  one  bay 
of  the  nave  corresponds  to  two  of  the  side  aisles,  the  system  is  necessarily  alternate. 
The  alternate  piers  have  one  member  to  carry  each  of  the  vaulting  ribs  except  the 
wall  rib,  which  merely  fades  away.  In  the  intermediate  piers  there  is  a  shaft  engaged 
on  the  nave  side,  but  this  receives  a  capital  supporting  nothing  at  the  main  impost 
level.  The  clearstory  is  well  developed,  but  there  is  no  gallery  nor  triforium.  Ex- 
ternally the  buttresses  carried  across  the  aisle  roofs  project;  the  cornices  are  formed 
of  arched  corbel-tables.     The  apse  is  obviously  of  the  XII  century.     (Rivoira  II,  189.) 

(p.  297.)  Cerisy-la-Foret,  Eglise.  According  to  Comm.  Rivoira,  the  latest 
writer  who  has  studied  this  monument,  there  remain  of  the  edifice  begun  c.  1030 

438 


ADDENDA 

three  of  the  right  original  bays  (the  last  of  which  was  placed  between  the  two  towers 
of  the  facade),  the  eastern  portions  of  the  crossing,  and  the  transepts  in  part. 

(p.  318.)  DucL.\iR.  St.  Denis.  This  interesting  church  has  recently  been 
studied  by  M.  des  Forts.  It  consists  of  a  nave,  two  side  aisles,  a  central  tower,  and 
a  choir  of  the  XIV  century.  The  nave,  three  bays  long,  projects  to  the  westward 
beyond  the  side  aisles;  it  is  characterized  by  round  archivolts  of  a  single  unnioulded 
order,  and  evidently  dates  from  the  XI  century,  although  it  has  been  much  disfigured 
by  modern  alterations.  The  crossing,  on  the  other  hand,  is  clearly  later,  for  the 
arches  are  richly  adorned  with  chevrons  and  frets,  and  a  rib  vault  is  placed  beneath 
the  central  tower.  I  am  unable  to  follow  M.  des  Forts  in  assigning  this  part  of  the 
edifice  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  XII  century;  the  style  would  seem  to  me  to  indicate 
a  date  c.  1170  or  even  later.     The  church  contains  interesting  glass.     (Des  Forts.) 

(p.  119.)  Ravenna.  For  the  sake  of  completeness,  a  list  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian edifices  of  Ravenna  is  here  included:  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte  —  111.  46 —  ("Bap- 
tistery of  the  Orthodox")  was  the  baptistery  of  the  cathedral.  This  beautiful  little 
building  was  erected  by  Bishop  Neo  (■l-t9-452).'  The  plan  of  the  structure  is  sim- 
plicity itself  —  a  plain  octagon  is  broken  by  four  niches  and  two  entrances.  The 
interior  decoration,  however,  is  rich  and  varied,  the  entire  wall  surface  being  covered 
with  a  composition  of  blind  arcades.  This  decoration  is  applied  in  two  stories:  in 
the  lower,  whose  proportions  have  been  marred  by  the  raising  of  the  pavement,  a 
series  of  blind  arches  is  so  placed  that  one  arch  occupies  each  side  of  the  octagon;  in 
the  upper,  on  each  side  of  the  octagon,  is  a  similar  arch  enclosing  three  smaller  arcades, 
in  the  central  one  of  which  is  placed  a  window.  The  capitals  of  the  lower  story 
are  Composite,  those  of  the  upper,  Ionic,  both  with  stilt-blocks.  The  mosaics  which 
ornament  the  dome  and  the  wall  surfaces  are  noble  examples  of  opii.i  graccanicum. 
The  effect  of  this  interior  suggests  Byzantine  influence,  though  the  building  in  its 
main  characteristics  is  thoroughly  Early  Christian.  In  contrast  to  the  richly  orna- 
mented interior  is  the  severely  simple  exterior.  The  walls  of  plain  brick  are  reheved 
only  by  arched  corbel-tables,  and  the  dome  is  protected  by  a  low  wooden  roof  which 
robs  it  of  all  architectural  effect.  This  dome,  resting  on  well  developed  proto- 
pendentives,is  constructed  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  the  churches  of  Ravenna.  Earthen- 
ware pots,  fitting  together  so  that  the  base  of  one  interlocks  with  the  neck  of  the 
other,  are  wound  round  and  round  like  the  strands  of  straw  in  a  straw  hat,  the 
whole  being  made  solid  with  plaster.     All  lateral  thrusts  are  thus  avoided.     (Dehio.) 

S.  Apollinare  Ntiovo  was  begun  by  Theodoric  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  (493) 
as  the  cathedral  of  the  Arian  faith  —  a  fact  which  may  partly  explain  the  Byzantine 
influence  so  evident  in  the  details.  The  church  is  a  three-aisled  basilica,  without  tran- 
septs or  gallery.  The  apse,  rebuilt  in  the  times  of  the  Renaissance,  was  formerly 
semicircular  internally,  but  polygonal  externally,  and  was  preceded  by  a  rectangular 

'  The  inscription  might  be  taken  to  imply  merely  a  rebuilding  of  an  older  structure  (did 
not  this  seem  to  lie  contradicted  by  internal  evidence):  "The  ancient  name  passe-s  away;  the 
ancient  pa-sses  into  the  new;  more  beautiful  tjehold  the  glory  of  the  renovated  fount  shine  forth, 
now  that  tlie  magnanimous  and  mighty  Priest  Neo  has  adorned  it,  dedicating  all  to  glorious 
religion." 

439 


ADDENDA 

bay.  The  proportions  of  the  main  body  of  the  church  are  striking,  the  nave  being 
so  broad  as  to  appear  almost  square.  Mosaics  ornament  the  triforium;  the  capi- 
tals which  support  the  arches  of  the  main  arcades  are  of  a  Byzantinesque-Corinthian 
type,  with  plain  stilt-blocks  on  whose  faces  crosses  are  carved.  The  interior  narthex, 
originally  completely  closed  in  the  Byzantine  manner,  has  been  rebuilt,  and  the  ancient 
atrium  has  also  disappeared.  At  an  angle  of  the  facade  still  stands  the  round  cam- 
panile, quite  similar  to  those  of  the  cathedral  and  of  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  but  only 
the  lower  half  belongs  to  the  original  structure  of  the  VIII  ( .■*)  century.  The  exterior 
of  the  church  is  severely  plain,  and  is  interesting  only  for  the  blind  arcades  which 
enclose  the  windows. 

Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia  ("  Ss.  Nazario  e  Celso")  built  between  4.'50  and  450, 
is  highly  interesting  as  the  earliest  existing  example  of  a  distinctly  cruciform  build- 
ing. The  plan,  perhaps  a  copy  of  that  of  the  Church  of  Ss.  Apostoli  of  Milan,  forms 
a  perfect  Latin  cross,  the  head  and  both  arms  —  all  of  which  have  square  termina- 
tions —  being  each  occupied  by  a  chaj)el  for  the  reception  of  a  sarcophagus.  The 
crossing  is  crowned  by  a  dome  on  proto-pendentives:  the  rest  of  the  building  is  cov- 
ered with  barrel  vaults.  The  dome  is  raised  on  a  little  clearstory  above  the  arms. 
Internally  the  whole  structure  is  aglow  with  splendid  color  reflected  from  the  V  century 
mosaics  which  cover  every  inch  of  the  vault  surface;  externally  the  plain  brick  walls 
are  relieved  only  by  blind  arcades.  The  nave  and  transepts  terminate  in  low,  clumsy 
pediments  with  heavy  raking  cornices  of  brick.     (Dehio;  Venturi.) 

Tovih  of  Theodoric  (f  526)  is  a  most  peculiar  construction,  entirely  without  anal- 
ogy among  the  buildings  of  the  VI  or  of  any  other  century.  Instead  of  being  con- 
structed of  brick, as  are  the  other  buildings  of  Ravenna,  it  is  built  of  fine  dressed  blocks 
of  stone.  Externally  the  building  was  a  decagon,  with  niches  in  the  lower  story,  and 
in  the  upper  a  covered  arcade  which  is  now  destroyed.  Internally  the  lower  story  had 
a  plan  of  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  while  the  upper  was  circular.  The  cupola  con- 
sisted of  a  monolith  of  colossal  size.  Near  its  base  was  a  ring  of  ten  projecting  spurs 
of  most  peculiar  character.  The  only  explanation  yet  offered  to  account  for  these 
spurs,  suggests  that  they  were  used  to  attach  a  rope  or  chain  in  hoisting  the  stone. 
On  the  summit  are  indications  of  four  columns,  whose  use  is  unknown.     (Dehio.) 

S.  Spiriio  ("S.  Teodoro"),  perhaps  the  earliest  of  all  the  monuments  of  Ra- 
venna, was  originally  founded  by  Agapitus  in  206,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Theodoric, 
who  transferred  it  to  the  Arian  faith  at  the  close  of  the  V  century.  This  important 
and  interesting  church  is  a  three-aisled  basilica  with  a  nave  fifteen  bays  long.  The 
aisles,  separated  by  ranges  of  pilfered  columns,  terminate  in  three  apses,  all  semi- 
circular internally.  The  triforium  is  decorated  with  mosaics.  Outside  the  south 
aisle  are  said  to  be  traces  of  an  open  colonnade. 

Sta.  Agaia  (111.  33)  was  founded  in  the  time  of  the  Archbishop  Esuperanzio 
(425-432),  but  a  restoration  executed  in  1476-1494  has  largely  destroyed  the  original 
building.  The  round  campanile  dating  probably  from  the  VIII  century  was  then  re- 
built, the  clearstory  windows  were  changed,  and  the  chapels  added.  The  exterior, 
however,  with  its  gabled  front,  still  retains  a  good  deal  of  its  former  aspect.  Also 
in  the  interior  twenty  of  the  original  columns  survive,  and  the  crypt  and  the  inner 

440 


ADDENDA 

vestibule,  opening  info  the  nave  by  a  single  arch  are  perhaps  parts  of  the  primitive 
construction.  The  apse  has  been  rebuilt.  The  great  interest  of  this  church  lies 
in  its  capitals,  which  are  probably  part  of  the  original  construction  and  some  of 
which  bear  every  evidence  of  having  been  executed  for  the  position  they  now  occupy. 
If  this  be  the  case,  they  are  most  interesting  and  unique  examples  of  Early  Chris- 
tian carving.  Some  have  stilt-blocks  of  very  Byzantinesque  design.  One  is  a  bell 
capital  entirely  uncarved  and  of  the  most  curious  proportions;  another  is  a  bell 
capital  with  a  few  detached  leaves  plastered  upon  it,  as  it  were,  at  random.  A 
third  type  is  a  crude  Composite,  with  two  rows  of  uncut  leaves  squeezed  down 
around  the  necking,  leaving  the  upper  part  of  the  bell  below  the  volutes  bare. 
Altogether  these  capitals  suggest  so  many  analogies  with  Romanesque  work,  that 
could  they  be  proved  to  be  of  the  V  century  they  would  throw  much  light  on  the 
origin  of  that  style.  At  all  events,  they  are  worthy  of  much  more  careful  study  than 
has  yet  given  them. 

Palace  of  Theodoric.  The  chief  extant  remains  consist  of  a  fragment  of  the  facade 
65'  long,  for  the  foundations  that  have  recently  been  excavated  in  the  rear  do  not 
throw  much  additional  light  on  this  interesting  building.  The  fa9ade  is  constructed 
of  brick  work,  and  is  divided  into  three  bays  by  pilaster  strips:  the  center  is  occupied 
by  the  entrance  with  a  great  arch  above  it  on  the  second  floor;  the  two  side  bays  have 
each  four  blind  arcades,  whose  supports,  except  the  outer  pilaster  strips,  are  col- 
onnettes  resting  on  corbels  at  the  level  of  the  second  story. 

S.  Francesco,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Ravenna  basilicas,  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  V  century,  but  was  rebuilt  in  1793.  The  ancient 
square  campanile  of  unknown  date  which  still  stands  at  the  angle  of  the  fafade  and 
the  two  ranges  of  pilfered  columns,  eleven  on  either  side  of  the  nave,  are  all  that  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  edifice.  The  stilt-blocks  surmounting  the  columns  are  said  to 
be  the  earliest  known  examples  of  that  feature. 

Dapti.sterij  of  the  Arians  was  originally  an  octagon,  with  apses  on  four  of  its  sides, 
surmounted  by  a  dome  on  proto-pendentives.  This  monument  was  built  by  Theo- 
doric (489-526)  in  the  early  years  of  his  reign,  as  the  baptistery  of  the  Arian  cathedral 
On  the  suppression  of  the  Arian  faith  thirty  years  later,  the  baptistery  was  converted 
into  a  chapel,  by  the  destruction  of  three  of  its  apses  and  the  addition  of  a  nave.  The 
monument  still  retains  its  mosaics  of  the  VI  century  and  some  traces  of  the  ornamenta- 
tion in  two  stories  of  arcades,  similar  to  those  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte.  (Dehio;  Cum- 
mings.) 

Palace  of  the  Archbishop  contains  a  cruciform  chapel,  dating  from  about  450, 
remarkable  for  its  mosaics.  A  central  square  is  bounded  by  four  semicircular 
arches  and  covered  by  a  groin  vault.  From  this  central  area  opens  on  the  east  a  trib- 
une with  an  altar,  and  on  the  other  sides  shallow  recesses  of  the  same  depth  as  the 
arches  just  mentioned.      (Dehio.) 

Cafhetlral.  The  original  church  of  Ursus  built  in  the  first  j'ears  of  the  V  century 
was  destroyed  in  the  XVII  century  to  make  way  for  the  present  structure.  Only  the 
round  campanile,  of  later  though  of  unknown  date,  survives. 

S.  Giovanni   Evangelista,  erected    by  Galla  Placidia  in  4,34,  was  almost  entirely 

441 


ADDENDA 

rebuilt  in    1747  except   the  campanile.     In    the  court,  however,  the  old  atrium  may 
still  be  traced,  and  the  ancient  columns  remain  in  the  interior  of  the  church. 

S.  Pier  Crisologo  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Archbishop  Pier  Crisologo 
between  433  and  449.  The  interior  is  decorated  with  marbles,  stuccos,  and  mosaics. 
The  chief  interest  of  the  structure,  however,  lies  in  the  exterior  cornice,  whose  dentils 
suggest  the  Romanesque  corbel-table,  and  whose  zig-zag  brickwork  foreshadows 
Carolingian  triangular  decoration.     (Rivoira.) 


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suchungen  seit  dem  Jahre  1899.     Berlin,  G.  Reimer,  1908.     4to. 

(p.   374.)     W.  Dorpfeld.     Die   Bauwerke.     Die  Arbeiten   zu   Perganion   1904- 

1905.  (Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts,  Athenische 
Abteilung  XXXII,  1907,  p.  163.)  — Admirable  publication  of  the  House  of  Attains, 
the  Gymnasium,  and  the  Theater. 

(p.  374.)  E.  R.  Barker.  Past  excavations  at  Herculaneum.  (The  Classical 
Review  XXI,  1907,  p.  2.) 

(p.  374.)  E.  Gahrici.  Bibliography  of  Herculaneum.  (Boll.  Arte,  1907, 
Vol.  7,  pp.  23-25.) 

(p.  374.)  E.  R.  Barker.  Bibliography  of  the  most  important  authorities  on 
Herculaneum.     (The  Classical  Review  XXI,  1907,  p.  5.) 

(p.  376.)  G.  Tomassetti.  Delia  Campagna  romana;  illustrazioni  delle  vie 
Labicana  e  Prenestina.     Rome,  E.  Loescher  e  Co.,  1907.     Svo. 

(p.  376.)  T.  Ashhy.  The  classical  topography  of  the  Roman  Campagna. 
(Papers  of  the  British  School  at  Rome,  1905,  seq.) 

(p.  376.)  Leoni  and  Staderini.  On  the  Appian  Way.  A  walk  from  Rome 
to  Albano.     Translated  by  E.  Fitz-Maurice.     Rome,  R.  Bemporad,  1907.     \-Z°. 

(p.  376.)  ^-1.  Calza.  Ostia  antica.  Nuove  scoperte  e  ricognizioni.  Roma, 
1907.     Svo. 

(p.  376.)  Raniero  Gigliarelli.  Perugia  antica  e  Perugia  moderna:  indicazioni 
storico-topografiche.     Perugia,  Donnini,  1907.  —  An  excellent  guide-book. 

(p.  377.)  O.  Marucchi.  II  tempio  della  Fortuna  Prenestina  secondo  il  risultato 
di  nuove  indagini  e  di  recentissime  scoperte.  Roma,  1908.  8vo.  (Reprinted 
from  Bulletino  della  Commissione  Archeologica  Comunale  di  Roma  XXV,  1907, 
p.  275.)  —  A  study  topographical  rather  than  architectural. 

(p.  377.)     TAORMINA. 

E.  Manceri.  Taormina.  (Italia  Artistica.)  Bergamo.  Istituto  Italiano  d'Arti 
Grafiche,  1907.     Svo. 

(p.  377.)     Winnefeld.     Villa  des  Hadrian. 

(p.  377.)  R.  Landani.  La  villa  adrianna,  guida  e  descrizione.  Roma,  1906. 
Svo. 

(p.  377.)  V.  Reina.  Tivoli.  Relievo  plani-metrico  ed  altimetrico  della  villa 
adriana,  eseguito  dalla  scuola  per  gli  Ingegneri.     (Notizie  degli  scavi  di  antichita, 

1906,  p.  313.) 

(p.  377).     Gusman.     La  villa  imperiale  de  Tibur. 

(p.  377.)  F.  Grossi-Gondi.  II  Tusculano  nell'  eta  classica.  Escursioni  archeo- 
logiche.     Roma,  E.  Loescher   &  Cie,  1908. 

(p.  377.)  F.  Gros.?i  Gondi.  Sepolcro  e  villa  dei  Furii  nel  Tusculano.  (Ausonia, 
Rivista  della  Societa  Italiana  di  Archeologia  e  Storia  dell'  Arte  I,  1906,  p.  56.) 

446 


ADDENDA   TO    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(p.  378.)  G.  Boi.ssicr.  lloma  e  Poiiipei;  passeggiate  archeologiche.  Traclii- 
zione  italiana  con  appendice  e  note  <li  A.  J.  Rusconi. 

(p.  378. )  A.  Pa.icalc.  Pompei.  Uses  and  customs  to  see  intelligently  Pom- 
peian  antiquities.     Napoli,  Pellerano,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  378.)     E.  von  Mayer.     Pompeii  as  an  art  city.     London,  1907. 

(p.  378.)     A.   Lacroix.     Pompei,  Saint-Pierre,  Ottajano.     Paris,   1906. 

(p.  379.)  J.  Kiirth.  Aiis  Pompeji.  Skizzen  und  Studien.  Berlin,  Verlag 
Deutsche  Biichcrci,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  ,380.)  A.  Sogliano.  Pompei.  Relazione  degli  scavi  fatte  dal  decembre 
1902  a  tutto  marzo  190.5.  Casa  degli  Aniorini  Dorati.  (Notizie  degli  scavi  di  anti- 
chita,  Serie  V%  Vol.  IV,  1907,  p.  549.) 

(p.  381.)  A.  Mau.  Das  grosse  Theater  in  Pompeji.  (IVIitteilungen  des  kaiser- 
lich  deutschen  archaeologischen  Instituts,  Roemische  Abteilung  XXI,  1906,  p.  1.)  — ■ 
An  admirable  study  of  the  skene. 

(p.  382.)  Chr.  Huelsen.  La  Roma  antica  di  Ciriaco  d'Ancona.  Disegni 
inediti  del  secolo  XV.     Roma,  E.  Loescher  e  Co.,  1907.     4to. 

(p.  382.)  Christian  Huelsen.  La  pianta  di  Roma  dell'  Anonimo  Einsidlense. 
Roma,  E.  Loescher  e  Co.,  1906.     4to. 

(p.  382.)  /{.  Lanciani.  Ricordi  inediti  di  artisti  del  secolo  XVI.  (Ausonia, 
Rivista  della  Societa  Italiana  di  archeologia  e  storia  dell'  arte  I,  1906,  p.  96.) 

(p.  383.)  Marij  W .  Porter.  What  Rome  was  built  with.  A  description  of  the 
stones  employed  in  ancient  times  for  its  building  and  decoration.  London  and  Oxford, 
H.  Frowde,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  388.)     AVENTINE. 

Alfred  Merlin.  L'Aventin  dans  I'antiquite.  (Bibliotheque  des  ecoles  fran- 
•j'aises  d'Athenes  et  de  Rome.)  Paris,  Fontemoing,  1900.  —  Topographical  rather 
than  architectural. 

(p.  388.)  E.  Roilocanachi.  The  Roman  Capitol  in  ancient  and  modern 
times.  Translated  from  the  French  by  Fr.  Lawton.  London,  Heinemann,  1907. 
Svo. 

(p.  389.)     COMITIUM. 

E.  Petersen.  Comitium  und  Rostra.  (Mittcilungen  des  kaiserlich  deutschen 
archaeologischen  Instituts,  Roemische  Abteilung  XXI,  1906,  p.  193.) — Up  to  the 
present  the  last  word  on  this  controversy. 

(p.  389.)  E.  Petersen.  Comitium.  Rostra.  Grab  des  Romulus.  Rom,  E. 
Loescher  und  Co.,  1904.     8vo. 

(p.  389.)  Chr.  Huelsen.  Die  Ausgrabungen  auf  dem  Forum  Romanum  1902-04. 
Rom,  E.  Loescher  und  Co.,  1905.     8vo. 

(p.  389.)  Chr.  Hvehen.  Die  Au.sgrabungen  a"uf  dem  Forum  Romanum,  1898- 
1902.     2.  Abdruck,  Rom,  E.  Loescher  und  Co.,  1903.     8vo. 

(p.  390.)  G.  Pinza.  Studi  di  architectura  e  di  topografia  romana:  L'angolo 
sud-ovest  del  Palatino.     Roma,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  392.)    TEMPLE  OF  FORTUNA  VIRILIS. 

E.  R.   Fiechler.     Der  ionische  Tempel   am   Ponte  Rotto.     (Mitteilungen  des 

447 


ADDENDA   TO   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

kaiserlich  deutschen  archaeologischen  Instituts.  Rcemische  Abteilung  XXI,  1906, 
p.  220.) — A  capital  monograph. 

(p.  393.)     S.  NICOLA  IN  CARCERE. 

Charles  Hvelsen.  Der  dorische  Tempel  bei  S.  Nicola  in  Carcere.  (Mitteilungen 
des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaeologischen  Instituts,  Roeniische  Abteilung  XXI, 
1906,  p.  169.) — An  admirable  study  of  the  original  dispositions  of  the  monument, 
based  upon  a  study  of  the  drawings  made  by  Renaissance  architects. 

See  also  work  of  Richard  Delbriick,  quoted  above,  p.  389. 

(p.  393.)     VIA  APPIA. 

Ripostelli  et  Marucchi.  La  Via  Appia  a  Icpoque  romaine  et  de  nos  jours.  His- 
toire  et  description.     Rome,  1908.     8vo. 

(p.  393.)     ITALICA. 

H.  Guerlin.     Italica.     (Le  Musee  IV,  1907,  p.  247.) 

(p.  394.)     KAN.\WAT. 

Clarence  Ward.  The  temple  of  Helios  ( ?)  at  Kanawat.  (American  Journal  of 
Archaeology  XI,  1907,  p.  387.)  — An  excellent  description  with  several  drawings. 

(p.  394.)     MUSHENNEF. 

Clarence  Ward.  The  temple  at  Mushennef,  Hauran,  SjTia.  (American  Journal 
of  Archseology,  Second  Series,  IV,  1907,  p.  1.) 

(p.  395.)  C.  M.  Kaiifmann.  IManuale  di  archeologia  cristiana.  Trad,  dal 
Tedesco  da  E.  Roccabruna.     Roma,  E.  Loescher  &  Cie.     8vo. 

(p.  395.)  H.  Lcclercq.  Manuel  d'archeologie  chretienne,  depuis  les  origines 
jusqu'au  VIII  siecle.  Paris,  Letouzey  et  Ane,  1907.  2  vols.  8vo.  —  "Une  ceuvre 
utile."     (Boinet.) 

(p.  397.)  Liidu'ig  Schneller.  Unter  dem  Halbmond  Nordafricas,  Kreuzfahrten 
durch  das  Gebiet  einer  untergegangenen  Kirche.  Cologne-Marienburg,  Paliistina- 
haus,  1907.  —  "Semi-popular  in  character,  yet  critical.  The  story  of  a  tour  of  in- 
vestigation of  the  historic  sites  of  the  church  of  North  Africa." 

(p.  397.)  Hans  Rott  et  als.  Klemasiatische  Denkmaler  aus  Pisidien,  Pani- 
phylien,  Kappadokien,  und  Lykien.  Leipzig,  Theodor  Weicher,  1908.  8vo.  (Studien 
iiber  christliche  Denkmaler,  Heft  5  und  6.)  —  An  important  work. 

(p.  397.)  Gertrude  Loicthian  Bell.  Notes  on  a  journey  through  Cilicia  and  Ly- 
caonia.  (Revue  archeologique,  4me  serie.  Vol.  7,  p.  1,  385;  Vol.  8,  p.  7,  225,  390; 
Vol.  9,  p.  1.)  — •  Contains  descriptions  of  many  Christian  churches  otherwise  unknown. 

(p.  398.)  Howard  Croshij  Butler.  The  Tychaion  at  Is-Sanamen  and  the  plan 
of  early  churches  in  Syria.  (Revue  archeologique,  4me  serie.  Vol.  8,  1906,  p.  413.) 
—  A  study  of  the  origins  of  the  prothesis  and  diaconicon  chapels  in  Syria. 

(p.  398.)  Ridgeway.  Origin  of  basilicas.  (Proceedings  of  the  Cambridge 
Antiquarian  Society  XI,  1907,  p.  312.) 

(p.  400.)  R.  P.  Delattre.  La  basilique  de  Damons  el  Karita  a  Carthage.  Con- 
stantine,  A.  Braham,  1892.     12°. 

(p.  400.)     HENCHIR  KEMABBEL. 

Marucchi.  Henchir  Kemabbel.  (Xuovo  Bulletino  di  Archeologia  Cristiana, 
1906,  p.  314.) 

448 


ADDENDA   TO    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(p.  400.)     HEN( mil  CHORAB. 

Marucchi.  Basilica  di  Ilenchir  Chorab.  (Nuovo  Bulletino  di  Archeologia 
Cristiana,  190G,  p.  315.) 

(p.  400.)  Delatfre.  L'area  chretienne  et  la  basilique  de  Nieidfa  a  Carthage. 
(Coiiipte-Rendus  de  rAcadeniie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,  1907,  p.  118.) 

(p.  400.)  J.  B.  Martin.  Histoire  des  eglises  et  chapelles  de  Lyon.  Lyon, 
Lardanchet,  1908.     4to. 

(p.  400.)  C.  S.  Mommcrt.  Topographic  des  alten  Jerusalem.  Leipzig,  E. 
Haberland,  [1907?].     4  vols. 

(p.  401.)  S.  di  Giacomo.  Napoli.  (Italia  artistica.)  Bergamo,  Istituto 
Italiano  d'Arte  Grafiche,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  402.)  A.  Haiipt.  Die  aussere  Gestalt  des  Grabmals  Theoderichs  zu  Ravenna 
und  die  germanische  Kunst.     (Zeit.schrift  fur  Geschichte  der  Architektur  I,   1907.) 

(p.  405.)     STA.  AGNESE. 

F.  Sai'io.  Costantina  figlia  dell'  imperatore  Costantino  Magno  e  la  basilica 
di  S.  Agnese  a  Roma.  (Atti  della  Reale  Accademia  delle  scienze  di  Torino  XLII, 
1907,  p.  659.) 

(p.  406.)     S.  CESARIO. 

A.  Bartoli.  Scoperta  dell'  oratorio  e  del  monastero  di  S.  Cesario  sul  Palatino. 
(Nuovo  Bullettino  di  Archeologia  Cristiana,  1907,  p.  191.) 

(p.  407.)     JERUSALEM. 

A.  W.  Crawley-Boevcij.  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem.  (Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  XXXIX,  1907,  p.  215.)  —  Maintains  that  the  present  church  does 
not  stand  upon  the  site  of  Constantine's  basilica. 

(p.  422.)  Leon  Maitre.  L'eglise  carolingienne  de  Saint-Philbert-de-Grandlieu. 
Nantes,  Dugas,  1907.     8vo. 

(p.  412.)     POMPOSA. 

A.  Gayet.  L'art  byzantin  d'apres  les  monuments  d'ltalie,  de  I'lstrie,  et  de  la 
Dalmatie,  releves  et  dessines  par  Ch.  Errard.  Ill,  Ravenne  et  Pompose.  Saint- 
Vitale  et  Fabbaye  des  Benedictins.     Paris,  Gaillard,  1907.     Folio. 

(p.  417.)  Samuel  Guyer.  Die  christlichen  Denkinaler  des  ersten  Jahrtausends 
in  der  Schweiz.  Leipzig,  Theodor  Weicher,  1907.  8vo.  — -  (Studien  Uber  christliche 
Denkmiiler.     4"^  Heft.) 

(p.  425.)     MtiNSTER. 

Jose]  Zcmp.  Die  Kloster  St.  Johann  zu  Miinster  in  Graubiinden.  (Mitteilungen 
der  Schweizerischen  Gesellschaft  fiir  Erhaltung  historischer  Kunstdenkmaler.  Neue 
Folge,  V,  VI,  1906.) 

(p.  426.)  Karl  Kiin-itle  und  Konrad  Bryerle.  Die  Pfarrkirche  St.  Peter  und 
Paul  in  Reichenau-Xiederzell  und  ihre  neuentdeckteu~  Wandgemalde.  Freiburg  i.  B., 
1901. 

(p.  428.)     VALCABIERE. 

Metivier.     Monogra|>hie  de  I'egli.se  de  Valcabiere.     Toulouse,  Privat,   1907. 

(p.  429.)  T.  Francis  Bumpus.  Cathedrals  and  churches  of  Northern  Italy. 
New  York,  L.  C.  Page   &  Co.,  1908.     8vo. 

449 


ADDENDA   TO    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(p.  434.)    RIVOLTA  D'ADDA. 

Nave.  Cenni  storici  suUa  chiesa  di  Rivolta  d'Adda.  —  Eco  dei  restaur!  artistici 
nella  chiesa  di  Rivolta  d'Adda,  1903. 

Biscaro.     I  docuiuenti  intorno  alia  chiesa  di  S.  Sigismondo  di  Rivolta  d'Adda. 

(p.  434.)  Anonymous.  Les  monuments  de  Veroue,  Padoue,  Milan,  Vicence. 
Paris,  Guerinet,  1907.     4to. 

(p.  398.)  Hoicard  Crosby  Butler.  Ancient  architecture  in  Syria.  Division  II 
of  Publications  of  the  Princeton  University  archaeological  expedition  to  Syria  in  1904- 
1905.  Leyden,  Late  E.  J.  Brill,  1908.  —  Section  A.,  Southern  SjTia,  7  parts;  Section 
B.,  Northern  SjTia,  6  parts.  —  In  course  of  publication.  Section  A.,  Part  1,  and 
Section  B.,  Part  1,  have  appeared  up  to  the  present  (Nov.,  1908). 


450 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 

References  to  the  Addenda  are  printed  in  Italics. 


Aachen,  419. 

Abbott,  H.,  386. 

Acherj-,  J.  L.  d",  414. 

Acqua,  C.  dell",  434,  (4). 

Adam,  Abbe,  309. 

Adam,  R.,  374. 

Adami,  C,  443. 

Adams,  W.  H.  D.,  354,  365. 

Adamy,  R.,  339,  4'>3,  4iJ7. 

Adeline,  J.,  349. 

Ademari,  415. 

Adler,  F.,  391,  400,  426. 

Adler,  G.  C,  384. 

Mgean  Islands,  360. 

Esthetics,  351. 

Africa,  364;  Early  Christian  monographs 
tile    antiquities    of,    400;  monographs 
365;  Roman  bibliography,  357. 

Agathias,  408. 

Agincourt,  d',  345. 

Agnelli,  G.,  426. 

Agrate-Conturbia,  431. 

Ainalow,  D.,  397. 

Aitchison,  Prof.  G.,  353,  363,  410. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  see  Aachen. 

Alberti,  L.,  361. 

Albertolli,  F.,  390. 

Albinas,  370. 

Ale.\andria,  365. 

Alise,  369. 

Alizon,  A.  d\  371. 

Alleaume,  369. 

Allegranza,  G.,  425,  433. 

Allen,  F.  H.,  347. 

Allom.  Th.,  412. 

Aloe,  S.  d",  365,  375. 

Altfridus,  416. 

Altmann.  W.,  343. 

AI\-ino,  F.,  362. 

Ameoourt,  Vte.  P.  d',  371. 

.\nieluiig  and  Holtzinger,  384. 

Ameluiig,  W.,  357. 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  338. 


Araici,  D.,  386. 

Amphitheaters,  362. 

Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  415. 

Ancona,  375. 

Anderson,  J.  C,  359,  369. 

Anderson  and  Spiers,  353. 

Andre,  P.,  376. 

Angers,  420. 

Angilbertus,  415. 

Annales  Brevissimi  Sangallenses,  41.fi. 

Annales  Fuldenses  Aiitiqui,  415. 

Annales  Fuldenses  Breves,  415. 

Annales  Lamberti,  415. 

Annales  Laurisharaenses,  415. 

Annales  Sangallenses  Maiores,  415. 
on       Annales  S.  Bonifatii,  415. 
3n,       .\nnales  Tielenses,  415. 

.\nnales  Vedastini,  415. 

Annales  Weingartenses,  415. 

Annalista  Saxo,  415. 

Annalium  Alemann,  415. 

Annoni,  431. 

Annoni,  C,  433. 

Anonymous  Banduri,  409. 

Antolini,  G.,  375,  376,  378. 

Anvers,  N.  d',  345. 

Aosta,  364,  375,  431. 

Apethorpe,  367. 

Aqueduct.s,  362. 

Arabia,  358. 

Archaeology,  351. 

Arches,  Roman  triumphal,  444. 

Architectural  Club  of  Bo.ston,  346. 

Architectural  Publication  Society,  349. 

Archioni,  421. 

Aresi,  425. 

Argos,  372. 

Aries,  369. 

Amiellini,  396. 

Amaldi,  E.,  434. 

Amolfo  of  Milan,  429. 

Arx,  J.  von,  426. 

Ashby,  J.,  Jr.,  440,  (S). 
451 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Ashby,  T.,  ^e. 

Asliby  and  Martin,  367. 

Asia  Minor,  358,  372,  397,  446',  {3). 

Assisi,  375. 

Astesani,  A.,  4'25. 

Astronomus,  415. 

Athens.  372. 

Aubert,  Ed.,  364,  417. 

Aubigne,  369. 

Audollent,  A.,  366. 

Audsley,  W.  and  G.,  348,  349. 

Augusti,  396. 

Auscherus,  416. 

Austria,  417. 

Auxerre,  420. 

Avellino,  F.  M.,  381,  (3). 

Aventine,  44~- 

Avery  Architectural  Library,  338. 

Azeglio,  M.  d'.  434. 

Ba'albek,  393,  407. 

Babelon,  Er.,  J^. 

Babinet,  L.,  371. 

Bacci,  A.,  363. 

Baedeker,  356,  362,  397,  431. 

Baia,  375. 

Baily,  T.  P.,  367,  (2). 

Balestra,  432. 

Ball,  384. 

Ballu,  A.,  UA- 

Ballu,  H.,  367. 

Baluze,  E.,  414. 

Barbault,  355,  386. 

Barberot,  E.,  340. 

Bard,  G.,  401. 

Barxlwell,  W.,  342. 

Barelli,  432,  (8). 

Barker,  E.  R.,  /^e,  {0). 

Barnard,  A.  J.,  372. 

Barrand,  F.  C,  421. 

Barth,  H.,  411. 

Bartoh,  A.,  449. 

Bartohni,  406. 

Basilica.  362,  398. 

Bassi,  M.,  400. 

Bath,  367. 

BatifTol,  P.,  395. 

Batissier,  M.,  341,  345. 

Batna,  365. 

Batsford,  338. 

Batteley,  Rev.  J.,  368. 

Battoun,  422. 

Baudot,  de,  417. 


Baudot  et  Dabot,  359. 

Baudris,  421. 

Baye,  J.  de,  417. 

Bayet,  C,  345,  410. 

Bazin.  H..  365,  370 

Beale,  S.  S.,  340,  359,  400,  419. 

Beauvais,  420. 

Bechi,  G.,  381,  (2). 

Becker,  W.  A.,  384,  385,  393. 

Beechey,  357. 

Beeck,  420. 

Belgian  Arcliitecture,  343. 

Belgiojoso,  C.  e  Mella,  E.,  425. 

Belgrand,  362. 

Bell,  G.  L.,  US- 

Bell,  N..  345. 

Bellicard,  374. 

Bellori,  G.  P.,  389. 

Beltrami,  391,  424,  (3). 

Benkard,  418. 

Bennassuti,  G.,  378. 

Benndorf  und  Niemann,  359. 

Berard,  Ed.,  364,  431. 

Berbrugger,  .\.,  358,  366. 

Bergamo,  431. 

Berghaus-Groessen,  H.,  340. 

Bergmann,  L.,  350. 

Bergner,  H.,  417. 

Berlin-.Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  353. 

Berlin  Museum  Authorities,  374. 

Berlau.\,  E.,  383,  403. 

Bertrand,  L.,  366,  (2). 

Berty,  A.,  350,  (2). 

Besan9on,  369. 

Beule,  C.  £.,  365,  366. 

Beylie,  L.  de,  363. 

Bianclii,  P.,  388. 

Bianchini,  F.,  390,  393. 

Biancolini,  G.  B.,  428,  434. 

Bibliotheca  Maxima  Patrum,  414. 

Bibliographies,  335;  general,  338.   . 

Biella,  421. 

Bignor,  367. 

Biondo,  F.,  361.  382. 

Biraghi,  424,  (2). 

Biscarra  et  als,  431. 

Biscaro,  j^oO. 

Black,  W.  H.,  393. 

Blanc,  C,  345. 

Blaut,  E.  le,  414. 

Blavette,  \.  .\.,  391. 

Blavignac,  418. 

Bleidenstadt,  421. 


452 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Blondel,  P.,  377. 

Bloomfiold,  R.,  417. 

Blouet,  G.  A.,  39-2. 

Bobeau,  417. 

Bock,  F.,  4-20.  (3),  4-23. 

Boeswillwald.  Cagnat,  Ballu,  366. 

BootticluT,  373. 

BosniT.  H.,  398. 

Boliiner,  414. 

Bord,  K..  341. 

Boissier,  G.,  365,  (-1),  44.7. 

Boissanl.  J.  J.,  382. 

Boito,  C,  340,  398,  421,  432. 

Boldetti,  405. 

Bollandes,  J.,  413. 

Bonanno,  407. 

Bonfadiui,  R.,  424. 

Bonneval,  C.  A.,  384. 

Bontan,  373. 

Bonucci,  C,  374,  379,  (2),  381. 

Books  of  illustration.   Early   Christian, 

General,  346;  Roman,  354. 
Book.s  of  references,  396. 
Bordy,  P.  J.  Ph.,  444. 
Borghi,  C,  433. 
Borioni,  A.,  355. 
Borsari,  L.,  390. 
Bosc,  E.,  350. 
Bosio,  A.,  435. 
Bottigeis,  C.  A.,  357. 
Bouchet,  J.,  363. 
Bouclee,  H.,  360. 
Bouet,  G.,  422. 
Bouillet,  J.  B.,  371. 
Bouillevaux,  R.  A.,  425. 
Bourasse,  J.  J.,  342. 
Bourasse  et  ClievaHer,  419. 
Bourges,  369. 
Bourgerel,  G.,  .347. 
Bournand,  J.  F.,  345. 
Bournon,  F.,  44^- 
Bourricaud,  A.,  371. 
Bovilie,  375. 
Bovio,  400. 
Boys,  T.  S.,  347. 
Braccioh',  P.,  382. 
Braden,  427. 
Bramantino,  382. 
Brambilla,  C,  434. 
Braun,  A.  E..  .385. 
Braun,  J.,  345. 
Brescia,  421. 
Breton,  E.,  341,  364. 


Britton,  J.,  350.  359. 

Brochure  Series,  379. 

Brosses,  Cli.  de,  374. 

Brown,  G.  B.,  356. 

Brown,  R.,  341. 

Bruce,  Rev.  J.  C,  368,  44s. 

Brulloflf,  A.,  381. 

Brunetti,  416. 

Briinnow,    R.    E.,    and    Damazewski,  A.  V., 

358. 
Brutails,  J.  A.,  422,  443. 
Bruyn,  .Abbe  de,  343. 
Bruzio,  403. 
Buckler,  G.,  367. 
Buckmann  and  Newmarch,  367. 
Buckniaster,  M.  A.,  341. 
Buelilniann,  J.,  354. 
Bugatti,  425. 
Bulla  Regia,  366. 
Bulic,  428. 
396;       Bullock,  J.,  341. 

Bumpus,  T.  F.,  449. 

Bunscn,  390,  396. 

Bunsen  et  als.,  383. 

Bunsen,  Guttensohn,  and  Knapp,  403. 

Buren,  A.  W.  van,  391. 

Burgess,  Rev.  R.,  387,  388,  412. 

Burkhart,  J.,  399. 

Burn,  R.,  361. 

Bury,  T.  T.,  340. 

Busch,  C,  340. 

Bussierre,  M.  T.  de,  405. 

Butler,  A.  J.,  397. 

Butler,  H.  C,  362,  398,  44s,  450. 

Butler,  W.,  379. 

Cabrol,  R.  P.  dom  F.,  351. 
Caere,  375. 
Caerleon,  367. 
Caerwent,  367. 
Caetano-Lovatelli,  E.,  392. 
CafB,  M.,  431,  433. 
Cagnat,  E.,  366. 
Cagnat,  R.  L.  V.,  358. 
Cagnat  et  Gauckler,  4^- 
Cahier,  C,  347,  396. 
Caliier  et  .Martin,  347,  348. 
Calisse,  415. 
CaKi,  E.,  403. 
Calza,  A.,  4JS. 
Cameron,  C,  363. 
Campagiia,  376. 
Canipana,  G.  P.,  393. 

453 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Campanari,  419. 
Campion,  A.,  426. 
Cancelliere,  407. 
Candidus,  416. 

Canina,  L.  T.,  354,  361,  375,  376,  377,  378, 
385,  387,  388,  (2),  390,  (2),  393,  396,  (2). 
Cantu,  432. 
Canturio,  431. 
Capitols,  362. 

Capitularia  Evangelorium,  403. 
Caprin,  G.,  377. 
Carbon,  N.,  371. 
Cardiff,  U5- 

Caristie,  A.  N.,  370,  (2),  390. 
Carletti,  G.,  393.  407. 
Carat,  J.,  348. 
Caratti,  G.,  J^IS- 
Carthage,  400,  366. 
Carton,  366. 
Carton,  L.  B.  Ch.,  1^. 
Carton,  M.  D.,  366. 
Carton  et  Denis,  366. 
Casale  Monferrato,  431. 
Casali,  G.  B.,  383. 
Casimiro,  406. 
Cassas,  L.  F.,  362. 
Cassina,  433. 
Cassini,  G.,  404. 
Castau,  A.,  369. 
Castel,  P.,  366. 
Castiglione,  G.  A.,  416. 
Castro,  V.  de,  361,  398. 
Casus  S.  Galli  Ratperti,  415. 
Cattaneo,  R.,  418. 
Catalano,  Travaglini  et  als,  381. 
Canciani,  429. 

Caumont,  A.  de,  339,  341,  342,  426,  430. 
Caussade,  358. 
Cavazzi,  L.,  407. 
Caveda,  J.,  361. 
Cedrenus,  G.,  409. 
Cellarino,  356. 
Cencius  Camerarius,  402. 
Cerceau,  J.  A.  du,  355. 
Cesare,  P.  de,  380. 
Chabat,  P.,  346. 
Chabrillat,  H.,  371. 
Chadwick,  J.  W.,  340. 
Chalk,  E.,  341. 
Champlieu,  370. 
Chandler,  R.  and  Revett,  360. 
Chapuy,  346,  347. 
Chardon,  420. 


Charles,  R.,  369,  423. 

Chateau,  L.,  343. 

Cherchell,  366. 

Chersonese,  Early  Christian,  397. 

Chester,  G.,  397. 

Chevalier,  4^7. 

Chiaravalle,  431. 

Chifflet,  J.  J.,  369. 

Choiseul-Gouffier,  360. 

Choisy,  A.,  339,  363,  410. 

Chronicon  Magnum  Belgicum,  415. 

Chroiiicon  Moissiacense,  415. 

Chronicon  Laureshamense,  415. 

Chronicon  Paschale,  409. 

Ciampini,  395,  396,  419. 

Cichorius,  C,  389. 

Cipriani,  G.  B.,  355,  386,  388,  405. 

Cirencester,  367. 

Circular  buildings,  363. 

Circular  churches,  399. 

Ciriaco  of  Ancona,  361,  J^J^^. 

Civate,  432. 

Cividale,  421. 

Civil  Architecture,  345. 

Clarac,  Cte.  F.  de,  381. 

Clarke,  W.,  379. 

Claudius,  365. 

Clausse,  G.,  396. 

Clauville,  367. 

Clayton,  J.,  368. 

Cleghorn,  G.,  345. 

Clemen,  P.,  417,  423. 

Clement,  C.  E.,  340. 

Clement,  F.,  345. 

Clericetti,  C,  419,  430. 

Clerisseau,  370. 

Cliffot,  L.,  363. 

Cloquet,  L.,  346,  430,  4^5. 

Cochin  et  Bellicard,  374. 

Cockerell,  C.  R.,  Donaldson,  T.  L.,  and  als., 

360. 
Codex  Palatinus  of  Heidelberg,  403. 
Cohausen,  V.,  423,  424. 
Colchester,  367. 
Coleman,  C,  396. 
Coifs,  J.  F.,  344. 
Colhgnon,  M.,  362. 
Colhng,  J.  K.,  349. 
Colling^vood,  W.  C,  347. 
Cologne,  see  Koln. 
Colonia,  D  de,  370. 
Comacini,  the,  419. 
Combesis,  409. 


454 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Comes,  M.,  409. 

Comes,  O.,  356. 

Committee  of  the  Council  on  Education,  339. 

Comision  Especial,  361. 

Comitia,  36i. 

Comitium,  44^- 

Como,  4^1,  43-2:  S.  .\bondio,  43'Z;  S.  Car- 
poforo,  43'J;  S.  Fideie,  43'2. 

Comparetti  e  De  I'etra,  375. 

Constiintine  VII  Flavius  Porphyrogenitus, 
410,  415. 

Constantinople,  411. 

Construction,  351. 

Conze,  360,  374. 

Conze,  Humann,  and  als.,  373,  374. 

Conze  und  Scluiclihardt,  374. 

Conder,  C.  R.,  362. 

Conder  and  Kitchener,  362. 

Coptic  .\rchitecture,  397. 

Corbridge,  ^o- 

Cori,  376. 

Corinth,  373. 

Corpus  Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Latino- 
rum,  395. 

Corradini,  P.  M.,  361. 

Corroyer,  Ed.,  419. 

Corsi,  L.,  432. 

Cortazzone,  d'.\sti,  432. 

Cotton,  W.,  390. 

Coufopoiihis,  D.,  411. 

Courajotl,  L.,  345,  411. 

Coussin,  377. 

Cramer,  359,  375. 

Crawley-Boevey,  A.  W.,  449. 

Cremona,  432. 

Crescimbene,  405,  406. 

Criticism,  351. 

Cromwell,  T.  K..  367. 

Crosnier,  .-Vbbe,  402. 

Cummings,  C.  A.,  343,  397,  430. 

Cundall,  J.,  348. 

Curopalates,  G.  C,  409,  (2). 

Curti,  P.  A.,  379. 

Curtis,  C.  D.,  444. 

Curtius,  E.  and  Adler,  P.,  373. 

Curtius,  E.  and  als,  373. 

Cur\-es  and  "Refinements,"  351. 

Curzon,  397. 

Cwmbnvyn,  445- 

Cyrene,  372. 

Dahl,  423,  427,  (2). 
Daimatia,  359,  419. 


Daly,  348. 

Daphni,  412. 

Darcel,  A.,  430. 

Darembcrg,  Saglio,  et  Pottier,  355. 

Dartein,  F.  de.,  403,  418,  429,  433. 

Da\-is,  N.,  358. 

De  .'Vngelis,  406. 

Debey,  420. 

Deglane,  H.,  390,  391. 

Dehio,  G.,  351,  398,  419,  427. 

Dchio,  G.  und  Bezold,  G.  von,  341, 

DehH,  A.,  411. 

Dehn-Rotfelser,  H.  von,  422. 

Delamare,  Ad.  H.  Al.,  357. 

Delattre,  444,  44s,  449. 

Delbruck,  R.,  389. 

De  locis  S.  S.  MartjTum,  402. 

Demmin,  A.  P.,  350. 

Demontisiosii,  L.,  382. 

Dempster,  T.,  356. 

Denis  de  Sainte  Marthe,  414. 

Dennie,  J.,  383. 

Dennis,  G.,  361. 

Denon,  397. 

Deseilligny,  T.  P.,  370. 

Desgodetz,  A.,  385. 

Desjardins,  E.,  360. 

Desultory  and  Miscellaneous  Studies  in  the 

History  of  Architecture,  343. 
Details  of  Construction,  363. 
Detzel,  H.,  351. 
Dewaele,  J.,  354. 
Deyron,  370. 
Dickie,  C,  398. 
Dictionaries,    Encyclopedias,    and    Works   of 

Reference,  349. 
Didron,  351. 
Diehl,  C,  401,  410. 
Dion,  A.  de,  423. 
Ditlefsen,  362. 
Doclea,  372,  412. 
Dohme,  417. 
Dolmetsch,  H.,  348. 
Domergue,  L.,  365. 
Donaldson,  Th.  L.,  380. 
Donato„.\.,  384. 
Dondi,  A.,  433. 
Donovan,  Rev.  J.,  385,  404. 
Dorchester,  368. 
Doron,  W.,  362. 
Dbrpfeld,  W.,  373,  446. 
Dorpfcld  et  als.,  374. 
Dougga,  366. 


455 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Draudt,  427. 
Drevant,  370. 

Droiike  und  Lassaulx,  428. 
Dubarn-,  Rev.  Th.,  367. 
Dubourg,  M.,  3S5. 
Dubut,  39-2. 
Ducaiige,  C,  408. 
Duchesne,  403,  (-2),  405,  406. 
Duifand,  371. 
Dufourcq,  402. 
Duhn,  F.  von,  378. 
Duple-ssis,  339. 
Durand,  E.  G.,  360. 
Durand,  J.  X.  S..  346. 
Dunn,  J..  353,  402,  410. 
Dutert,  F.,  389. 
Dutschke,  H.,  376. 
Dyer,  T.  H.,  379.  380. 

Early  Christian  Bibliography,  395. 

Ebe,  G.,  347. 

Edelberg,  R.  E.  von,  419,  421. 

Effemeridi  Litterarie  di  Roma,  382. 

Effmann,  W.,  424,  428. 

Eginhard,  see  Einharti. 

Egjpt,  architecture  of,  397. 

Egbert,  J.  C,  406. 

Eigilis,  416. 

Einharti,  414. 

Eitelberger,  R.  von,  424. 

Elmer,  J.,  341. 

Engelhard,  379. 

Engelhart,  Rev.  G.  II.,  367. 

Engeluiann,  R.,  373,  380. 

England,  359,  364,  367. 

Ephesus,  373,  412. 

Esperandieu,  E.,  .^a. 

Espinay,  G.  d',  423. 

Espouy,  d',  354,  443- 

Essen,  421. 

Essenwein,  Aug.,  395. 

Esthetics,  Roman,  356. 

Eutychius,  409. 

Evagrius  Scholasticus,  409. 

Ewald,  E.,  349. 

Ewerbeck,  F.,  418. 

Fabretti,  376. 

Faeli,  \.,  344. 

Falk,  423. 

Falk  und  Heckmann,  423. 

Falkener,  Ed.,  373. 

Fanno,  L.,  382. 


Farley,  368. 

Farrar,  C.  S.,  345. 

Fea,  C,  385,  390,  391,  405. 

Fellows,  359. 

Felton,  E.  L.,  372. 

Fergusson,  J.,  339,  440,  (2). 

Ferrand,  S.,  371. 

Ferrario,  G.,  425. 

Ferrero,  E.,  377. 

Fickler,  426. 

Ficoroni,  F.  de,  384. 

Fiechler,  E.  R.,  447. 

Fiesole,  376. 

Finati,  G.  B.,  365,  380,  381,  (2). 

Flora vante,  405. 

FioreUi,  G.,  361,  378,  379,  380. 

Fiorello,  418. 

Fisenne,  L.,  347. 

Fischitti,  L.,  378. 

Fleres.  U.,  376. 

Fletcher  and  Fletcher,  339. 

Fleun,-,  R.  de.  396,  402,  406,  417. 

Flodoardus,  415. 

Floss,  H.  J.,  420. 

Foerster,  R.  von,  430. 

Fogolari,  G.,  421. 

Fomoni,  431. 

Fonseca,  406. 

Fontana,  407. 

Force,  P.  de  la,  360. 

Forchhanuner,  P.  W.,  351. 

Forest,  J.  F.  de,  345. 

Forrer,  R.,  444. 

Forster,  E.,  344,  398,  417,  430. 

Forster,  R.  X.,  44s. 

Fortunatus,  415. 

Fosbroke,  Rev.  T.  D.,  350. 

Fougeroux,  De  B.,  374. 

Fourcaud,  C.  de,  370. 

France,  359,  369,  419,  400. 

Frank,  423. 

Frankfurt,  422. 

Frauljerger,  H.,  393. 

Freeman,  .\.  E.,  340,  344,  418. 

Frejus,  370. 

French  .Architecture,  343. 

Freshfield,  Ed.,  411. 

Frey,  K.,  344. 

Froehner,  W.,  389. 

Frothingham,  X.  L.,  397,  444. 

Fulda,  422. 

Fulno,  A.,  382. 

Fumagalh,  A.,  379,  424. 


456 


HIULIOCiKAPHICAL   INDEX 


Furoheini,  K.,  364. 

Gabrici,  E.,  J^J^G. 

Gailhabaud,  J.,  346,  (2). 

Galanfc,  374. 

Gallois,  E.,  J^. 

Gaily,  343. 

Gamucci,  B.,  .385. 

Gardella,  O.,  399. 

Garianorum,  468. 

Garrucci,  R.,  396,  418,  430. 

Gaspar,  C,  373,  378. 

Gatteschi,  M.  J.,  389,  390,  (2),  391,  392. 

Gau,  398. 

Gaucherel,  L..  348. 

Gaudet,  J.,  343. 

Gauthiez,  P.,  424. 

Gayet,  A.,  397,  U9. 

Geek,  428. 

Gegenbauer,  422. 

Gell  and  Gaudy,  378. 

Gell,  Sir  W.,  387. 

General  Histories,  339. 

General  Histories  of  Art,  344. 

Gennerelli,  A.,  357. 

Gentile,  354,  427. 

George,  G.,  341. 

Gerardin,  370. 

Gerizim,  412. 

German  .\rchitecture,  343. 

Germany,  400,  417. 

Germigny-les-Pres,  422. 

Genirode,  422. 

Gerspach,  349,  396,  401. 

Ger\-ille,  de,  369. 

Gesta  Ablmtum  Fontanellensium,  415. 

Gesta  Episeoporuni  -Vutisiodorensium,  415. 

Gesta  Episeoporuni  Halberstadensium,  415. 

Gesta  Trevoruni,  415. 

Geymiiller,  Baron  II.  von,  381. 

Ghezzi,  P.  S.,  393. 

Ghiselli,  P.  G.,  402. 

Giachelti,  407. 

Giacomo,  S.  di,  445. 

Gibbon,  386. 

Gigliarelli,  R.,  JfJS- 

Gilbert,  O.,  386. 

Giles,  J.  A.,  346. 

Giorgi  e  Balzani,  416. 

Giovanni,  C,  386. 

Giovannoli,  A.,  382. 

Giovenale,  406. 

Giulini,  424. 


Glaber,  R.,  414. 

Gladback,  E.,  423. 

Glazier,  R.,  347. 

Glycas.  M.,  409. 

Godi,  A.  P.  P.,  430. 

Goll>ery  et  Schweighaeuser,  419. 

Goller,  A.,  340. 

Gomart,  Ch.,  426. 

Goodyear,  VV.  H.,  344,  (2),  351,  353,  431. 

Gori,  A.  P.,  375,  388,  390. 

Gori  and  Parker,  386. 

Goro,  378. 

Gosch,  A.,  424. 

Gosset,  A.,  351. 

Grandmaison,  C,  427. 

Gnevius  et  Gronovius,  356. 

Graf,  H.,  398. 

Graham,  A.,  357,  358. 

Graham  and  Ashbee,  358. 

Grandlieu,  422. 

Grangent,  Durand,  et  Durant,  359. 

Graphia  Aureoe  urbis  Romse,  382. 

Gratiolio,  D.  P.,  424. 

Gravedona,  432 

Grasserus,  J.,  370. 

Greece,  360,  372. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  395. 

Grelot,  411. 

Grenoble,  422. 

Grignon,  372. 

Grossi-Gondi,  P.,  44^. 

Grosvenor,  Ed.  A.,  411. 

Grotefend,  414,  422. 

Gruner,  L.,  348. 

Gsell,  S.,  364,  397,  400,  JM- 

Gsell-Fels.  T.,  384,  387,  431. 

Guarini,  R.,  380. 

Guattani,  355,  384. 

Guenebault,  L.  J.,  350. 

Guerin,  H.  V.,  3,58. 

Guerlin,  H.,  J^JiS. 

Gulil  and  Kornov,  356. 

Guide-books,  Roman,  355. 

Guillaume,  Ed.,  345. 

Guilmard,  D.,  347. 

Gunn,  342. 

Gunther,  R.  p.,  .364. 

Guoli,  D.,  338. 

Guriitt,  C,  340,  359,  411. 

Gusman,  44ff- 

Gusman,  P.,  JflfS- 

Gustavo,  A.,  434. 

Guj-er,  S.,  JiJtO- 


457 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


G^\-ilt,  J.,  350. 
Gyllius,  409. 

Haferkorn,  H.  E.,  338. 

H[akewill],  H.,  368. 

Halfpenny,  J.,  369. 

Hall,  342. 

Hamilton,  W.,  381. 

Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.,  363,  (2),  440. 

Hamman  d'lhra,  366. 

Hammer,  J.  von,  411. 

Harris,  Rev.  W.,  359. 

Hartman,  407. 

Hart.shome,  Rev.  C.  H.,  368. 

Harvey,  L.,  452. 

Haugewitz,  E.,  390. 

Haupt,  A.,  449- 

Haiiselniann,  J.,  357. 

Hau.ser,  341,  353. 

Havard,  H.,  339,  343. 

Hawich,  C,  372. 

Heidelberg,  422. 

Heider,  C.  A.,  Edelberg,  E.  von,  und  Heiser, 

J.,  418,  429. 
Heirici  Miraculd,  415. 
Helburn,  W.,  348. 
Helurch,  G.,  416. 
Hemans,  C.  I.,  384,  404. 
Henchir  Chorab,  449. 
Henchir  Kemabbel,  44S- 
Henchir  Maatria,  366. 
Henry,  V.  B.,  420. 
Herculanemn,  364,  374,  446. 
Herimanni  Contracti,  415. 
Herisson,  d',  358. 
Hermann,  426. 

Hermann  and  Puchstein,  397. 
Hesselbach,  S.,  347. 
Heuzey  and  Daumet,  360. 
Hiersemann,  K.  W.,  338. 
Hirt,  A.,  355. 

Historical  miscellanies,  Roman,  356. 
Histories,  General,  Roman,  353. 
Histories  of  Medieval  Architecture,  341. 
Hittorf,  J.  I.,  356. 
Hoare,  Sir  R.  C,  368. 
Hochst,  A.  M.,  423. 
Hoffmann  et  Kellerhoven,  348. 
Hoffweiler,  G.  T.  von,  361. 
Holtzinger,  H.,  367,  395,  398,  410. 
Homo,  L.,  386. 
Homolle,  T.,  44S. 
Hope,  340. 


Hope  and  Fox,  368. 

Horton,  C.  W.,  340. 

Honses,  363. 

Hnlier,  I.  W.,  380. 

Hubsch,  H.,  395,  399,  410,  416. 

Huelsen,  Chr.,  see  Hiilsen. 

Huggins,  S.,  341. 

Hugo  Floriacensis,  416. 

Hulme,  F.  E.,  347. 

HUlsen,  Chr.,  384,  391,  447,  (4),  448. 

Humann,  G.,  352,  417,  418,  421. 

Humphreys,  H.  N.,  352. 

Humphreys  and  Cooke,  385,  404. 

Iconography,  351. 

Igel,  372. 

Impieri,  406. 

Industria,  376. 

Ingelheim,  423. 

Inghirami,  376. 

Isabelle,  363,  399,  (2). 

Isaurus,  T.,  408. 

Istria,  412. 

Italica,  44S. 

Italian  Architecture,  343. 

Italy,  375,  397,  400,  418. 

Itinerary  of  Einsiedeln,  402. 

Itinerary  of  John  the  Priest,  403. 

Ives,  J.,  368. 

Ivrea,  376. 

Iwanoff,  S.  A.,  354. 

Jackson,  F.  G.,  412. 

Jackson,  T.  S.,  359. 

Jacquemin,  L.,  369. 

Jaffe,  Ph.,  414. 

James,  F.  T.,  445. 

Jelic,  Bulic  e  Rutar,  412,  419. 

Jenkins,  Rev.  H.,  367. 

Jerusalem,  400,  449. 

Joanne,  Guides,  355,  420. 

Jollois,  371. 

Jones,  O.,  348. 

Jordan,  H.,  386,  388,  389,  390,  392. 

Jorio,  A.  de,  374,  377,  380. 

Joseph,  D.,  44S- 

Jouarre,  423. 

Jouy,  B.  de,  396. 

Joyce,  Rev.  J.  G.,  368. 

Junghandel,  361. 

Justinianus,  410. 


Kabdebo,  J.,  44S. 


458 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Kaclu-1,  G..  355. 

Kaiscrlifh    Deutclips    Arcliiiologisches    Insti- 

tiit,  354. 
Kalleiibiich,  417. 
Kiillenlmch  uiul  Schmitt,  312. 
Kaiiawiit,  44S- 
Kanitz,  F.,  347. 
Katalog     der     Bibliotek     dos     Arthitckten- 

Vereins  zu  Berlin,  338. 
Kataloj;    der     Bibliotek     herzoglichcr     Bau- 

Direction  zu  Braunsclnveig,  338. 
Kaufman,  C.  N.,  395,  44S. 
Kawerau,  G.,  373. 
Keerl,  305. 
Keller,  426,  (2). 
Kent,  364. 

Kiepert,  J.  S.  H.,  365. 
King,  348. 

Kinkel,  J.  C,  345,  (2). 
Kippingi,  H.,  354. 
Kiraby,  P.,  390. 
Kircher,  A.,  361. 
Kirchner,  422. 
Klette,  R.,  342. 
Knachfuss,  446. 
Knight,  H.  G.,  346. 
Koblentz,  423. 
Koester,  A.,  372. 
Kohler,  C,  340. 
Koldewey,  R.,  373. 
Koln,  423. 

Kraus,  395,  396,  (2). 
Kraus,  F.  X.,  344. 
Kreuser,  341,  399. 
Kubr-Riiumoi'a,  3(i(). 
Kugler,  F.,  339,  343,  354. 
Kuhfeldl,  362. 

Kiinstle  K.,  und  Beyerle,  K.,  J^. 
Kurth,  J.,  U7- 

I^abaco,  356. 
Labacco,  382. 
Lalrande,  M.  H.,  359. 
Labarte,  345,  411. 
Labbacco,  .\.,  382. 
Lalwrde,  361. 
Laborde,  A.  de,  .357. 
Labnizzi,  C,  361. 
Lacroi.x,  \.,  447- 
La  CroiN,  de,  372. 
Lacroi.\,  P.,  342,  (2). 
Lafrery,  .\.,  382. 
Lagreze,  G.  B.  de,  378,  380. 


Ulande,  M.  <le,  371. 

Ijdou.\  et  Monreaux,  373. 

Laloux,  v.,  392. 

Lampros,  S.  P.,  373. 

Lanciani,  R.,  376,    (2),    383,    (5),    386,    (2), 

387,  (3),  389,  391,  393,  401,  402,  403,  (2), 

4^6,  447. 
Liince,  A.,  430. 
Lanckoron'ski,  K.,  444- 
Liinge,  J.  F.,  422. 
Lange  e  Labriola,  346. 
Landriani,  G.,  424. 
Laurent,  399. 
Laurentius,  Surius,  414. 
Lauri,  J.,  386. 
Layre,  B.  de,  371. 
Leandro,  O.,  443- 
Lel>euf,  420. 
Le  Blaut,  395,  414. 
Le  Brun,  L.,  356. 
Lechevallier-Chevignard,  Ed.,  343. 
Leclerc,  400,  420. 
Leclercq,  H.,  44S. 
Leconte,  E.,  348,  (2). 
Lee,  J.  E.,  367. 
Leeds,  W.  H.,  363. 
Lehfeldt,  P.,  423. 
Le  Mans,  423. 
Lenno,  432. 
Lenoir,  351. 
Lenoir,  A.  A.,  411. 
Leo  Grammatichus,  410. 
Leon,  F.,  385,  405. 
Leoni  and  Sfaderini,  446- 
Lersch,  420. 
Lesbos,  373. 
Lesueur,  354,  388. 
Letaldo,  416. 
Letarouilly,  407,  445. 
Lethaby,  W.  R.,  342,  352,  411. 
Lethaby,  W.  R.  and  Swainson,  H.,  411. 
Leto,  P.,  382. 
Letronne,  366. 
Leutheric,  Ch.,  360,  (2). 
Libbey  and  Hoskins,  362. 
Liber  Pontificalis,  402. 
Light,  VV.,  380. 
Lillebonne,  370. 
Lindsay,  A.  W.  C,  .396. 
Lipiwrini,  G.,  44$  ■ 
Lolide,  L.,  401,  428. 
London,  368. 
Longe,  K.,  398. 


459 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Longfellow,  W.  P.  P.,  344,   355,   396,   410. 

Longoni,  G.,  432. 

Loiiguerne,  Abbe,  360. 

Lonigo,  Mss.  de,  395. 

Lorsch,  423. 

Losi,  C,  355. 

LUbke,  W.  von,  344,  (2),  440,  US. 

Lugari,  405. 

Lumisden,  A.,  387. 

Lupo,  M.,  429. 

Luys,  T.  F.,  391. 

Lyon,  370,  400. 

Lysons,  S.,  364,  367,  369. 

Mabillon,  361,  413. 

Macedonia,  360. 

Macgibbon,  D.,  365. 

Maffei,  378,  382. 

Magna  Graecia,  364. 

Magnan,  D.,  386.  (2),  389,  404. 

Magna,  L.,  343. 

Mai,  429. 

Maitre,  L.,  400,  422,  U9. 

Malala,  J.,  409. 

Malaspina,  434. 

Mallard,  G.,  370. 

Malte-Brun,  V.  A.,  358. 

Malvezzi,  419,  430. 

Mammolo,  407. 

Manara,  427,  434. 

Manceri,  E.,  JfJfi. 

Manini,  432. 

Maqrize,  397. 

Marangoni,  G.,  389. 

Marche,  de  la,  427. 

Marchi,  396,  404. 

Marignan,  A.,  419. 

Marini,  E.,  424. 

Marliani,  387. 

Marquand,  A.,  4n. 

Marshall,  H.  R.,  352. 

Martha,  J.,  354. 

Martigny,  396,  417. 

Martin,  420. 

Martin,  H.,  371. 

Martin,  J.  B.,  449. 

Martinelli,  F.,  383. 

Martyrologies,  402. 

Manicchi,  O.,  377,  384,    (2),   390,  403,  404, 

405,  406,  (2),  407,  U6,  US,  U9- 
Marulli,  T.,  405. 
Masqueray,  J.,  470. 
Massaza,  P.  A.,  377. 


Mathews,  C.  T.,  339. 

Mathuissieulx,  357. 

Mau,  A.,  378,  (2),  380,  4^5,  U7- 

Mauch,  J.  M.  von,  364. 

Maurer,  F.,  422. 

Mauro,  L.,  382. 

Maurus  Hrabanu.s,  415. 

Mayer,  E.  von,  .^7. 

Mazochii,  A.  S.,  401. 

Mazois,  F.,  379. 

Mazzanti,  419. 

Mazzochi,  J.,  382. 

Mecliin,  348. 

Meginhardi,  416. 

Melani,  A.,  343,  347. 

Mella,  E.,  421,  431,  (2),  432,  (2),  434. 

Meloizes,  A.  des,  369. 

Memes,  J.  S.,  345. 

Menard,  340,  342,  345,  348,  354,  355,  365. 

Mercurii,  P.,  385. 

Merida,  393. 

Merigot,  J.,  386. 

Meriraee,  344,  360. 

Merlin,  A.,  366,  (2),  U4<  U7- 

Mertens,  342,  420. 

Merthyr-Tydfif,  US. 

Merula,  P.,  360. 

Merzario,  419. 

Messmer,  J.  A.,  344,  399,  (2). 

Mes.sori-RoncagIia,  433. 

Meti\ner,  U9- 

Mettlach,  423. 

Meyer,  420. 

Michaud  et  Poujoulat,  359. 

Michel,  A.,  344. 

Michele,  C,  425. 

Michelstadt,  see  Steinbach. 

Michiels,  A.,  345. 

Middleton,  J.  H.,  369,  383. 

Migne,  J.  P.,  413. 

Milan,     400,   ^433;  Chiesa     d'Aurona,     425; 

General    works,    424;  S.    Ainbrogio,    424, 

433;  S.  Celso,  425;  S.  Eustorgio,  425,  433; 

S.  Nazaro  e  S.  Celso,  433;  S.  Satiro,  425; 

S.  Vincenzo  in  Prato,  425. 
Miletus,  U6. 
Milizia,  344,  384. 
Millet,  M.  G.,  412. 
Milligen,  von,  411. 
INIillen,  360,  (2),  434,  381. 
Milvoy,  \.,  367. 
Mirabilia  urbis  Romae,  382. 
Modena,  433. 


460 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAI>   INDEX 


Moller,  417. 
Moller,  G.,  Sii. 

MolU'tt.  J.  \v.,  :i.-,o. 

Miilliiificr,  C,  M'i,  4;?1. 

Molten,  i'iO. 

Mimimert,  C.  S.,  44i>- 

Moiiaclnis  Sangallensis,  416. 

MoiiReri.  G.,  340,  4-24. 

Monasfic  Arcliitecture,  351. 

IMomiier,  M.,  380. 

Moiinile,  G.,  377. 

Monsiicrati,  407. 

Montalembert,  351. 

Montault,  X,  B.  de,  351,  4-30,  4-24,  4,>5,  433. 

Montenegro,  37'2. 

Montfaucon,  361. 

MontgraWer,  A.  de,  361. 

Monticr-en-Der,  4'2j. 

Moiitiroli.  390. 

Monunienta  Gerniaiiiae  Historica,  413. 

Moiiza,  4-25,  433. 

Moore,  r.  II.,  341. 

Moreaii,  J.  ('.  A.,  355,  385. 

Morelli,  375. 

Morghen,  F.,  364. 

Moriggi,  I'.,  425. 

Morris,  ^Y.,  351. 

Morton,  368. 

Mosaic,  349;  Early  Christian,  396. 

Molhes,  397,  399,  418,  430. 

Molhes  und  .Mulier,  350. 

Moule,  Th.,  363. 

Mount  Sinai,  41-2. 

Mulier,  C,  376,  390,  4'>2. 

Mulier,  F.  II.,  423. 

MUller,  H.  A.,  350. 

Mulier,  M.  F.,  372,  424. 

Mulier,  S.,  347. 

Mullovly,  406. 

Munro,    .Vnderson,    Milne,    and    Haverficl 

372,  412. 
Miinster,  449. 
Muntz,  E.,  395,  397. 
Muratori,  416,  429,  (2). 
Murray,  J.,  431. 
Murray's  Guides,  356. 
Mushennef,  44S. 

Nantes,  425. 
Naples,  364,  401. 
Nardi,  L.,  377. 
Nardirii,  387. 
Nash,  J.,  346. 


Nave,  4S0. 

Nelson,  C.  C,  412. 

Ncrini,  406. 

Neroutsos,  T.  D.,  365. 

Neuwirth,  426. 

Newbery,  R.,  348. 

Newcastle.  368. 

Newstead,  443- 

Newton,  358,  459. 

Newlon  and  Pullan,  358. 

Nibby,  A.,  377,  385,  390,   (2),  396,  404,  405. 

Niccolini,  .\.,  379,  380,  381. 

Niccohni,  A.  e  F.  F.,  379. 

Nicephorus,  Patriarchus,  410. 

Nichols,  F.  :M.,  382,  390,  (2),  391,  405. 

Nicholson,  P.,  350. 

Nicolai,  N.  M.,  376. 

Nicolas  Signorili,  Ms.  de,  402. 

Niedermayer,  A.,  428. 

Nigellus,  E.,  414. 

Nikolai,  426. 

Nimes,  370. 

Nimwegen,  426. 

Nipsi-Landi,  Count,  391. 

Nissen,  N.,  399. 

Nobile,  G.,  401. 

Nodier,  Taylor,  et  Cailleux,  360. 

Nodot,  361. 

Noir,  Le,  417. 

Nolan,  J.  F.,  360. 

Normand,  A.  N.,  389. 

Norman,  Ch.,  366,  371. 

Norman,  Ph.,  44o. 

Norman,  P.,  and  Reader,  F.  W.,  445- 

Northleigh,  308. 

Norton,  C.  E.,  343. 

Notitia  Ecclesiarum  Urbis  Romte,  403. 

Odorici,  421,  433. 

Okely.  397. 

01i\ier,  359. 

Oltmans,  426. 

OljTOpia,  373. 

Onofri,  P.  d",  401. 

Orange,  370. 

Orieiitaiion,  399. 

Orlamli,  407,  421. 

Orlando,  419. 

Ornamental  Sculpture,  419. 

Ornament,  books  of  illustrations,  348;  Early 

Christian,    396;  historical    and    theoretical 

works,  347;  Roman,  355. 
Osten,  Fr.,  430. 


461 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Ostia,  376. 

Otte,  H.,  350,  399,  417. 
Oudin,  J.,  351. 
Overbeke,  B.  d',  385. 
Overbeck,  J.,  379. 

Paestum,  376. 

Pagano,  N.,  380. 

Page,  Wm.,  IM- 

Palestine,  362,  398,  400. 

Palladio,  A.,  353,  363,  382. 

Palmieri,  407. 

Palmyra,  394. 

Pamphili,  E.,  395. 

Pannewitz,  A.  von,  431. 

Panvinio,  405. 

Paoli,  P.  A.,  377. 

Paolini,  361. 

Papageorgios,  P.,  412. 

Parboni,  A.  e  P.,  385. 

Pardoe,  Miss,  412. 

Parenzo,  401. 

Pareto,  435. 

Paris,  371. 

Paris,  L.  F.  F.,  360. 

Paris,  P.,  393. 

Parker,  J.  H.,  350,  364,  383.  387,   (2),  404, 

422. 
Parma,  433. 
Parthey,  G.,  382. 
Pascale,  351,  447- 
HASnATH,  A.  r.,  411 
Paulin,  E.,  393. 
Pauli,  Silentarii,  408. 
Pavia,  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  434;  S.  Michele, 

434;  S.  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro,  434. 
Pedoya,  400. 

Peigue-Delacour,  A.,  370. 
Pelet,  A.,  370. 

Pennethorne  and  Robinson,  363. 
Pensa,  H.,  367. 
Pepe,  L.,  380. 
Pergamon,  373. 
Perkins,  C.  C,  373. 
Perac,  S.  du,  355. 
Perate,  A.,  395. 
Percier,  389. 
Perigotville,  400. 
Perigueux,  426. 
Perrot,  359. 

Perrot  et  Guillaume,  359. 
Perry,  J.  T.,  342. 
Pessico,  da,  434. 


Pertz,  G.  H.,  414. 

Perugia,  401,  W. 

Petersen,  E.,  387,  IM^  U7,  (2). 

Petersen  und  Luschau,  397. 

Peterson,  Dosniaszewsk,  Calderini,  389. 

Petit,  J.  L.,  411. 

Petit,  v.,  370. 

Peyre,  T.  F.  A.,  342. 

PejTe,  R.,  365. 

Pfnor,  R.,  348. 

Philosophy,  351;  Roman,  356. 

Photius,  409. 

Piale,  S.,  376,  388,  (2),  390,  391,  392,  (2),  393. 

Piazza,  405. 

Pict's  Wall,  368. 

Pider,  F.  J.,  421,  (4). 

Pierotti,  E.,  356,  398. 

Piesse,  L.,  358,  4U- 

Pilian,  L.,  421. 

Pinza,  G.,  447- 

Pinzi,  428. 

Piranesi,  G.  B.,  354,  364,  375,  385,  388,  389. 

Pirovano,  F.,  424. 

Piselli,  406. 

Planat,  P.,  350. 

Plainer,  S.  B.,  383. 

Plainer,  E.,  Bunsen,  C,  403. 

Playfair,  R.  L.,  357. 

Plehn,  373. 

Pococke,  359. 

Poeta  Saxo,  416. 

Poinssot,  L.,  366. 

Poitiers,  371,  426. 

Pollen,  J.  H.,  389. 

Pollet,  F.,  390. 

Polychromy,  349. 

Ponia,  406. 

Pompei,  A.,  378. 

Pompeii,  364,  365;  books  of  illustration,  379; 

general,  378;  guide  books,  380;  reports  on 

the  excavations,  380. 
Pomposa,  426,  U9- 
Ponce,  355,  393. 
Pontremoli  et  Collignon,  374. 
Porchester,  368. 
Porter,  M.  W.,  U7- 
Portheim,  P.,  396. 
Porto,  401. 
Portugal,  361. 
Potthast,  A.,  413,  429. 
Pownall,  359. 
Pozzuoh,  377. 
Praeneste,  377. 


462 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Praroiul.  41fi. 

Preller.  L..  387. 

Presuhn,  Iv,  380. 

Price,  F.  S.  II.,  368. 

Price  and  Pri«-,  368. 

Pri.sac,  4^1. 

Procopius,  40S,  {-i). 

Prokesth-Osteii,  359. 

Provence,  365. 

Promis,  375,  376. 

Prou,  M.,  416. 

Prout,  S.,  346. 

Proiiti,  D.,  386,  404. 

Public  Lil.rarj-  of  Boston,  338. 

Puchstcin,  O.,  394,  407. 

Puchsleiii,  O.  uiid  Lupke,  Th.  von,  394. 

Pugin,  A.,  .348,  35-2. 

Pulgher.  411. 

Pulian.  K.  P.,  342,  347,  396. 

Puricelli,  J.  P.,  445,  433. 

Puttrich,  L.,  417. 

Puy-de-Dome,  371. 

Quatremere  de  Quincy,  3.50. 

Quasi,  .\.  F.  von,  36-2,  399,  (3),  401,  421,  (2). 

Quedlinl)ur<j,  426. 

Quednon-,  C.  P.,  372. 

Quellenschriften  fiir  Kunstgeschichte,  338. 

Quicheraf,  J.,  351,  400. 

QuLx,  420,  (2). 

Racinet,  A.,  349. 
Raczynsky,  359. 
Radet,  G.,  373. 
Ragot,  W.,  358. 
Ragnet,  .4blx',  3iW. 
Rahn.  R.,  399,  401,  426. 
Ranilaldi,  B.  da  I.,  416. 
Rame,  420. 
Ramee,  D.,  339. 
Ramsay,  W.  M.,  444- 
Rangabe,  .\.  R.,  372. 
Ranke  und  Kugler,  426. 
Ranverso,  434. 
Raphael,  382. 
Rasponi,  R.,  402. 
Ratel,  S.,  427. 
Ravenna,  401,  412. 
Ra%ioli,  390. 
Ravoisic,  A.,  357. 
Read,  C,  371. 
Read,  S.,  346. 
Reber,  399,  342,  353. 


Redteuliaclicr,  342. 

Rcgaldi,  434. 

Rclandi,  H.,  388. 

Reichenau,  426,  443. 

Reimaro,  .\.,  383,  403. 

Reini.s,  371. 

Reina,  V.,  446. 

Reinach,  S.,  389,  44S. 

Renier,  L.,  353. 

Requier,  374. 

Retliore,  423. 

Rettberg,  343. 

Reusens,  351. 

Rever,  M.  F.,  370. 

Revoil,  370. 

Rey,  E.,  372,  398,  427. 

Rej-mond,  W.,  344. 

RejTOond,  M.,  422,  446. 

Rejniaud,  M.  S.,  346. 

Rhon,  420. 

Rhone,  the,  365. 

Ricci,  A.,  343,  430. 

Ricci,  C,  401. 

Ricci,  S.  de,  369. 

Richter,  .\.  J.,  359,  386,  423. 

Richter,  F.,  373. 

Richter,  J.  P.,  399,  402,  408. 

Ridgeway,  44S- 

Riegl,  A.,  355. 

Rimini,  377. 

Ripley,  M.  M.,  347. 

RipostelH  et  Marucchi,  44S. 

Rivoira,  G.  T.,  343,  410,  418,  429. 

Rivolta  d'Adda,  450. 

Roberts,  362,  (2). 

Robolini,  429. 

Robuchon,  J.  C,  419. 

Rocchi,  E.,  376. 

Rochette,  D.,  381. 

Rodocanaclii,  388,  447. 

Rolf,  E.  N.,  380. 

Roller,  406. 

Rome,  365,  402;  Ara  Pacis  Augustae,  387; 
Arch  of  Constantine,  387;  architecture  of 
the  Catacombs,  405;  .\rch  of  Titus,  388; 
Basilica  Julia,  388;  Basilica  Ulpia,  388; 
bibhography,  403;  book  of  drawings,  385; 
books  on  the  excavations,  387;  books  of 
illustrations,  404;  books  on  the  topography; 
386;  bridges,  388;  Campius  Martius,  388; 
Capitol,  388;  Circus  of  Maxentius,  388, 
Colosseum,  388;  Column  of  Antoninus, 
389;  Column    of    Marcus    Aurelius,    389; 


463 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Column  of  Phocas,  405;  Column  of  Tra- 
jan, 389;  Curia  Julia,  389;  documentary 
sources,  381;  Fora,  389;  general,  383;  gen- 
eral descriptions,  403;  guide  books,  384; 
House  of  the  Vestals,  390;  Oratory  of  the 
Baths  of  Titus,  405 ;  Palace  of  the  Caesars, 
390;  Pantheon,  391;  Regia,  391;  Sacra  Via, 
391;  S.  Agata  dei  Goti,  405;  Sta.  Agnese, 
449;  S.  Anastasia,  405;  Ss.  Bonifazio  e 
Alessio,  405;  S.  Cesario,  449:  S.  Clemente, 
406;  Ss.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  406;  Ss.  Fe- 
hce  ed  Adantto,  406;  S.  Giovanni  avanti- 
alla-Porta-Latina,  406;  S.  Giovanni-in-Lat- 
erano,  406;  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  406; 
S.  Marco,  406;  Sta.  Maria  Antiqua,  406; 
Sta.  Maria  in  Aquiro,  406;  Sta.  Maria  in 
Ara  Coeli,  406;  Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin, 
406;  Sta.  Maria  in  Monticelli,  406;  Sta. 
Maria  in  Trivio,  407;  Sta.  Maria  in  Via 
Lata,  407;  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  406;  S. 
Nicola  in  Carcere,  44S:  Sta.  Petronilla, 
407;  S.  Pietro,  407;  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli, 
407;  Sta.  Pudenziana,  407;  Ss.  Quatro 
Coronati,  407;  S.  Salvatore  in  Onda,  407; 
S.  Silvestro  in  Capite,  407;  Sta.  Simforosa, 
407;  seven  basilicas,  405;  sources,  40'2; 
Stadium,  391;  stations,  405;  Septizonium  of 
Septimius  Severus,  391;  Temple  of  Castor 
and  Pollux,  391;  Temple  of  Fortuna  Vir- 
ilis,  447;  Temple  of  Hercules,  392;  Temple 
of  Janus,  392;  Temple  of  Mars  Ultor,  392; 
Temple  of  Neptune,  392;  Temple  of  Sat- 
urn, 392;  Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  392; 
Temple  of  Vespasian,  392;  Temple  of  Vesta, 
392;  Theater  of  ]NLircellus,  392;  Thermae 
of  Caracalla,  392;  Thermae  of  Diocletian, 
393;  Thermae  of  Titus,  392;  Thermae  of 
Trajan,    393;  Tombs,    393;  Walls,    393. 

Romualdus  a  Sancta  Maria,  416. 

Romussi,  C,  424,  (2). 

Rondinini,  406. 

Rosengarten,  A.,  339. 

Rosenthal,  C.  A.,  341. 

Rosminiano,  A.,  434. 

Rossi,  G.  B.  de,  383,  392,  396,  401,  (2),  402, 
403,   (2),  405,  406,  407,   (2). 

Rossi,  G.  B.,  de,  e  Lanciani,  401. 

Rossini,  L.,  355,  379,  404. 

Rossini,  P.,  385,  405. 

Rota,  P.,  400,  424. 

Rothier,  F.,  371. 

Rott,  H.  et  als.,  448. 

Roulin,  E.,  412. 


Rubenson,  363. 

Ruggiero,  355,  374,  377,  378,  444. 

Ruinart,  D.,  402. 

Ruodolfi,  416. 

Ruprich-Rolxrt,  371. 

Rushfort,  406. 

Ruskin,  J.,  352. 

Rutupiiia,  368. 

Sabine,  H.,  349. 

Sacchetti,  434. 

Sacchi,  430. 

Sachan,  E.,  398. 

Sacramentaries,  403. 

Sadeler,  M.,  386. 

Sagliano,  A.,  378. 

Sagra  S.  Michele,  434. 

Sagredo,  D.  de,  356. 

St.  Dizier,  372. 

Saintes,  371. 

SarnelU,  396. 

S.  Quintino,  C.  di,  419. 

Sangallo,  G.  G.,  353. 

Sandart,  J.  von,  386,  403. 

Sambon,  A.,  Toudouze,  et  Foville,  378. 

Salzenberg,  411. 

Salonica,  412. 

Salmon,  J.,  383,  405. 

Saladin,  H.,  357. 

Sante  Simone,  410. 

St.  Quentin,  426. 

St.  Poncin,  R.  de,  345. 

St.  Paul,  A.,  343. 

St.  Maur-de-Glanfeuil,  372. 

Sainte  Marie,  E.  de,  366. 

St.  Laurent,  G.  de,  351. 

S.  Gallo,  426. 

Sassi,  G.  A.,  425. 

Savage,  J.,  368. 

Sa\io,  F.,  449. 

Scalvante,  O.,  401. 

Scamozzi,  356. 

Scarth,  Rev.  H.  M.,  367. 

Schaff,  P.  and  Wace,  395. 

Schaw,  M.,  358. 

Schenkii,  P.,  386. 

Scher\ier,  419. 

Scheult,  363. 

SclJosser,  J.  von,  395,  413,  419. 

Schleuning,  422. 

Schmatz,  J.,  375. 

Schmidt,  C.  W.,  344,  372,  423. 

Schmitt,  F.  J.,  422,  423. 


464 


BIBLIOCiRAPHICAI.   INDEX 


Schnaase,  344. 

Schnatter,  J.,  345. 

Schneeman,  G.,  372. 

Scliiieider,  384,  4'23,  427. 

Sclmeller,  L.,  US. 

Schnippel,  E.,  373. 

Schonerinark  uiid  StUber,  349. 

Schopfcr,  J.,  350. 

Scliowiicr,  R.,  380. 

Sclireilwr,  G.,  349. 

Schreiber,  T.,  356. 

Schultcn,  357. 

Scluiltcss,  C,  357. 

Scluiltz,  .\.,  344. 

Schultz,  B.,  363. 

Schultze,  M.  v.,  395,  398. 

Schulz,  E.,  365,  381. 

Schulz,  H.  W.,  397. 

Schweinfurth,  J.  A.,  346. 

Scott,  G.,  34->. 

Scott,  L.,  344. 

SctUon,  J.  P.,  348. 

Seeman,  T.,  343. 

Seigneur,  M.  du,  371. 

Seigiieux,  375. 

Seletti,  424. 

Seligeustiidt,  427. 

Selvatico,  P.,  354,  396,  418,  430. 

Semper,  G.,  352. 

Sepp,  400. 

Serlio,  353. 

Severano,  405. 

Sliadwell,  A.,  384. 

Sharpe,  Ed.,  342. 

Sliaw,  H.,  350. 

Shaw,  R.  N.,  346. 

Sicily,  365. 

Silchester,  368. 

Silva,  J.  P.  X.  da,  341. 

Simpson,  F.  M.,  339. 

Sincerus,  I.,  360. 

Singleton,  E.,  344. 

Smirch,  G.,  428. 

Smith,  396. 

Smith,  Rev.  A.  C,  364. 

Smith,  15.,  361. 

Smith,  C.  R.,  364,  368. 

Smith,  E.  R.,  338. 

Smith,  L.  E.,  363. 

Smith,  M.,  342. 

Smith,  T.  R.,  340. 

Smith  ami  Porclier,  372. 

Smith  and  Poynter,  340. 


Smith  and  Slater,  340. 

S(Hicty  of  Dilettanti,  360. 

Socrates  Scholasticus,  410. 

Sogliano,  A.,  380,  U7. 

Soil,  E.  J.,  411. 

Solari,  G.  e  L.  E.,  380. 

Sormani,  433. 

Souk-el-Arba,  366. 

Soussa,  445- 

Spain,  361,  393. 

Spalato,  374. 

Special  phases  of  Architectural  Development, 

419. 
Spemann,  W.,  349. 
Spiers,  R.  P.,  391. 
Spoleto,  401. 
Spoonley  Wood,  369. 
Springer,  A.,  342,  (2). 
Stabia,  377. 
Staiger,  426. 
Stanhope,  J.  S.,  373. 
Statham,  H.  II.,  340. 
Steiiibach,  427. 
Steiner,  427. 
Stendhal,  H.  B.  de,  383. 
Stevenson,  407. 
Steyert,  370. 

Stieglitz,  C.  L.,  340,  354,  418. 
Stier,  S.,  379. 
Stockbauer,  399. 
Story,  W.  W.,  383,  (2). 
Strange,  J.,  359. 
Street,  G.  E.,  342,  430. 
Strum,  J.,  391. 
Strzygowski,  J.,  397. 
Stuart  and  Revett,  360,  (2). 
Studirenden  der    koniglichen    Bau-Akademie 

zu  Berlin,  346. 
Sturgis,  R.,  339,  343,  349,  350,  356,  US. 
Sturgis,  R.  and  Krehbiel,  H.  E.,  338. 
Snares,  J.  M.,  377. 
Suidas,  410. 
Suphau,  L.  B.,  363. 
Surigny,  M.  A.  de,  420. 
Susa,  377,  434. 
Switzerland,  417. 
Sybel,~L.  von,  353,  391,  410. 
Symonds  e  Gordon,  401. 
Symons,  X.,  344. 
Syria,  362,  365,  378,  393,  407. 


Taccani,  F.,  341,  344. 
Taine,  II.  A.,  352. 


465 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


Talfourd,  E.,  381. 

Talini,  P.,  434. 

Tambroni,  G.,  375. 

Taoniiina,  44^. 

Tarbc,  P.  et  Maquart,  J.  J.,  371. 

Tartini,  G.  M.,  439. 

Tarver,  Ed.  J.,  340. 

Tatham,  C.  H.,  355. 

Taylor,  361. 

Taylor,  G.  S.,  and  Crcsy,  E.,  385. 

Taylor,  H.,  344. 

Taylor,  I.,  371. 

Taylor,  I.  and  J.,  357. 

Tefaced,  400. 

Teirich,  V.,  349. 

Testi,  L.,  iO-Z,  4-25,  433. 

Texier  and  Pullan,  358,  410. 

Thalarieu,  L.  de,  371. 

Tbedenat,  H.,  378,  389. 

Thegani,  416. 

Thera,  374. 

Thermae,  363. 

Theveste,  366. 

Thiele,  R.,  389. 

Thiersch,  374. 

Thijru,  A.,  399. 

Timgad,  366. 

Tituli  -\ugienses,  416. 

Tivoli,  377. 

Tocco,  388,  390. 

Tocqueville,  400. 

Tomassetti,  G.,  446. 

Torre,  M.  e  Valvasine  e  Fumagalli,  A.,  410. 

Toscanella,  427. 

Toschi,  G.  B.,  424. 

Touring  Club  de  France,  356. 

Tournefort,  359. 

Tonini,  L.,  377. 

Tours,  400,  427. 

Tremblay,  V.,  421. 

Treu,  G.  D.  K.,  373. 

Trier,  372,  400. 

Trieste,  377. 

Trollope,  Ed.,  367. 

Troya,  419,  429,  (2). 

Trumer,  T.,  371. 

Tucker,  M.  A.  R.,  383,  404. 

Tuckerman,  A.  L.,  340. 

Tuckermann,  W.  P.,  372. 

Turconi,  385,  404. 

Turner,  F.  C,  345. 

Turriozzi,  427. 

Tusculum  Frascati,  377. 


TuthiU,  Mrs.  E.  C,  341. 
Tyrwhitt,  R.  St.-J.,  345. 

Uggeri,  A.,  385,  388. 

Ugonio,  405. 

Uhde,  C,  354,  361. 

Unger,  400,  408. 

Ungewitter,  G.,  351. 

Urhchs,  C.  L.,  382,  386,  389,  399. 

Ussing,  J.  L.,  363,  374. 

Vacca,  F.,  382. 

Vaglieri,  D.,  390. 

Vaison,  428. 

Vai.ssette,  Doni,  360,  370. 

Valadier,  G.,  387. 

Valcabiere,  449- 

Valentine,  405,  406. 

Valentini,  407. 

Valeri,  F.  M.,  424. 

Vansleb,  397. 

Vasi,  G.,  385,  404. 

Vasseur,  419. 

Vecchj,  C.  A.,  379. 

Veil,  378. 

Valeia,  378. 

Vellard,  R.  P.  A.,  444. 

Venuti,  F.,  392. 

Venuti,  M.  de,  375. 

Venuti,  R.,  387. 

Venturi,  A.,  397.  418,  429. 

Vermehren,  M.,  388. 

Vemeilh,  F.  de,  342,  426. 

Verona,  378,  427,  434. 

Vetera  Analecta,  402. 

Vezzolano,  435. 

Via  Appia,  44'^- 

Vicenza,  434. 

Vienne,  372,  427. 

Vigue,  F.  de,  342. 

Vilain,  H.,  381. 

Villa-Amil,  361. 

Villas,  363. 

Villefosse,  H.  de,  358,  369. 

VilUan,  392. 

Vinci,  G.,  379. 

Vinet,  E.,  354. 

Viola,  L.,  380. 

Viollet-le-Duc,  E.  E.,  341,  348,  349. 

Visconti,  P.  E.,  387. 

Visconti  e  Lanciani,  384. 

Vita  Eigilis  Metrica,  416. 

Vita  S.  Boiiiti  episcopi,  410. 

466 


BiBLio(;iiAi'niCAr.  index 


Vila  Sancti  AUrici,  416. 

Vila  S.  Kigoberti,  410. 

Vita  S.  Ruperti,  416. 

Viterbo,  428. 

Vitet,  L.,  34.5,  396. 

Voghera,  4'2i). 

Vogiie,  M.  de,  36'-'.  398,  (2),  400. 

Vulliaiiiy,  L.,  355,  44S. 

Waal.  A.  de,  40,'!. 

Wackoniagfl,  \V.,  356. 

Wagner,  E.  and  Kaehel  G.,  354. 

Ward,  C,  US,  {2). 

Ward,  J.,  347,  Uo,  (3). 

Waring,  J.  B..  347. 

Waniefridus,  P.,  414,  (-2). 

Warren  and  Conder,  362. 

Watkiti,  W.  T.,  364. 

Watt,  J.  C,  355. 

Weber,  362. 

Weber,  C,  412. 

Weber,  W.,  373. 

Wedell,  H.,  379. 

Weertli,  E.  aus'm,  417. 

Wegeler,  423. 

Weiehardt,  C,  379. 

Weil,  R.,  373. 

Weingartner,  399. 

Werden,  429. 

Weston,  Rev.  S.,  384,  404. 

Westphalia,  362. 

Westropp,  H.  M.,  383. 

Wey,  F.,  383,  404. 

Wheelwright,  E.  M.,  398. 

Wickhotr,  P.,  402. 

Wiebeking,  C.  F.  von,  344,  345,  346,  352 

Wilkins,  H.,  364. 

Wilkins,  W.,  364. 

Will,  421. 

William  of  Malincsbury,  402. 

WilUs,  R.,  342,  (2),  350,  430 

Wilmowsky,  von,  400. 


Wilpert.  J.,  357.  395. 
Wilson,  C.  W.,  412. 
W'inckelmann,  361,  375. 
Winnefeld,  446- 
Wittig,  J.,  397. 
Woillez,  Eug.  J.,  420. 
Woillez,  Em.,  421. 
Wolff,  C,  422. 
Wood,  365. 

Wood,  J.  T.,  373,  412. 
Wood,  R.,  394. 
Wood,  W.,  342. 
Woodchester  369. 
Woods,  J.,  360. 
Womum,  R.  N.,  348. 
Wright,  Th.,  359. 
Wright,  Rev.  W.,  365. 
Wroxeter,  369. 
Wurz,  H.,  362. 
Wiirzburg,  428. 
Wyatt,  349. 
Wyatt,  M.  D.,  411. 

Xanthopulus,  N.  C,  409. 

York,  369. 

Zaccagni,  395. 

Zagata,  P.,  429. 

Zahn,  W.,  349. 

Zancaroli,  429. 

Zander,  373. 

Zani,  P.,  350. 

Zara,  428. 

Zeiller,  360. 

Zemp,  J.,  449- 

Zesterman,  A.  C.  A.,  399. 

Zirardini,  A.,  402. 

Zonaras,  409. 

Zuccagni,  Orlandini,  434. 

Zumpft,  H.,  372. 

Zumpt,  C.  G.,  363. 


467 


GENERAL  INDEX 

References  to  Addenda  are  printed  in  Italics,  those  to  lists  of  monumenU  are  followed  by  an 
antcrisk-  (*),  those  to  definitions  or  explanations  by  a  cross  (f). 


Aachen,  Dom,  170,*  136;  III.  8.5,  111.  86;  con- 
structive advances,  150;  influence  on  archi- 
tecture, 138;  Liebfrauenkapelle,  see  Dom; 
Munster,  see  Uoni;  Palastkapelle,  see  Dom; 
Palatine  Chapel,  see  Dom. 

Abacus.  III.  1,*  III.  2.* 

Abbefot,  figUse,  332.* 

Abbey,  147t. 

Abliey  church,  147. t 

Acanthus.  10,t  218;  Byzantine,  100;  Ro- 
man, 27. 

Acque\-ille,  Eglise,  330.* 

Africa.  Early  Christian  architecture  of,  92; 
Roman  architecture  of.  33. 

Agliate.  Baptistery,   181;*  S.  Pietro,   181.* 

Agrate-Conturbia,  Battistero,  238.* 

Aigle,  St.  Barthelemy,  327;*  St.  Jean,  327.* 

Aima\'iIIe.  S.  Legero,  239.* 

Alii  Tounga,  III.  65. 

Airan,  Eglise,  330.* 

Aisle,  111.  4.t 

Aisy,  figlise,  312.* 

Aizani.  Temple  of  Zeus,  28. 

Aizicr,  figlise,  299.* 

Aizy,  see  Aisy. 

Ala,  39.t 

Alessandria,  Sta.  Maria  in  Castello,  239.* 

Alet,  Ruins,  198.* 

Almenno,  Madonna  del  Castello,  233;  *  S. 
Giorgio,  233;  *  S.  Tommaso  in  Limine, 
234.* 

Alleaume,  Notre  Dame,  320.* 

Allemagne,  Tower,  318.*  277. 

Alliate.  see  Agliate. 

Altars,  Early  Christian,  59. 

Alteniatc  system,  169;  t  adopted  throughout 
Ix)nihardy.  210;  in  Lombardy,  256;  origin 
of,  169. 

Alternate  pier,  200. t 

Arablie.  Eglise.  300.* 

AmtH>.  62,t  III.  41. t 

Ambulatory,  156;  f  earliest  examples  of,  156; 


not  founti  in  Norman  architecture,  262; 
introduced  into  Normandy.  274. 

'Amman;  Western  Tomb,  105. 

Amphiprostyle,  7.t 

Amphitheaters,  Roman.  41. 

Anba  Bishoi.  111.  63. 

Andou\-ille,  Eglise,  325.* 

Angers,  Baptistery,  188;  *  St.  Martin,  188.* 

Angernlle-l'Orcher,  EgUse,  317.* 

Anisy,  Eghse.  309.* 

Anjou.  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Antae,  7.t 

Anthemion,  10. t 

Aosta,  Duomo,  237;  *  S.  Orso,  237.* 

Apodosis,  57. t  , 

Apodosis  chapels,  57;  in  the  West,  153. 

Apse.  35;  f  double,  58;  double  in  Carolingian 
churches,  154;  in  Early  Christian  basilicas, 
57;  square,  58.  84;  triple,  153;  windows 
in,  58;  western,   155.  160. 

Apse  arch,  56. f 

Apsidal  chapels,  153. 

Arcade,  25;  t  double,  in  Nonuandy,  277;  en- 
gaged in  Normandy,  276. 

Arch,  ll,t  III.  6;  flat,  13.t  111.  6;  horseshoe, 
in  Normandy.  281;  pointed,  in  Coptic 
churches,  89;  pointed,  in  Normandy,  273; 
pointed,  in  southern  France,  283;  trans- 
verse, in  Lombardy,  258  ;t  transverse,  in 
Syria,  83. 

Arch  of  triumph,  56.t 

Arches,  coupled,  163.t 

Arches  on  columns,  51. 

Archbishops,  144. 

Arch-deacon,  144. 

Arch-preslMer,  144. 

Architrave,  111.  l.t  111.  2.t 

Archivolt,  13.t 

Arcuated  lintel.  15. t 

Ardevon,  "  Baptistere,"  330.* 

Argence,  St.  Patrice,  324.* 

Aribo,  207. 


469 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Aries,  amphitheater,  III.  29. 

Arliano,  S.  Martino,  181.* 

Arris,  111.  l.f 

Arsago,  Battistero,  234;*  S.  Vittore,  234.* 

Asia  Minor,  Roman  architecture  of,  33. 

Asnieres,  St.  Vigor,  309.* 

Asti,  Battistero,  238.* 

Astragal,  111.  2.t 

Athens,  Erechtheion,  26,  111.  2,  111.  4;  Parthe- 
non, 9,  111.  1,  111.  4;  Propyltva,  111.  4;  Tem- 
ple of  Nike  Aptero.s,  111.  4;  Theseion,  111.  5. 

'Atil,  Fafade  of  Temple,  111.  34. 

Atrium,  39;  t  Corinthian,  39;  t  Early  Chris- 
tian, 63;  Early  Christian,  the  prototype  of 
the  Mohammedan  mosque,  63;  passes  out 
of  use,  81;  Tuscan,  39.t 

Attic  base,  ITO.f 

Aubervoye,  Eglise,  313;  *  Grolte  de  Betliliiem, 
314.* 

AufFay,  Prieure,  304.* 

Audrien,  Eglise,  300,t 

Auguerny,  Eglise,  314.* 

Autheuil,  Eglise,  301.* 

Autliie,  Eglise,  318.* 

Auvergne,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Auver\ille-Ia-Grosse-Tour,  figli.se,  315.* 

Auxerre,  St.  Germain,  195.* 

Avallon,  groin  vaults  of,  284. 

Avenay,  figlise,  330.* 

Ayasalouk,  Hagios  loamios,  125.* 

Ba'albek  arch  motive,  51. t 

Bagnacavallo,  Pieve  di  Pietro  in  Sylvis,  126.* 

Bay,  111.  l.t 

Baibiska,  East  Church,  111.  60. 

Bapteste,  Baptistery,  197. 

Baptistries  cease  to  be  erected  in  the  North, 

152. 
Barbarian  invasions,  the,  46. 
Barbarossa,  207. 
Barbery,  Abbaye,  323.* 
Barne\'ille,  St.  Germain,  305.* 
Bameville-la-Bertrand,  Eghse,  325.* 
Baron,  Eglise,  323.* 
Barre-de-Semilly,  Eglise,  317,*  273. 
Barrel  vault,  15,t  111.  7,t  111.  7a;  construction 

of,   16;  in   Coptic  architecture,   87;  in  tlie 

south  of  France,  284. 
Base,  111.  2.t 
Bases,  Norman,  279. 
"Basket"  capital,  lOl.f 
Basilica,     Carolingian,     152;         Carolingian, 

chapels  added  to,   153;  Carolingian,   light- 


ing of,  160;  Early  Christian,  50;  Early 
Christian  and  Roman  compared,  65;  Early 
Christian,  description  of,  53;  Early  Chris- 
tian, lack  of  external  adornment,  65;  Early 
Clu-istian,  hghting  of,  62;  Early  Christian, 
of  one  aisle,  54;  Early  Christian,  of  five 
aisles,  54;  Early  Christian,  of  three  aisles, 
54;  Early  Christian,  origin  of,  65;  Early 
Christian,  orientation  of,  53;  Early  Chris- 
tian, plan  of,  52;  Early  Christian,  struc- 
tural characteristics  of,  50;  outgrown  by 
the  needs  of  the  Church,  148;  private  pagan, 
35;  Roman,  35;  Roman,  clearstories  of, 
36;  Roman,  origin  of,  35;  "T-formed," 
138,  153,  159. 

Basly,  Eglise,  313.* 

Baton  rompu,  275. f 

Bayeux,  Cathedral,  288;  *  design  of,  281,  282: 
St.  Loup,  290.* 

Bead  moulding,  10. f 

Beaumais,  Eglise,  308,*  III.  144;  obscene 
sculptures,  278. 

Beauraont-en-Auge,  Prieure,  319.* 

Beauvais,  Basse  Oeuvre,  176,*  111.  96;  orna- 
ment on  voussoirs,  276. 

Bed  Mould,  111.  l.t 

Belleme,  Cliapelle  St.  Sanctin,  331.* 

Bellengreville,  Eghse,  324.* 

Bema,  59. f 

Benedictine  order,  145. 

Benedictine  rule,  145. 

Bener\ille,  Eglise,  331.* 

Benevento,  Sla.  Sofia,  194.* 

Beny-sur-Mer,  Eglise,  304.* 

Bergamo,  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  236.* 

Bernay,  Abbaye,  294,*  250. 

Bernieres-sur-Mer,  Notre  Dame,  296;  *  sex- 
partite  vaults,  204. 

Berry,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Bethlehem,  Church  of  the  Nativity,  124.* 

Beuville,  Eglise,  329.* 

Beziers-Ste.-Aphrodise,  197.* 

Biella,  Baptistery,  187.* 

Bie\ille,  Notre  Dame,  309;  *obscene  sculp- 
tures, 278. 

Bingen,  Kapelle,  196.* 

Billet  moulding,  163;  f  in  Normandy,  277. 

Billy,  Eghse,  332.* 

Bishop,  142. 

Blainville,  Eglise,  320.* 

Bleidenstadt,  Kirche,  197.* 

Bocher\ille,  St.  Georges,  293,*  111.  127,  III. 
135,  43S;  domed  groin  vaults  in  choir,  261, 


470 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Boisney,  £{j''sp.  306.* 

Bologna,  Sto.  Stefano  Rotondo,  235.* 

Bonato,  Sta.  Giuliaiia,  233.* 

Bonn,  Churches  of,  198.* 

Bons,  Eghse,  330.* 

Boschennlle,  see  Bocherville. 

Boucey,  Eglise,  329.* 

Bougy,  St.  Pierre,  319,*  2-19. 

Bouelle.s,  figh'se,  328.* 

Bouv-illc,  Chapelle  St.  Julien,  311.* 

Bourg-Dun,  EgH.sc,  305.* 

Boute%ille,  figUsc,  326.* 

Bfecey,  figli.se,  324.* 

Brescia,  Duonio  Vecchio,  177;*  S.  Salvatore, 
177,*  111.  83;  Sta.  Giulia,  233;  *  Rotonda, 
see  Duomo  Vecchio. 

Brestot,  Ste.  Marie,  311.* 

Breteuil,  St.  Sulpice,  315,*  274. 

Brette\ille-sur-Odon,  St.  Pierre,  324;  *  ob- 
scene sculptures,  278. 

Bretteville-rOrgueilleuse,  figlise,  315.* 

Bricquebec,  figlise,  312,*  327.* 

Briouzes,  figlise,  314;  *  Prieure  St.  Andre, 
314.* 

Bri.xworth,  BasiUca,  35. 

Broglie,  St.  Martin,  314,*  274. 

Bruche\-ille,  figlise,  319.* 

Bully,  figlise,  326.* 

Bures,  figlise,  323.* 

Burgundy,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Buttress,  13;  f  evolution  of,  211;  in  Nor- 
mandy, 259;  Norman,  279;  Norman,  in 
two  orders,  279;  Lombard,  211. 

Buttressing,  13.t 

Byzantine,  96. f 

Byzantine  architecture,  96;  f  geographical 
boundaries  of,  96;  influenced  by  Greek 
tradition,  98;  influenced  by  the  Orient,  98; 
origin  of,  97. 

Byzantine  influence,  in  Carolingian  ornament, 
162;  in  Loml)ard  ornament,  219;  in  the 
West,  133,  134. 

Byzantine  ornament,  100. 

Byzantium,  foundeil,  45. 

Caen,  Abbaye-au.\-Hommes,  285,*  111.  125, 
111.  126,  111.  129,  LI.  131,  111.  133,  262,  263; 
buttressing  of,  269;  .sexpartite  vaults,  264 
seq.:  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  286,*  111.  128, 
in.  132,  111.  1.34;  buttressing  of,  269;  -sex- 
partite  vaults,  264  .seq.:  figlise  du  Scpulcre, 
288:  *  St.  filienne,  see  Abbaye-aux-Ilommes: 
St.  Georges-du-Chateau,  288;*  St.  Gilles, 


288:*  St.  Michel  de  Vaucelles,  288:*  St. 
Nicolas,  287,*  259,  260,  261 :  St.  Pierre, 
spire,  272:  Ste.  Trinite,  see  Abbaye-aux- 
Dames. 

Caenchy,  figlise,  329.* 

Cagny,  Prieure,  321.* 

Cainet,  figUse,  327.* 

Cairo,  Abu  Sargali,  111.  64. 

Cairon,  figlise,  326.* 

Calidarium,  37. f 

Campanile,  81;  t  Lombard,  214;  origin  of, 
81. 

Capital,  111.  l,t  111.  2;  t  Byzantine,  evolutioa 
of,  100;  Byzantine,  variety  of  types,  101; 
cubic  in  Normandy,  277;  Norman,  277; 
Lombard,  220. 

Carolingian,  129. f 

Carolingian  Architecture,  129;  f  apparent 
confusion  of,  130;  general  characteristics 
of,  165;  passing  of,  166;  unassuming  char- 
acter of,  129;  work  of  destruction,  165. 

Carolingian  Empire,  end  of,  139. 

Carohngian  motives  in  Norman  ornament,  275. 

Carolingian  ornament,  162. 

Carolingian  Renaissance,  134. 

Cathedral,  142.t 

Cambres,  figlise,  319.* 

Campigny,  figlise,  310.* 

Canapville,  Eglise,  330.* 

"Canons  regular,"  144. f 

Canossa,  204. 

Capua,  S.  Michele,  190.* 

Carcagny,  figlise,  322.* 

Carpiquet,  St.  Martin,  323.* 

Carquebut,  figlise,  332.* 

Casale  Monferrato,  Duomo  S.  Evasio,  236.* 

Castillon,  figlise,  325.* 

Cavagnolo,  S.  Fede  al  Po,  233.* 

CeUa,  111.  4.t 

Centering,  13. f 

Cerisy-Belle-fitoile,  figlise,  328.* 

Cerisy-la-Forct,  figlise,  297,*  259. 

Cesny-Bois-Halbout,  332.* 

Chains,  wooden,  I^omlrard,  212. 

Chamalieres,  figlise,  197.* 

Chambois,  figlise,  313.* 

Champeau,  Eglise,  321.* 

Champigny,  111.  137. 

Champs,  St.  EvToult,  319.* 

Chanceaux,  198.* 

Channel,  III.  l.f 

Chapels,  apsidal,  153. 

Chapter,  143,t  147. 


471 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Chaqqa,  Basilica,  111.  53. 

Charente,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Charlemagne,  135. 

Charles  the  Fat,  139. 

Charleval,  EgUse,  331;  *  frescoes,  278. 

Chatillon-sur-Thonet,  198.* 

Chartres,  L'Hopital  St.  Brice,  198.* 

Chef-du-Pont,  Eglise,  330.* 

Chemtou,  Plan,  111.  66. 

Chens,  Eghse,  332.* 

Cheux,  fighse,  307,*  111.  142. 

Chevet,  156. t 

Che\Te\-ille,  figlise,  328.* 

Che\Ton,  275;  f  historj'  of,  275. 

Bazoches-sur-Hoene,  Eglise,  327.* 

Chiaravalle,  Certosa,  238.* 

Chinon,  St.  Mesme,  198.* 

Clupon\'ille,  Eghse,  324.* 

Choir,  61;  f  Norman,  262;  prolonged  in  Caro- 
hngian  period,  157. 

Christianity,  introduced  into  Normandy,  242. 

Chrodegang,  143. 

Church  building,  tj-pe  estabhshed  before  Con- 
stantine,  44. 

Church  furniture,  Byzantine,  102. 

Church  hierarchy,  141. 

Ciborium,  59,t  III.  40.t 

Cimitile,  S.  FeUce,  194.* 

Cintheaux,  St.  Germain,  308,*  obscene  car\-- 
ings,  278. 

Circular  Churches,  Carolingian,  150;  devel- 
oped by  tlie  Byzantines,  103;  Early  Chris- 
tian, 71;  Early  Christian,  adapted  to  a 
square  plan,  73;  Early  Christian,  origin 
of,  71;  Early  Christian,  side  aisles  added  to, 
72;  of  Northern  S\Tia,  84;  of  the  Ilauriin, 
83. 

Circular  temples,  36. 

Civate,  Battistero,  232;  *  S.  Pietro,  232.* 

Ci\idale,  Baptistery,  111.  84;  Sta.  Maria  in 
Valle,  182,*  133. 

Clairvaux,  influence  of  in  Normandy,  246. 

Classical,  4.t 

Clearstory,  36;  t  absence  of  in  the  Hauran,  85. 

Cleppe,  Church,  198.* 

Clerai,  Eglise,  324.* 

Cloister,  147;  t  derived  from  the  Early  Chris- 
tia  atrium,  63. 

Cloistered  vault,  21,t  111.  ll.f 

Cluniac  reform,  144,  145. 

Colle\-ille-sur-Mer,  Eglise,  308.* 

ColombeUes,  Eglise,  323.* 

Colombier-sur-Seulles,  St.  Vigor,  312.* 


Colonnade,  S.f 

Colunm,  111.  1;  t  spiral  fluted,  61. 

Corneville,  Abbaye,  329;  *  Eghse,  329.* 

Colomby-sur-Than,  Eghse,  332.* 

Comacini,  134. 

Commes,  Eglise,  317.* 

Como,  Lombard  architecture  of,  208;  S. 
Abondio,  195,*  230,*  111.  110,  111.  115,  214; 
S.  Carpoforo,  231;*  S.  Fidele,  231,*  195,* 
199;  S.  Giacomo,  232.* 

Composite  Order,  28, f  111.  19;  origin  of,  28. 

Concordat  of  Worms,  205. 

Conde-sur-Laizon,  Eglise,  332.* 

Confessio,  61, t  149. 

Constance,  S.  Mauritiuskapelle  am  Dome, 
197.* 

Constantinian  Renaissance,  33,  43. 

Constantinople  and  Rome,  45. 

Constantinople,  Church  of  the  Apostles,  283: 
Church  of  the  Chora,  120:*  Church  of 
the  Holy  Peace,  see  Hagia  Eirene:  Hagia 
Eirene,  119:*  Hagia  Sophia,  114,*  111.  69 
111.  77,  111.  78,  111.  79,  107-113:  Hagios 
Bacchos,  118,*  111.  72,  103:  Hagios  loan- 
nos,  119,*  III.  67,  100:  Hagios  Theodoros, 
120:  *  Imrachor  Dschamissi,  see  Hagios 
loannos:  Kutschuk  Aja  Sophia,  see  Hagios 
Bacchos:  Mosque  Kahriyeh,  see  Church  of 
the  Chora;  rise  of,  45:  St.  John  of  Studios, 
see  Hagios  loannos:  St.  Sergius  and  Bac- 
chus see  Hagios  Bacchos:  Sta.  Eirene,  see 
Hagia  Eirene:  Sta.  Sophia,  see  Hagia 
Sophia. 

Construction,  Byzantine,  103. 

Coptic  Arcliitecture,  86;  tref oiled  apses  of, 
87. 

Coptic  decoration,  90. 

Corbel,  lOe.f 

Corbel-table,  arched,  162,t  111.  108,t  216;  in 
Normandy,  278;  in  Syria,  85,  111.  58. 

Corbel-table,  flat,  217.t 

Corintliian  capital,  Greek,  111.  3a,'  f  Roman, 
111.  16.t 

Corinthian  Order,  Greek,  5,  111.  3a;  Roman, 
27;  t  Roman,  origin  of,  27. 

Cornice,  111.  l,t  111.  2.t 

Corona,  111.  l,t  III.  2.t 

Cosmati  work,  79,t  III.  51, t  102. 

Cortazzone  d'Asti,  S.  Secondo,  238.* 

Courcome,  Church,  198.* 

Courcy,  Eglise,  327.* 

Coutances,  Cathedral,  270. 

Convert,  Eglise,  325.* 


472 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Crasmeiiil,  figlise,  332.* 

Crocy,  fislise,  328:  *  I'rieure,  328.* 

Cremelle,  fi{,'lis(-,  329.t 

Cremona,  Duonio,  238.* 

Cresserons,  Efjlise,  322.* 

Creully,  St.  Martin.  2i)k*  se.\partite  vaults, 

264. 
Cricqneheuf,  t^Mse.  329.* 
Criquotot,  figlise,  320.* 
Crocket,  163.t 
Crossin;;,  oO.f 
Crown,  13.t 

Crypts,  Carolingian,  155. 
Cubiculae,  39.t 
Culina,  39. t 
Cully,  figlise,  328.* 
Cult  of  the  Saints,  149. 
Cuneo,  S.  Costanzo,  239.* 
Cupola,  Lombard,  213.t 
Cushion,  111.  2.t 
Cyma  reversa,  o.f 
Cymatium,  111.  l.t  111.  2.t 

Dair-as-Suriani,  111.  62. 

D'.AJa  Shehr,  Monastery,  127.* 

Daphni,  Monastery,  127.* 

Decastyle,  7.t 

Derbe,  Church,  127.* 

Desiderius,  135. 

Deux-Junieaii.\,  Prieure,  325.* 

Diaconicon,  57. f 

Diagonal  rib,  201. f 

Diaper,  281.t 

Diapered  Spandrels  in  Normandy,  281. 

Dipteral,  7.t 

Dijon,  Cathedrale  St.  Benigne,  198.* 

Distre,  figlise  Rurale,  198.* 

Djebel   Burisha,  Early  Christian   architecture 

of,  84. 
Djebel  Hauran,    Early   Christian   arcliitecture 

of,  82. 
Djebel   il-.\'la,    Early   Christian    architecture 

of,  84. 
Djebel  Riha,  Early  Christian  architecture  of, 

84. 
Doclea,   Basilica,   125;  *  Small  church,   125.* 
Dog-tooth,  276.t 

Dome,  21,t  III.  12;  t  construction  of,  21. 
Domfront,  Xotre-Dame-sur-l'Eau,  297,*  260; 

obscene  canings,  278. 
Doric  Order,  4,t  III.  1;  t  Greek,  4,t  111.  1;  t 

Roman,  26.t 
Dormitories,  147.t 


Douvres,  St.  Remi,  309.* 
Drubec,  figlise,  323.* 
Drum,  23.t 

Duclair,  figlise,  318,*  339. 
Ducy,  figlise,  317.* 

Early  Christian  architecture,  general  charac- 
teristics of,  92. 

East  ends  of  Early  Christian  basilicas,  57. 

ficajeul,  Eglise,  331.* 

ficaussenville,  figlise,  331.* 

Echinus,  111.  I.f 

fico\il!e,  figlise,  327.* 

ficrainville,  figlise,  320.* 

Edict  of  Milan,  43;  effect  on  architecture  of,  45. 

Egg-and-dart,  10,t  HI.  2,t  102. 

Egypt,  Early  Christian  architecture  of,  48; 
historj-  of,  48. 

El  Baraii.  Hou.se,  111.  27. 

Ellon,  figUse,  329.* 

En  batiere,  277. f 

Engaged  arcade,  217.t 

Engaged  shafts  in  Norman  interiors,  257. 

Englesqueville,  figlise,  321.* 

Engranville,  figlise,  318.* 

Entablature,  111.  l,t  HI.  2.t 

Entablature  blocks,  52. 

Entasis,  29.t 

Empire  and  Papacy,  203. 

Epidauros,  Tholos,  Corinthian  Capital  of, 
111.  3a,-  entablature.  III.  3,  Fig.  9. 

Episcopal  throne,  59. 

Epistle,  side  of,  53. 

fipron,  figlise,  329.* 

Essay,  figlise,  330.* 

Essen-an-der-Ruhr,  ^liinster,  192.* 

Esquay,  Notre  Dame,  312,*  259. 

fitavaux,  Notre  Dame,  330.* 

fitreham,  St.  Romain,  319.* 

fitretat,  figlise,  317.* 

fitre\-ille,  figlise,  332.* 

fiturqueraie,  figlise,  332.* 

Euneastyle,  7.t 

£\Teu.x,  St.  Taurin,303.* 

Exedrae,  49.t 

Exmes,  figlise,  322.* 

Facades,  Carolingian,  158;  Early  Christian  of 

Syria,  85;  Lombard,  213. 
Falaise,    Chapelle    St.    Nicholas-du-Chateau, 

295;*    figlise   de    Guilray,    295;*   shafted 

windows,     280;     St.  Gervais,     295;  *     St. 

Laurent,  295;  *  St.  Pierre,  295.* 


473 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Fatonulle-Grestaiii,  figlise,  331.* 

Fauville,  Eglise,  3-.!8.* 

Fecamp;  Abbaye,  :273. 

Feings,  Eglise,  3^4.* 

Feudalism,  139. 

Fierville,  Eglise,  328.* 

Fillets,  111.  l,t  111.  2.t 

Fiqueville-Esquain\ille,  332.* 

Fljaiig  buttress,  269;  t  concealed  in  Nor- 
mandy, 269;  origin  of,  269. 

Flute,  111.  l.t 

Fontaiue-fitoupefour,  Eglise,  327.* 

Fontaine-Halbout,  figlise,  318.* 

Fontaine-Henrj',  Eglise,  304.* 

Fontaine-la-Soret,  Eglise,  317.* 

Fontenailles,  St.  Pierre,  327.* 

Fontenay,  St.  Andre,  328.* 

Formigny,  St.  Martin,  316.* 

Formo\ille,  Eglise,  332.* 

Fort  Yonsha,  Hagios  Panteleemon,  127.* 

Foulbec,  Eglise,  324.* 

Fratres  conversi,  147. f 

Frankfurt,  Salvatorskirche,  193,*  111.  95. 

French  influence  in  Normandy,  273. 

Fresnau.x,  Chapelle  des  Templiers,  326.* 

Fresnay-le-Pueeux,  Eglise,  332.* 

Fresne-Camilly,  Eglise,  309.* 

Fres\-ille,  Eglise,  324.* 

Fret,  10;  f  in  Normandy,  276. 

Friardel,  Eglise,  321.* 

Fribois-St.-Loup,  Eglise,  330.* 

Frieze,  111.  l,t  111.  2.t 

Fueguerolles-sur-Ome,  Eglise,  331.* 

Fulda,  Heil.  JMichael,  191;*  Salvatorskirche, 
192.* 

Gables,  over  doorways  in  Normandy,  280. 

Galleries,  217. 

Galliano,  Baptistery,  193;*  Pieve  di  S.  Vin- 

cenzo,  192.* 
Genets,  Notre  Dame  et  St.  Sebastien,  308,* 

273. 
Gennes,  St.  Eusebe,  198;  *  St.  Veterin,  198.* 
Gerizim,  Hagia  INIaria,  124.* 
Germanic  elements  in  Carolingian  ornament, 

163. 
Germanic  ornament,  133. 
Germanic  influence  in   Lombard   ornament, 

218. 
Germans,  architecture  of,  2;  ci^lization  of,  2. 
Germigny-les-Pres,  Eglise,   175,*   111.   88,   111. 

89,  151. 
Gernrode-am-Harz,  Kirche,  191.* 


Ghibellines,  207. 

Girgenti,  Zeus  Temple,  111.  4,  26. 

Glos,  Eglise,  322.* 

Godefroy,  Eglise,  330.* 

Gospel,  side  of,  53. f 

Gourge,  Church,  198.* 

Goustranville,  Eglise,  320.* 

Grado,  Baptistery,  181;*  Dom,  123;*  Sta. 
Maria,  180.* 

Grain\ille,  Eghse,  319.* 

Grandlieu,  St.-Philbert,  189.* 

Gravedona,  Sta.  Maria  del  Tiglio,  235;*  S. 
Vincenzo,  235.* 

Graville,  Ste.  Honorine,  302,*  111.  145;  double 
arcade,  277. 

Graye,  Eglise,  327.* 

Greek  and  Roman  art,  contrasted,  4. 

Greek  acanthus,  10. 

Greek  architecture,  4;  general  characteristics 
of,  8. 

Greek  construction,  9. 

Greek  exteriors,  8. 

Greek  interiors,  6. 

Greek  ornament,  10,  111.  3. 

Greek  plans,  6,  111.  4. 

Greek  stereotomy,  9. 

Greek  temples,  considered  as  the  prototype  of 
tlie  Roman  basilica,  8;  orientation  of,  53. 

Gregory  the  Great,  142. 

Grenoble,  Chapelle  St.  Laurent,  195.* 

Griffe,  170;  f  used  in  Normandy,  279. 

Grisy,  Eghse,  318.* 

Groin  vault,  17,t  III.  9,  f  HI-  10;  t  buttress- 
ing of,  20;  construction  of,  20;  erected  in 
side  aisles,  200;  erected  over  choirs  in  Nor- 
mandy, 261;  in  Normandy,  261;  preferred 
by  the  Lombards  in  the  XII  century,  216. 

Groins,  17. t 

Grotesques,  Norman,  278. 

Guelf,  207. 

Gueron,  Eghse,  316.* 

Guilloche,  lO.t  102,  218;  double,  111.  3,  Figs. 
6  and  7;  t  single.  111.  3,  Fig.  S.f 

Guttae,  111.  l.t 

Haie-Aubree,  Eghse,  332.* 
Haie-de-Routot,  Eglise,  332.* 
Baikal,  87.t 
Ham,  Eglise,  310.* 
Hambie,  see  Hambye. 
Hambye,  Abbaye,  300.* 
Harcourt,  Chapelle,  319.* 
Hass,  Basihca,  111.  55. 


474 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Haunch,  13.t 

Heart  leaf,  lo.t  111.  '-'.  10-2. 

HolKTlot,  St.  Aiulr.'-,  ;!17.* 

HeidollKT;;,    lUil.    Micluu-l    auf   deiu    Herf;c, 

193.* 
Helmstcdt,  Kajx-lle,  197.* 
Henry  the  Fowler,  l-tO. 
Heptastyle,  7.t 
Kermannlle,  figlise,  iii\.* 
Keronville-St. -Clair,  Eglise,  S-il.* 
Herring-lxjne  masonry  in  Normandy,  SGS. 
He.xastyle,  7.t 

Hoclhst,  A.  M.,  Heil.  Justinu.s,  179.* 
Hodeiig,  Eglise,  3-27.* 
Holy  Human  Kmpire,  135. 
Hubert  Folic.  Chapelle,  3-28.* 
Hiifjli  CaiK-t,  140. 
HupiKiiii,  Ei;lise,  317,*  '277. 
Hyptetliral  temples.  (>. 
Hypietlinmi,  7,t  111.  4.t 

Iconostasis,  6'2.t 

Ifs,  figlise.  305;  *  gable,  280. 

lie  St.  Honorat  de  Lerins,  Chapelle  de  la 
Trinite,  195.* 

Irapluviiim,  39.t 

Impost,  13.t 

Lnchexille,  St.  Lubin,  321.* 

Ingelheim,  Heil.  Remigius,  19'2.* 

Insel  Reichenau,  Heil.  Maria  im  INIittelzell, 
185,*  4^7;  Stiftkirche  des  Heil.  Georg  in 
01)erzell,  185,*  437;  Stiftkirche  der  Heil. 
I'eter  und  Paul  in  Niederzelle,  185,*  437- 

Interlace,  162,  218. 

lnlerme<liate  supports,  200. f 

Intrados,  13.t 

Ionic  Order,  Greek,  5,  111.  2;  f  Roman,  111. 
15,t  27. 

Italian  intluenee  in  the  Carolingian  architec- 
ture of  northern  Europe,  138. 

Italy,  Early  Christian  architecture  of,  75. 

Israid,  105. 

Issoudim,  L'ancienne  Chapelle  du  Chateau, 
197.* 

Ivrea,  Cathe<lral,  191,*  156. 

Jerash,  105. 

Jerusalem,  105;  El  .Vksa,  127.* 

John  VIII,  143. 

Jort,  figlise,  315.* 

Jouarre,  Crj-pt,  196.* 

Juaye,  St.  Vigor,  315.* 

Jumieges,  .Vblx-y,  290,*  III.  121,  111.  122,  III. 


123,   111.    124,   253;  St.   Pierre,    198,*  250, 
291 ;  St.  Valentin,  4SS. 

Kal'at  Sim'an,  111.  58,  84. 

Kalb  Lauzeh,  Basilica,  111.  56,  111.  57. 

Keystone,  13.t 

Koblenz,  Heil.  Kastor,  194.* 

Koja  Kalessi,  Church,  126.* 

Kciln,   Heil.    Maria    im   Capitol,    196;  *    St. 

Pantaleon,  196.* 
Kusr-en-Nueijis,  105. 

Ija  Bourse,  Eghse  Rurale,  190.* 

La  Caine,  Prieure,  325.* 

La-Croix-Ste.-Lenfroy,  figlise,  326.* 

La  Ferte-Mace,  Eglise,  322.* 

La  Hoguette,  Abbaye-St.-.\ndre-en-Gouifern, 
330.* 

Iji  Lucerne,  Abbaye,  309.* 

La  Luzern,  see  La  Lucerne. 

La  Motte,  Eglise,  331.* 

Iviinde-Patrie  Eglise,  326.* 

Jjangon,  Chapelle  Ste.  Agate,  198.* 

Languedoc,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Lanquetot,  Eglise,  330.* 

Lantern,  22,t  252.t 

Latakia,  Arch,  Smoothed  Squinch,  III.  75. 

Latin  elements  in  Carolingian  architecture,  164. 

I^tin  influence  in  Carolingian  architecture,  134. 

Leffard,  Eglise,  332.* 

Legnano,  207. 

Le  Mans,  Cathedral,  265;  Notre  Dame-de-la- 
Couture,  189,*  157;  Notre Dame-du-Pre, 259. 

Lenno,  Battistero,  239;  *  S.  Benedetto.  239.* 

Le  Puy,  Notre  Dame,  III.  151,  284. 

Lery,  St.  Ouen,  310.* 

Lessay,  Abbaye,  296,*  273. 

Lestre,  St.  Michel,  323.* 

Le  Tanu,  Eglise,  326.* 

Lieurj',  Eglise,  330.* 

Lintel,  9.t 

Lion-sur-Mer,  Eglise,  310.* 

Littry,  Eglise,  312.* 

Loches,  St.  Ours,  284,  111.  152. 

Longueville,  Eglise,  325.* 

Lonlai,  Abbaye,  303.* 

Lonlay,  see  Lonlai. 

Loisail,  Eglise,  327.* 

Lombard  architecture,  beginnings,  of,  141; 
con.scrvatism  of,  210;  development  of  al- 
ternate system,  167;  earhest  characteris- 
tics, 167;  general  characteristics,  221;  in- 
fluence of,  209;  transverse  arches,  167. 


47.> 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Lombard  cities  and  the  papacy,  205. 

Lombard  communes,  rise  of,  206. 

Lombard    influence    in    Normandy,    255;  in 

Norman  ornament,  278. 
Lombard  League,  207. 
Lombard  ornament,  216. 
Lombards  invade  Italy,  48. 
Lombardy,  historical  conditions  of,  in  the  XI 

and  XII  centuries,  204. 
Lorsch,  Facade,  178,*  111.  98. 
Lotus  flower,  lO.f 
Loucelle,  figlise,  332.* 
Louis  the  Pious,  13!),  143. 
Lou\'ieres,  Notre  Dame,  306.* 
Luc-.sur-lMer,  figlise,  313.* 
Lunettes,  17.t 
Lyon,  St.  Irenee,  197;  *  St.  Martin-d'Ainay, 

196;  *  St.  Nizier,  196.* 
Lyon-la-Foret,  Abbaye,  329.* 

Magneville,  figlise,  331.* 

Magny,  figlise,  331.* 

Mainz,  Cathedral,  284;  St.  Stephen,  198.* 

Maisons,  Eglise,  327.* 

Maltot,  St.  Pierre,  320.* 

Maneglise,  Eglise,  311,*  274. 

Mantua,  Duomo,  239.* 

IMarais-Vernier,  Egli.se,  331.* 

Marcilly,  Eghse,  332.* 

Marigny,  Eglise,  318.* 

Martinvast,  Notre  Dame,  310.* 

Masonry,  Norman,  263. 

Mathieu,  Notre  Dame,  326.* 

Matroneiun,  65. f 

Mauves,  St.  Pierre,  316.* 

Meander,  III.  3,  Fig.  1,  2,  4;  t  double.  111.  3, 
Fig.  3;  t  in  Normandy,  276. 

Membidj,  Church,  126.* 

Memorial  Cella;,  49.t 

Merlerault,  Eglise,  328.* 

Mesnieres,  Eglise,  329.* 

Metope,  111.  l.t 

Metropolitan  sees,  145. f 

Mettlach,  .\lte  Thurm,  189,*  111.  91,  151. 

Meuvaines,  Egli.se,  317,*  327.* 

Miehelstadt-Steinbach,  Kirche,  180.* 

Milan,  Chiesa  d'.\urona,  174;  *  Lombard 
architecture  of,  208;  S.  Ambrogio,  172,* 
III.  92,  111.  94,  111.  106,  III.  107,  III.  116, 
III.  119,  203,  212,  213,  221,  437;*  Sta. 
Babila,  222;  *  S.  Calimero,  223;  *  S.  Celso, 
175,*  221,  *  III.  97,  111.  102,  III.  112,  199; 
S.  Eustorgio,  175,*  222,*  167;  S.  Giorgio  al 


Palazzo,  223;  *  S.  Giovanni  in  Conca,  223;* 
Sta.  Maria  di  Brera,  223;  *  S.  Nazarro 
Maggiore,  222,*  203;  S.  Satiro,  174,*  151; 
S.  Sepolcro,  223;  *  S.  Simpliciano,  175,* 
223;*  Sto.  Stefano  in  Broho,  223;*  S. 
Vincenzo  in  Prato,  174.* 

Milanese  Church,  206. 

Miletus,  Temple  of  Apollo  Didyma?os,  III.  4. 

Modena,  Cattedrale,  229;  *  Lombard  arclii- 
tecture  of,  209. 

Modillion,  28,t  102. 

Monasteries,  organization  of,  146;  power  of,  146. 

Monastery,  buildings  of,  147. 

Monastic  orders,  the,  145. 

Mondeville,  Eglise,  326.* 

Monferrato,  see  Cavagnolo. 

Mont-au,\-Malades,  Eglise,  332.* 

Montebourg,  .\bbaye,  323.* 

Montechiaro,  S.  Nazaro,  239.* 

Montefiascone,  S.  Andrea,  232;  *  S.  Flavi- 
ano,  232.* 

Montimer-en-Lions,  Abbaye,  325.* 

Montgaroult,  St.  Remi,  318;  *  obscene  sculp- 
tures, 278. 

Montgaudry,  Eglise,  329.* 

Montier-en-Dcr,  Abbaye,  186,*  III.  100. 

Montiglio,  S.  Ixjrenzo,  239.* 

Montivilliers,  .\bl)aye,  302.* 

Mt.-St.-Michel,  Abbaye,  291;  *  Eglise,  293.* 

Monza,  Duomo,  239.* 

Morbegno,  S.  Martino,  239.* 

Mortagne,  Chapelle  de  .St.  Santin,  324;  *  St. 
Germain-dc-Loise,  324.* 

Mortain,  Abbaye  Blanche,  301,*  273;  St. 
E\Toult,  302.* 

Mo.saics,  Byzantine,  102;  Carolingian,  164; 
Early  Christian  in  Italy,  75. 

Mouen,  St.  Malo,  313.* 

Mouldings,  Norman,  280. 

Moult,  Eglise,  323.* 

Mount  Sinai,  Hagia  Maria,  124,*  437- 

Muggia  Vecchia,  Sta.  Maria,  186.* 

Miinster,  Kloster,  St.  Johann,  438;  Ste. 
Croix,  190.* 

Plural  painting,  in  Early  Christian  edifices  of 
Italy,  80;  in  Lombardy,  220. 

Mutrecy,  Eglise,  332.* 

Mutule,  111.  l.t 

Nantes,  St.  Similien,  197.* 
Naos,  III.  4.t 

Narthex,  64;  t  exterior,  64;  interior,  64;  in 
Northern  Syria,  84. 


476 


GENERAL   INDEX 


National  stylos,  Hevolopment  of,  IK). 

NiHkiii^r,  111.  l,t  III.  -2.t 

Ncslc-rn-Hn.\,  I'-liso,  .'WS.* 

NcuflxmrK,  Kfllisc.  S-'H* 

Ncufcliutel,  Notre  Dame,  314.* 

Neuf-Marche,  Eglise,  311.* 

Nica'a,  Church,  hHi.* 

Nichohis  I,  U'i. 

Ninies,  Ampliitheatcr,  111.  28,  30;  Maisou 
Carree,  III.  '20;  Pont  du  Card.  111.  24; 
Temple  of  Diana,  111.  8. 

Noe,  Al)l>aye,  329.* 

Nonant,  Eglise,  330.* 

Norman  architecture,  construction  in  first 
half  of  XI  century,  250;  genesis  of,  249; 
influence  of  Lomliardy  upon,  244;  monas- 
tic character  of,  244;  relaxation  of  building 
activity  in  the  XII  century,  246;  restraint 
in  design,  281 ;  transition  to  the  Gothic 
style,  249. 

Normans,  characteristics  of,  241. 

Normandy,  affected  by  French  influence  in 
the  XII  century,  246;  Church  in  XI  cen- 
tury, 245;  Church  in  XII  centur}-,  246; 
Cluniac  influences,  243;  conquered  by 
France,  247;  religious  entliusiasm,  242; 
relation  with  England,  247;  rise  of  the 
monasteries,  243. 

Novara,  Cathedral,  198,*  236.* 

No\ices,  147. t 

Nymwegen,  Kapelle  der  Kaiserhchen  Pfalzen, 
186.* 

Oblati,  147.t 

Obscenities  in  Norman  sculpture,  278. 

Occagnes,  Eglise,  331.* 

Occaignes,  see  Occagnes. 

Octe\-ille,  Eglise,  312.* 

Oculi,  Norman,  281. 

Oecus,  39.t 

Oggiono,  Battistero,  239.* 

Olj-mpia,  riiilippeion.  111.  4;  Treasury  of 
Gela,  111.  4;  Treasury  of  Sikyon,  111.  4. 

Omm-es-Zeitoun,  Squinch,  111.  74. 

Opi.sthodomus,  III.  4.t 

Opus  alexandrium,  76. f 

Opus  gnccanicum,  77. t 

Opus  .scctile,  76.t 

Orange,  Arch,  51,  111.  31;  Theater,  111.  30. 

Order,  4;  t  Greek  engaged,  26;  Roman  treat- 
ment of,  25. 

Orders,  202;  t  extra,  202.t 

Orglandes.  figlise,  331.* 


Orientation,  53.t 

Ornament,  Norman,  genesis  of,  274. 

Orval,  figlise,  328.* 

Osmoy,  Eglise,  317.* 

Ostium.  39.t 

Ouezy,  Eglise,  316.* 

Ouilly-le-Vicomte,  332.* 

Ouistreham,    Eglise,    294,*    111.    139;  design, 

281 ;  sexpartite  vaults,  264. 
Oystreham,  see  Ouistreham. 

Padua,  architecture  of,  284;  Baptistery  of 
Sta.  Giu.stina,  197,*  Loniljard  architecture 
of,  209;  Sta.  Sofia,  237.* 

Ptestum,  "Basilica,"  111.  4. 

Papacy,  the  true  successor  to  the  Western 
Empire,  47. 

Parenzo,  Cathedral,  123.* 

Parfouru-rEclin,  EgUse,  328.* 

Parma,  Duomo,  228;  *  Lombard  architecture 
of,  209. 

Passageways  in  walls  of  Norman  churches, 
262. 

Passais-la-Conception,  Chapelle  St.  Auvieu, 
328.* 

"Pataria,"  207. 

PaWa,  Chiesa  di  jVIontalino  di  Stradella,  437; 
S.  .Agostino,  226;  *  S.  Ambrogio,  226;  * 
S.  Eusebio,  189;*  S.  Lanfranco,  225;* 
S.  Lazarro,  26,*  221;  Sta.  Maria  delle 
Caccie,  189;  *  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  226;  * 
Sta.  Maria  Deodate,  226;*  S.  Michele 
INIaggiore,  224,*  III.  103,  111.  104,  111.  105, 
LI.  109,  III.  113,  III.  114,  111.  117,  214;  S. 
Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro,  225,*  212;  S.  Sal- 
vatore,  226;*  Sto.  Stefano,  226;*  S.  Teo- 
doro,  225,*  215;  S.  Tommaso,  226.* 

Pavilly,  figlise,  322.* 

Pedestals,  29.t 

Pediment,  III.  l,t  broken,  30;  round,  30. 

Pendentives,  107;  t  problem  of,  105. 

Perforated  windows.  Early  Christian,  63. 

Pergula,  62. f 

Periers,  figlise,  311;*  St.  Ouen,  316.* 

Perigord,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 

Perigueux,  St.  Front,  186,*  III.  149,  111.  150, 
283. 

Peripteral  7.t 

Peristyle,  39.t 

Perriere,  figlise,  323.* 

Pervenchcres,  Notre  Dame,  320.* 

Petit-Quevilly,  figlise,  296;  *  frescoes,  278; 
sexpartite  vaults,  264. 


477 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Peyrusse-Grande,  Eglise,  197.* 

Piacenza,  Duonio,   ToO;  *  S.  Antonio,   'i29;  * 

S.  SaWno,  '230.* 
Piedmont,   Lomliard   architecture   of,   209. 
Pier,   106;  f  compound,   168;  f   "T-shaped", 

168.t 
Pierced  work,  Byzantine,  10'2. 
Pierrepont,  Eghse,  328;  *  obscene  sculptures, 

278. 
Piers  substituted  for  columns  in  Early  Chris- 
tian edifices,  81. 
Pilaster,  29,t  111.  17.t 
Pilaster  strip,  102. f 
Pilfered  materials,  50. 

Pin-la-Garenne,  Eglise,  316;*  frescoes,  278. 
Piscina,  39.t 

Planqueray,  figlise,  328.* 
Plessis-Grimoult,  Prieure,  312;  *  St.   Etienne, 

312.* 
Plumetot,  figlise,  331.* 
Podium,  37.t 
Poitiers,   Baptistere  St.   Jean,    177,*   111.   80, 

111.  81,  133;  St.  Hilaire,  177.* 
Poitou,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 
Pola,  Dom,  186.* 
Polychromy,  Greek,  5. 
Pompeii,  Basilica,  111.  22,  Fig.  3;  House  of 

Castor  and  Pollux,  III.  27,  Fig.  5;  House  of 

Pansa,  111.  27,  Fig.  6. 
Pont-Audemer,    Notre    Dame-du-Pre,    304;* 

St.  Germain,  304.* 
Pontorson,  Notre  Dame,  305,*  111.  140.   274; 

design  of  fafade,  281. 
Pope,  the,  142.t 
Porbail,  Notre  Dame,  322.* 
Porch,  Ix)mbard,  220. f 
Portals,  lyombard,  219. 
Portico,  8.t 
Porticus,  39.t 
Potigny,  figlise,  332.* 
Presbyterium,  Ol.f 
Prior,  146.t 
Priory,  146. t 
Profiles,  Greek,  4;   Norman,    280;    Roman, 

26. 
Pronaos,  111.  4.t 
Propyliea,  7,t  8. 
Prostyle,  7.t 
Prothesis,  57.t 
Prothesis  Chapel  in  Early  Christian  basilicas, 

57;  in  the  West,  153. 
Provence,  Romanesque  school  of,  283. 
Pseudo-peripteral,  7,t  38. 


Putot-en-Auge,  figlise,  314.* 
Pyramid  flower,  276. t 

Querque\'ille,  Chapelle  St.  Germain,  190.* 

Quievrecourt,  figlise,  328.* 

Quillebeuf,  Notre  Dame-du-Bon-Port,  307.* 

Qvnlly,  figlise,  319.* 

Quine\'ille,  figlise,  332.* 

Radiating  chapels,  156. t 

Raised  choirs,  155. 

Raking  cornice.  III.  l.f 

Ranverso,  S.  Antonio,  238.* 

Ranville,  figlise,  326;  *  arcuated  lintel,  281. 

Ranville-la-Place,  figlise,  331.* 

Rapilly,  figlise,  331.* 

Raveima,  artistic  influence  exerted  by,  82; 
Baptistery  of  the  Arians,  441  •  *  Baptistery  of 
the  Orthodox,  see  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte; 
Cathedral  442;  *  conquered  by  the  Eastern 
Empire,  45;  Palace  of  the  Archbishop, 
442;*  Palace  of  Theodoric,  441;*  Sta. 
Agata,  441  *  111.  33;  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo, 
439;*  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  121,*  III. 
42;  S.  Francesco,  196:  *  S.  Giovanni  in 
Fonte,  193,*  III.  46;   Ss.  Nazario  e  Celso, 

.  see  Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia;  S.  Spirito, 
440;  *  S.  Teodoro,  see  S.  Spirito;  S.  Vitale, 
120,*  III.  69,  111.  70,  III.  71,  III.  73,  111.  76, 
104;  Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  440;  *  Tomb 
of  Theodoric,  195.* 

Rbe  ah.  III.  59. 

Rectangular  choirs  in  Normandy,  252. 

Refectory,  147.t 

Reggio,  Duomo,  239.* 

Regula,  Rl.  l.f 

ReUcs,  149. 

Ressaut,  29.t 

Revier,  Chapelle  Ste.-Cbristine,  331.* 

Reville,  figlise,  330.* 

Reuilly,  332.* 

Rhenish  Romanesque,  284;  the  beginnings 
of,  140. 

Rib,  200.t 

Rib  vault,  201 ;  f  abandoned  by  the  Lom- 
bards, 203;  domed  by  the  Lombards,  201; 
doming  avoided  by  Romans,  201;  evolu- 
tion of,  200;  failure  of  Lombards  to  devise 
adequate  abutment  for,  211;  French,  intro- 
duced into  Normandy,  273;  Lombard,  201; 
Lombard,  development  during  the  XII 
century,  215;  Lombard,  instability  of,  212; 
Norman,  261. 


478 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Riiiccau.  111.  20,t  31,  102,  102,  218;  origin  of, 
31. 

Rivolta,  d'Adda,  Sta.  Maria  e  S.  Sigismondo, 
43S.* 

Roche-Mabile,  figlise,  321.* 

Roll  moulding,  28().t 

Roman  arcade,  25. f 

Roman  arcliitccture,  decadence  of,  3;  influ- 
ence of,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  3;  sym- 
metry of,  30;  iniiformity  of,  32. 

Roman  art,  wholesale  character  of,  32. 

Roman  Kmpire,  fall  of,  1. 

Roman  houses.  III.  27,  38. 

Roman  Ionic,  27.t 

Roman  masonry,  23. 

Roman  ornament,  25,  30. 

Roman  plans,  33. 

Roman  taste,  11. 

Roman  technique,  30. 

Roman  temples,  38. 

Roman  tombs,  40 ;  of  the  mole  type,  40. 

Romanesque,  128. t 

Rome,  Arch  of  Titus,  HI.  19;  Basilica  Jvilia, 
LI.  14,  111.  22,  Fig.  1;  BasiUca  of  Constan- 
tine.  111.  22,  Fig.  2,  109;  Basilica  Ulpia,  111. 
22,  Fig.  4;  Baths  of  Caracalla,  111.  25; 
Early  Christian  architecture,  47;  Forum  of 
Nerva,  III.  21;  Palace  of  the  Ciesars,  35; 
Pantheon,  111.  13,  111,  16,  37;  Portico  of 
Octavia,  111.  17;  Sta.  Agnese,  f.l.m..  111. 
38;  S.  Clemente,  111.  39,  III.  41,  60  (cibo- 
rium);  Ss.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  Mosaic,  111. 
49;  Sta.  Costanza,  111.  44.  150,  111.  48 
(mosaic);  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro,  111.  52; 
S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  111.  45,  156;  S. 
Marco,  mosaic.  111.  50;  Sta.  Maria  Mag- 
giore.  III.  36,  III.  37,  111.  51  (Cosmati  pave- 
ment); Sta.  Maria  in  Tra.stevere,  III.  40; 
S.  Paolo,  f.l.m..  111.  43;  S.  Pietro,  HI.  35; 
Temple  of  Castor,  111.  18;  Temple  of  For- 
tuna  Virilis,  III.  15;  Temple  of  Mater 
Matut;i,  III.  23,  37;  Temple  of  the  Sun,  111. 
20. 

Roofs,  wooflen,  in  Normandy,  261. 

Rosel,  figlise,  311.* 

Rothes,  figli.se,  322.* 

Rots,  chapclle  de  I'Ortial,  313;  *  figlise,  313.* 

Rouare,  figlise,  .322.* 

Rouen,  Cathedral,  273;  liistory  of,  242;  St. 
Paul,  314.* 

Roulot,  St.  Ouen,  315.* 

Rouvion,  figlise,  331.* 

Rucqueville,  figlise,  305.* 


Rugles,   Notre   Dame,   311;*    St.    Germain, 

311.* 
Running  capital,  169.t 
Ryes,  figlise,  307.* 

Saey,  figlise,  331.* 

Sagra,  S.  Michele,  Abbazia,  239.* 

St.-Aignan-de-Cramesnil,  figlise,  329.* 

St.  Arnoult,  Chapelle,  332;  *  Prieure,  332.* 

St.  Aubin,  figlise,  324.* 

St.  Benedict,  rule  of,  144. 

St.  Bricc,  figHse,  327.* 

St.    Ceneri,    Chapelle    Notre    Dame-de-Pitie, 

301;*  Eglise,  301,*  III.  120,  252,  262,  278; 

St.  I^onard,  301.* 
Ste.  Ceronne,  figlise,  325.* 
Ste.  Colombe,  figlise,  332.* 
St.-C(")me-du-Mont,  figlise,  316.* 
St.  Contest,  figlise,  307,  *  111.  136,  141. 
Ste.  Croix,  figlise,  322.* 
St.  Cyr,  figlise,  316;  *  Notre   Dame-du-Cle- 

mence,316;*  Prieure  de  Ste.  Gauburge,316.* 
St.  Denis,  sexpartite  vaults,  266. 
St.-Denis-sur-Sarthon,  figlise,  324.* 
St.  Floxel,  figlise,  319.* 
St.  Front,  figlise,  331.* 

St.  Gabriel,  figlise,  296;  *  Prieure,  296;  *  264. 
St.  Generoux,  figlise,  181,*  111.  90,  111.  99,  437. 
St.-Germain-Ia-Blanche-Herbe,  figlise,  323.* 
Ste.-Honorine-de-Ducy,  figlise,  330.* 
St.  Hymer,  Ste.  Milaine.  331.* 
St.-James-de-Beurron,  St.  Jacques-le-Majeur, 

326.* 
St.-Jean-de-Livet,  figlise,  332.* 
St.-Jean-le-Thomas,  figlise,  331.* 
St.-I^aurent-de-Condel,  figlise,  330.* 
St.-Leonard-de-Vains,  Prieure,  320.* 
St.  I^,  Ste.  Croix,  308,*  III.  143. 
St.  I^up,  figlise,  319.* 
St.  Lubin,  figlise,  198.* 
St.  Marcouf,  figlise,  316.* 
St.  Mard,  figlise,  327.* 
Ste.-:Marie-du-Mont,  figlise,  301.* 
St.-Martin-de-la-Seine,  figlise,  327.* 
St.-Martin-de-Varre\ille,  figlise,  339.* 
St.  Mau\-ieux,  figlise,  328.* 
St.  Maximien,  Two  Crypts,  198.* 
Ste.  Mere-figlise,  figlise,  314.* 
St.  Pair,  figlise,  315.* 
St.-PauUlu-Vernay,  figlise,  327.* 
St.-Pierre-de-Semilly,  figlise,  326.* 
St.-Pierre-du-Mont,     figlise,     324;*     obscene 

sculptures,  278. 


479 


GENERAL   INDEX 


St.-Pierre-figlise,  figlise,  315.* 

St.-Pierre-sur-Dives,  Abbaye  Notre  Dame, 
298.* 

St.  Pois,  Eglise,  330.* 

St.  Quentin,  Cathedrale,  196;  *  Eglise,  3'28.* 

St.  Remi,  arch,  30. 

St.  Roumin,  Eglise,  322.* 

St.  Saens,  Eglise,  320.* 

St.  Saire,  Eglise,  331.* 

St.-Samson-sur-Rille,  Eglise,  325.* 

St.-Sauveur-le-Vicomte,  Abbaye,  306.* 

St.-Sulpice-sur-Rille,  Eglise,  325.* 

St.  Vaast,  Eglise,  332.* 

St.-Vigor-de-Mieux,  see  St.-Vigor-le-Gram. 

St.-Vigor-le-Graiul,  Prieure,  330.* 

St.-Vincent-sur-Rislc,  Church,  198.* 

St.  VVandrille,  Chapelle  St.  Saturnin,  322.* 

Samothrace,  Arsinoeion,  31;  Doric  hexastyle 
temple,  31;  Ptolomeion,  31. 

San  Gallo,  111.  87,  148.       ' 

San  Leo,  Pieve,  182.* 

Salone,  Kirclie,  12G.* 

Salonica,  Eski  Djuma,  123;  *  Hagia  Sophia, 
123;  *  Hagios  Demetrios,   122.* 

Sardis,  see  Sart. 

Sart,  105;  Hagios  Georgios,  127;  *  Hagios 
loannos,  127.* 

Sartilly,  Eglise,  330.* 

Savenieres,  Eglise,  198.* 

Savigny,  Eglise,  308;  *  frescoes,  278. 

Schola,  68. 

Schola  cantorum,  61, f  1-18,  157. 

Scotia,  111.  2.t 

Scozzola,  S.  Donato,  23-t.* 

Screens,   Coptic,   62;  Early  Christian,  62. 

Sculpture,  Greek,  4;  Norman,  279;  Ijom- 
bard,  218. 

Secqueville,  see  Seque\ille-en-Bessin. 

Seez,  Notre  Dame-de-la-Place,  327,*  St. 
Pierre,  327.* 

Seligenstadt,  Kirche,  180.* 

Selomnes,  Church,  198.* 

Sequeville-en-Bessin,  St.  Sulpice,  300;  *  di- 
apered spandrel,  281. 

Serdjilla,  House,  111.  61. 

Serquigny,  Eglise,  322.* 

Seventh  Century,  architecture  and  history  of, 
133. 

Sexpartite  vaults,  263  f  seq.;  origin  of,  264 
seq.;  in  the  lie  de  France,  266  seq. 

Shaft,  111.  l,t  169;  t  diagonal,  202;  f  engaged 
in  Normandy,  258;  origin  of,  169;  substi- 
tuted  for   pilaster  strips,    216;  used   to   re- 


place buttresses  in  apses  of  Norman 
churches,  279;  in  windows  and  doorways 
in  Normandy,  280. 

Shank,  111.  l.t 

Sidi-Mohammed-el-Guebioni,  111.  32. 

Silchester,  Basilica,  111.  22,  Fig.  6. 

Sinkage,  111.  l.f 

Si.vth  Century,  architecture  of  last  half  of, 
132;  general  decline  of  civihzation,  131. 

Soffit,  13.t 

Soliers,  Eglise,  332.* 

Sonunervieu,  Eglise,  329.* 

Sortosville,  Eglise,  331.* 

Sousmont,  Eglise,  320.* 

Spain,  Roman  architecture,  of,  33. 

Spandrel,  III.  68,t  281. f 

Speyer,  Cathedral,  111.  153,  284. 

Spirals,  10. t 

Spire,  272;  f  evolution  of,  272;  design  of  in 
Normandy,  272. 

Splayed  windows,  160.t 

Spoonley  Wood,  Villa,  39.* 

Squinch,  106;  f  arched.  111.  76;  f  smoothed, 
111.  75.t 

Stalactite  ornament,  107.t 

Star  ornament,  276. f 

Stereotomy,  9;  Norman,  263. 

Stilt,  13.t 

Stilt-blocks,  52;  f  origin  of,  101. 

Stoa,  8.t 

String-course,  163;  f  arched,  163. 

Stylobate,  111.  l,t  111.  2.t 

Subles,  Eglise,  325.* 

Subordinate  divisions  introduced  in  Byzan- 
tine architecture,  104. 

Suevres,  St.  Christophe,  198.* 

Sully,  Eglise,  324.* 

Surrain,  Eglise,  332.* 

Susa,  S.  Giusto,  235;  *  Sta.  Maria,  235.* 

Synagogues,  68. 

SjTia,  Early  Christian  architecture  of,  48, 
82;  history  of,  48;  Roman  architecture  of,  33. 

Syrian  moulding,  84. 

Syrian  vault,  83. f 

System,  257,t  259;  in  Normandy,  260. 

Tablinum,  39.t 
Taenia,  111.  l.f 
Tafha,  Basilica,  HI.  54. 
Tamer\ille,  Eglise,  307.* 
Temple  in  antis,  7.t 

Tenth  Ceuturj-  in  Europe,  architecture  and 
history  of,  140. 


480 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Tepidarium,  37.t 

Tessel,  figlise,  S-id* 

Testrj-,  battle  of,  139. 

Tetrasfyle,  T.f 

Than,  St.  Samson,  299,*  260. 

Thaon,  see  Than. 

Theaters,  Roman,  41. 

Theotloric,  47. 

Thfrmae,  .37.* 

ThilK.uville,  fighse,  323.* 

Thru.st,  13;  f  lateral,  15. 

Thur>'-Harcourt,  figlise,  321.* 

Tiche\-ille,  Eglise,  329.* 

Tieree\-ille,  figlise,  324.* 

Tie-rod,  212;  f  iu  Lombardy,  212. 

TiUy-sur-SeuUes,    Notre  Dame-du-Vul,    322; 

St.  Pierre,  321.* 
Timgad,  Basilica,  111.  22,   Fig.  5;  House  of 

the  Hermaphrodite,  111.  27;  House  of  Ser- 

tius.  111.  27. 
Tinohebray.  St.  Remi,  321.* 
Tollevast,  figlise,  326.* 
Tordouet,  figUse,  321.* 
Torus,  III.  2.t 

Toulouse,  St.  Sernin,  III.  130,  283. 
Touques,  St.  Pierre,  321.* 
Tour,  St.  Pierre,  313.* 
Tourgeville,  figlise,  331.* 
Toumus,  111.  148,  283. 
Tours,  St.  Martin,  186;  *  111.  93,  156. 
Towers,  central  in  Normandy,  270:  design  of  in 

Normandy,  271;  flanking  the  western  gable, 

159;   multiplication   of,  159;   Norman,  270; 

of  Northern  Syrian  churches,  84;  octagonal, 

in  Normandy,  277;  origin  of,  81. 
Tran.sept,  55;  t  origin  of,  55. 
Transepts,  barrel-vaulted  in  Lombardy,  212. 
Tran.septal   absidioles,    153;  f   in   Normandy, 

262. 
Transverse  arches,  81, f  167;  across  side  aisles, 

168,  200;  constructive  advantages  of,  200; 

in  nave,  167. 
Treasury,  7.t 
Treaty  of  Verdun,  139. 
Trevieres,  figlise,  323.* 
Triangiilar  de<-oration,  in3.t 
Tribune,     262;  f     in     transepts    of    Norman 

churches,  262. 
Trier,  Ba-silica,  35. 
Triforium,  54. t 
Triforiuni    giilliTy,    56:  t    Carolingian,     159; 

in     Early    Christian    basilicas,    56;  in    the 

Ilauran,  83;  Lombard,  213. 


Triglyph,  III.   l;t   originally  beam   ends,  25; 

treatment  of  on  corner,  27. 
Triumphal  arches,  Roman,  40. 
Trois-Monts,  Notre  Dame,  327.* 
Turrets,  160;  in  Normandy,  272. 

Urville,  Eglise,  330.* 

Vains,  figlise,  331.* 

Vaison,  Cathedrale,  187.* 

Val,  Abbaye,  329.* 

Valcabrere,  Church,  198.* 

Valence,  figlise,  198.* 

Valle  di  Susa,  S.  Anibrogio  ai  Piedi  della 
Sagra  de  S.  Michele,  197.* 

Valletot,  figlise,  331.* 

Valpolicella,  S.  Giorgio,  184,*  III.  82. 

Vaprio,  S.  Colombano,  234;  *  199. 

Varese,  Battistero,  239.* 

Vassy,  Chapelle,  328.* 

\'audreuil,  Notre  Dame,  306.* 

Vault,  pendentive,  107. 

Vaulting,  first  attempts  in  Lombardy,  199. 

Vauville,  figlise,  318.* 

Vauvray,  St.  fitienne,  310.* 

Vau.\,  Notre  Dame,  325.* 

Vaux-sur-SeulIes,  figlise,  322.* 

Vendes,  figlise,  330.* 

Venice,  S.  Ilario,  190;  *  S.  Marco,  284. 

Ver,  St.  Martin,  318,*  III.  138. 

Verneuil,  La  Madeleine,  299,*  265,  273; 
Notre  Dame,  299,*  274;  St.  Laurent,  299;  * 
St.  Nicolas,  299.* 

Vernix,  figlise,  325.* 

Verona,  Duomo,  183,*  227;  *  Lombard  archi- 
tecture of,  208;  S.  Antonio  Vecchio,  228;  * 
Ss.  Apostoli,  228;  *  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte, 
227;  *  S.  Giovanni  in  Valle,  228;  *  S.  Lo- 
renzo, 227;  *  Sta.  Maria  Antica,  228;  *  Sta. 
Maria  in  Organo,  228-*  S.  Pietro,  in  Cas- 
tello,  227;*  Ss.  Siro  e  Libera,  228;*  Sto. 
Stefano,  183,*  227,*  156;  Ss.  Tosca  e  Ten- 
teria,  183;  *  Sta.  Trinite,  228:  *  S.  Zeno, 
226,*  111.  Ill,  111.  118,  214,  258. 

Verson,  figlise,  323.* 

Vertemate,  S.  Giovanni  Battista,  235.* 

Vessey,  figlise,  329.* 

Vezelay,  Abbaye,  groin  vaults  of,  284. 

Vezzolano,  Sta.  Maria,  235.* 

Vicenza,  Ss.  Felice  e  Fortunato,  184,*  168;  S. 
Lorenzo,  239.* 

Vienne,  figlise,  314.* 

Vienne,  St.  Pierre,  186.* 


481 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Vierville,  Eglise,  330.* 

Vieux-Fume,  Eglise,  Sijg.* 

Vieux-Pont-en-Auge,  Eglise,  190.* 

Vignory,  Eglise,  198.* 

Vikings  in  Normandy,  2-iO. 

Villanuova,  S.  Pietro,  239.* 

Villers-Canivet,  Abbaye-aux-Fenimes,  328.* 

Villers-sur-Pont,  St.  Nicolas,  320.* 

Vire,  St.  Thomas,  329.* 

Virville,  Eglise,  321.* 

Viterbo,  Sta.  Maria  della  Cella,  197.* 

Vitruvian  scroll.  111.  3,  Fig.  8,t  10. 

Volute,  LI.  2.t 

Volute  moulding,  84.t 

Voussoir,  13.t 

Voutegon,  Church,  198.* 


Wall  Paintings,  Norman,  278. 
Werden,  Salvatorskirche,  192.* 
Wiirzburg,  Liebfraukapelle    auf   dem    Berge, 
188,*  151. 

Xystos,  39.t 

Yain\ille,  Eglise,  325.* 
YWUe,  Eglise,  326.* 
YvTande,  Prieure,  331.* 

Zara,    Baptistery,    183;  *    S.    Donato,  182.* 

Zig-zag,  275.t 

Zor'ah,  St.  George,  111.  47,  74,  103. 


482 


■'•655      43 


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Connecticut 

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